AFl*’l<xrriVK PACIX>liS IN liFI, IJiARNlNO AT 'I’HF ΠΑ/,11ϋ,Γ.Κ IWX^fiAMS OF
Till·: 'H JiiK isn υ Ν ΐ ν κ ΐ ί 5 ϊ τ η · ί ϊ
A THESIS
SUBMrJTEl) ΊΟ THE FACULTY 01·' LEITERS
ΑΝΌ 'ΠΙΕ INSTT.TU'IT, 01-' LCONOMIXllS A\O SfXTIAI., SCIENCKS OF ΒΙΙΕΕΝΊ’ UNIVERSITY
IN PAHTIAI. FULFILMENT OF 'ΠΙΕ RIi?Ul REMENTS FOR THli DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN TH1-: TEACHING 01·^ ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
■ BY $UI,E SAVA5AN
Aviu'usl 1990
g . i f t
. Τ δ
We r:ert,ii‘y that, we lia\'e reari t.iiis t.hc'sis and tJiat in our с:отЫпо.ч] opinion i t: is iYil l.\· adcxiuate, in sr;ope and in q u a lit y , as a thesis for the (Jeg'rc-^' o f Mast.er o f Arts.
______ WiJliam Anckor ( Ad\'isor) Aaron S . Carton ( Сошл]11 tee Meml>er) t"sin Kaya-Carton ( C -omm i tt.ee Meinbe r )
Approved fo r the
In stitu te o f Economics and S o c ia l Sciences
Bülent Bozkurt Dean, Faculty o f L.etters
Director o f Uie In s titu te o f Fx-onoinics and Social Sciences
BILKIrXr l'MVKHST'IT
l\S'nV7VK OV KCONOMICS AM) SœiAI. SCÏESOYÎS MA ^IUKSIS l!^V\MTNATrON lŒSUJ/r ю т
August. 31, L990
The exiUTiini.ng commi i:tee appointed by the in s t it u t e o f Kconomics and Social Sciences fo r the
th esis exrimination o f the MA TEFL student
ŞULE SAVAŞAN
has read the thesis o f the student. The committee has decided that the th e s is
o f the student is s a t i s f a c t o r y .
Thesis T i t l e : A ffe c t iv e fa c to rs in ЕРЪ learn ing at
the H a z ırlık programs o f the ITirkish U n i v e r s i t i e s .
Thesis Advisor: Mr. WillifiLm Ancker
Bilkent U n iv ers ity , MA TEFL Program
Committee Members: Dr. Aaron S. Carton
Bilkent U n iv ersity , MA TEFL Program
Dr. Esin Kaya-Carton Hofstra U n iv ersity , N.Y.
To
my best loved mother and father Mrs. lielia S.-xvasan
cirid
Gen. Nadir Savasfin fo r ttioir ncver-c;nd.i nt? lov e, patience and care.
1 would l ike to (express rny dec'pc'st Ljmt.i tudo (,o t he
following* [X‘0])]o fo r thoiir kindest in terest, hcd p and
^‘noonrarement, without which tins tho'sis would liave been
UTlpOSS i 1)].C‘ .
The adm inistrative staff* of* tlie Department o f Fiasic l\nglish o f The School o f Foreng'n hanguages of t.hrî Middle ITast Tr-chn i c:al ITi i ve rs i t y ,
ITie Assistant. C u ltu r a l Atlaclie o f tlie tini ted Stato:?s o f America, Dr. James J. Ward,
Bilkent. tTii\*orsity MA TKFb Program R j l l b r i g h t l.ecturers, Mr. William Ancker., Dr. John Aydelott , Dr. Aaron Carton,
Dr. Esin Kexya-Carton,
Ms. Va])rak Dalat from the B r it is h Council,
Mrs. Barl)<ira Blackwell Gülen, Director o f Courses o f TAA,
Bilkent U n iv e rs ity School o f English language in stru c to rs Demet Ç ele b i, D i la r a Demirbulak, Mine Ertan, Türküm t z g i and Onur Kanlı,
- Middle East Technical U n iv ersity , School o f Foreign
Languages, Depcirtment Of Basic English instructors Sevda K a v a d a r li, Sevinç K avad arli, Rana Oznacar and Göksün Ungüt,
Bosphorus U n iv e r s ity , School Of Foreign Languages English in stru cto rs Müberra Ader, I r i s Kantemir, Emel Oğul, N a jl a Osseiran-Kurdoğlu, and Nur SanJiur.
'rABlil·: Ol·’ (^ONTIWI’S
SECTIONS
INTIO)UCIM.ON
1. I.. Tn 1 .roducI. i on to t,he s \..\ idy
1.2. Background to Uio study
L.3. Statcmont o f lim it a tio n s
l . 'l. Sl.a.toment oí' the |)ur|>oso
1.5. Statement o f tiie mc-rUiod
1.6. S tatemen t o f J i mi tat i <;.)ns hVTERAWUE BI^lVll-W
2.1. General i n ror*ma.l/i on ahout. n i'i'c'cl i \'i I y 2.2. The A f f e c t i v e Domain
2 . 2 . 1 . R eceivi ng ( Attend i n g )
2. 2. 2. l?,espond i.ng
2.2.3. Valuing
2.2.^1. Orga.ni.%ing
2 .2.5. Being characterizec.I wiUi (lie values
2.3. 'fhe A f foe; l. i ve Fac tors
2. 4. M otivation
2.4 .1 . In togra t i ve mo t iva t i on v s . instrurnenlal mol ival ic^n 2.4 .2 . In tri ns i c mol.i vat i on v s .
e x t r i nsi.c mot i vat ion
2.5. .Se l. Г-e s Гост
2.5 .1 . Global, .sel Г- e s Гееш
2 . 5 . 2 . .S i Ι,ιι.Ά I. i (.>π/ι I a n d 1..а.'-:1ч ;■;< d Г - < I ( ·< ίιι
2.6. ЛпхіеГу
2 .6 .1 . T r-a i t arov i e l.y 2 .6 .2 . .S l,aГе a,ııx i el,y
2.7. CoiK.du.sion
ΜΙ·:ΐΊ l()IX)l,(X!Y
3.1. 1п1л.чх1ис1.:іоп
3.2. The o b je c t iv e s and thfi ıııeUıod o f data c o l l e e tion
3.3. Preparation оГ the qiiestionnai r-e
3.^1. Administration o f the ques 1,iorinai re
3.5. Sample
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 01· DATA
4 . 1. Introduction
4.2. Me i..hodo 1 ogy Гог l.he ana I ys i « о Í dal.M 4.3. Proson La Li on and a n a ly s is о Г с la іа. (,X)N( ELUSION Г). I . Summa.ry 5.2. Cone.·, lus.ions Г). 3 . Sug.tÇosL i ons 5.4 . Sı *s 1. i oı ıs Α( ı ‘ fu ı · I I k ' r s I л к ly APPENDICES ШВЕЮСіКАРІГУ RESUMI^; vi i
l/I.S 'r Ol·’ TABUsS
lAdIvS
Tab.le 1
Types oi‘ inoLLvalvion
20
Table 2
Frequencies and perc:.enta.^es o f sl..udenLs experiencing the t r a i t s with rcgar'd l.o sex fa c t o r and u n iv e r s ity a ff il.ia l.io n
•'12
Tab;i.e 3
Frequencies and percentages o f students experiencing the t r a i t s wi th regal'd to age fa c to r and u n iv e r s it y a f f i I i at. i on
J N'I.K01)U(;r I ON
1.1. Introduction to the study
Human beings are complex <:;realj.ir‘e.s and Uierx^ ai (i ;v
number o f racl.ors wFiicIi make l.horn c:om|)Iox a.s mmcI).
Soc i.olog i cal., econom i c::al and |)s.vf:lu·:) I og i (.a. I f.ac tor:·: a i r« on I y
some o f these. However, among these fac to rs, i)sycliolo.L>;y i«-:
the one wi th the g r e a te s t importcance, bec:auso^ the
nindainen ta I s o f the human mind and l)ehavior are go\'('rnerl by
the:* impacl.s o f psychological i'acl.ors. Vnr tlii.s r-eason, it
i s worth exami ni ng the psycho I ogi c;al a.s|)e(::.t;·: of* (.'vr:ry phenomenon in which the human miii(.l is invo.lvofj.
Learning i s one o f the furuJamenla.l functions (hat the
human b ra in i s capable o f carryin g out. Thus, i t is for
c e r ta in that through a study o f tlic‘ )»sycl)olc)gical fa.cl.m‘s i nvo.l.ved i n l.(^arn in g , l)eI. ter and mor-c* s.a t i s fy i ng t‘(\si 11 I s c:\11 be ac:h ixived. This is probably the: basic;. i*c>a.son behirul l>fK' development o f the sci.enc;e o f cxluc.*aI..i.ona.J psyc.-lu)Iogy.
Throughout h isto ry , a tremendous numbcM' o f studios have boc^i arul ar*c'‘ bc'ing conducljxl in tlii.s i'icdd /md a:-; a 'rc'.sull, more' s a t i s f a c t o r y ways o f l^eaching ar-e awii l.able l.c.) ( ‘usurc.* t)ottcu· learni ng.
Language learning occui)ies an imporl.ant arrva witliin tin'
broad scope o f learn ing. I t s importance is cons tan l.ly
in creasing along with the developments in teclmology sinc:e people are in s it u a t io n s where they have.·: to c*ommunlc:.ate wi I ii
rvu-h oI.Ik.·!·. Tho i mi >< )1‘1пмг( * оГ ioroijin I/vh/‘4iîvî\( - /v.·: such is even greaLer for a counLry ] ¡Ice liirlcey whic h is on i t s way to reac:h:ing i t s i^lace among the (.lovel.ojxxl nalJons. That .is w}-iy it is vcM*y imporLanl. Uial use* oi‘ i n Ic *п in I i ( яьа I sl..ud.i(\s in fen-edgn language e(Juf;al.i on is inacic* i‘or I [к* sake* of* thcî 'iurk i sh s l.ucJen l.s.
In i t s broadest sense, Lhis sLudy aims to examines яопю o f the psycdiol.og i ca.l Гас: tors a Г i’cxd/ing ( .he I anguage» 1 evarn i r»g o f the Turk.ish llazi.r.liк sl.udeni.s sl.udying :in llu'c-:e oi' (Ik: English-medium u n i v e r s i t j e s in 'Гигкс:у. 'Ilicu'e are a grevât number o f psyc'.ho.l.og.ic:al. facto rs suc:li as i.)(:*rsona.I i l.y facl^ors, cogni ti.ve v a r i a b l e s , psyc:hornolx)r ccuis i d erat i ons , and
a f f e c t i v e fa c to rs .
Persomil i l,y Гас:1.огя are those: which are direx-l.ly r*elal.C'd to the p e r s o n a lit y o f the indiv i dua.].. (vharac:l.er i slvics sucdi as extro v ersion , in t r o v e r s io n , empathy, sensi l.ivi I у l,o r e je c t io n , and l:olerance fo r ambigul l y arc" al l personal i (,y
faevtors. Л1] c;f Idiese fa.c:l.:ors have importanl. rolc's in the"
language: Icvarning o f an i nd i v i dii<a I . 1ч)1* ( *x.airi| > I ( *, ¡1. c/in bf* hypoUies.! zec.l tlial. i)0(.:ple wiUi a. Iri ghc:r emp/vUii c,· capacil.y a.i-c
b e t t e r a t Ic^arning Janguages. That is to say, when people
are a b le to put themselves in tlie place o f anollier person, - i n the place o f the native spc:alcer, in ll)C' case o f languagcî
l.cvarning- (liey are u su ally пюге suc:cc:ssful in Ic'arning l.hc* language. Li kewise:, i l. is c;la.imc"d Uial. i ndi v i(.lual.s wlio arc" e x tro v e rts , have a highc:r chanc:c: c:f being succc?ssi‘ul in
learning* the language compared wi (:h in tro v e r ts . Meanwhile, i t is aJso im|X)rtant that an in d iv id u a l is to lera n t o f
iunbiguity and not s e n s it iv e to re.jection so that s/he can be su ccessful in learning the language, loecause language is an
ambiguous sub ject and the le a rn e r should ready to make
m i s takes i n the language.
Cognitive v a ria b le s are concerned with the brain functions o f the individ ual during the process o f learning. They are I'elated to the i n t e l l e c t u a l products th¿\t a learner
produces when learning a concept. In the c o gn itiv e domain o f
the taxonomy o f educational o b je c t i v e s developed by BJoom, Krathwohl and xMasia (19(38), the s i x l e v e l s o f the cognitive doFTiain have been id e n t ifie d as fo llo w s :
1. Knowledge: 2. Comprehension: 3. A pplication: 4. Am ilysis: 5. Synthesis: 6. Evaluation:
Remembering the previous material Understanding the m aterial
A b i l i t y to use the m aterial
A b i l i t y to break the m aterial down into i t s components
A b i l i t y to put the analyzed parts together to form a new whole Judging the value o f the m aterial
When these le v e l s are thought o f in the case o f language learn ing, great use is made o f them, tecause in stru ction is c a r r ie d out talking into consideration the cognition le v e ls that the student passes through when learn in g the languge. There are a ls o some co gnitive s t y l e fa c t o r s which are re la t e d
to the lan<^uag*e learning* o f an individuaJ. FacLors such as ca (:eg*ory w i fj (J i , men i t or i i ig*, <anrl cog*n i I. i ve i n t.er fer*encc constitute? some o f these cog'nJ. t. i\'e s t y l e fac to rs (In R i c h a rd s , J 978).
Anothei· c;atcg'ory o f i)sycho.l.og'icaJ Tactors i s the
[csychornot.or consi(Jerations. These are (iIrectJ.y concerned
with the motor s k i l l s oi* an in d iv id u al. The s k i l l s fo r handwriting, typing, and o|>erating maclunery are a l l motor
s k i l l s . Although these factors are often re la t e d to subjects
such as art,, music, physical education, and health sciences,
they have considerable imix>rtance in language learn ing. The
psychomotor domain is anotlier domain in the taxonomy o f educational o b je ctiv es developed by Bloom, Krathwohl and
Masia (1968). The sev'en Levels o f this domain are as
f o i l o w s :
1. Perception: Use o f the sense organs to s t a r t l e the motor
a c t i v i t y
2. Set: Readiness to carry out a p a r t i c u l a r type o f action
3. Guided resix^nse:. Responding to a s it u a t io n as demonstrated
4. Mechanism: I^erformince o f acts where the learned
resix^nses are h ab itu al and the actio n s are carried out with confidence and p ro fic ie n c y
5. Complex overt res]x>nse: Performance o f motor acts which
require complex movement patterns
6. Adaptation: Modifying movement patterns so as to f i t
s p e c ia l and d i f f i c u l t requirements
7. O rig in a tio n : Creating new movement patterns to f i t to
As can l;e seen from t:he b r i e f explanation i)rovidod aixA'o, the quantity ¿md the v a r i a b i l i t y o f the psychological
factor's are so broad thcit i t would ix? impossible t.o exiunine
UiCMii in one study. For this reason, this research w-as
limited to three p a r t i c u la r a f f e c t i v e fac to rs which are:
mot^ivation, se>l f-esl-eem, and anxiety, 'the rat.ionale behind
t.he choice o f t^hese three a f f e c t i v e fa c to rs is c-xxplained in tlie fo 1 I ow’ i ng sec t i on :
1.2. ilcKjkground to the study
In the teaching pro fessio n, the problem o f helping the st.udent.s to improve theii' positivée s elf-es teem and to reduce t.ho anxiiîty that they face when t:hey are deciling with the language, and inreasing th e ir motivation constitu te the major o bstacles in t h e ir FL learning.
In the 'furkish educational system, d i s c i p l i n e is a very
im]:xDrtant fa c t o r in the years o f e a r ly education. That i s
why, i t i s u s u a lly hard fo r the students to get the chance to express t h e ir ideas and f e e lin g s in the way they wish to. Most o f the time, they are supposed to obey the teacher
without question. As a r e s u lt , they u s u a lly have low s e l f
esteem, be i t , g l o b a l, s it u a t io n a l or to the task. This bc:>comes a problem in t h e i r FL learn ing when they s t a r t t h e ir education in the HazD.rlik c la s s e s o f the u n iv e rsity . I t has Ixîen shown as a r e s u l t o f many stu dies that success in
soino or al l o f U)eso le\*el.s. In otlicM' words, the lan^'uai^'C' JoririK'r should te able t.o use the Language without the s I. Lgl)t o.\st fo/u' o f making* a mistake and o f ixving’ ridiculc'd.
In order to Ix) ab le to do th is, the st.udent should [x^ssess
high sel r-i-‘sl.eem, a t ' I e a s t si tuat i ona L Ly. A students with
low setf-c'steem is le s s l i k e l y t.o have tlie cour¿гg’e e ssen tial
to use the language wi t.hout any worry, 'thus, identii'ying* tlie
stu den t’ s lonxd. o f seli'-osteem and improving i t in areas where-} i t. is low, may entiance the Lecarning o f the target,
language.
It. is a ls o \’ery imîXDrtant to explore the anxiety lev els o f the st.udents, because a great majority o f tlie language
L(-}arners complain about, oxixsîriencing anxiety in using t.he language that they learn, both in side and outside the
classroom. For a language teacher, i t is u s u a lly easy to
observe t.he anxiet;y o f the students when they are dealing
with the language. In fa c t, anxiety and s elf-es teem have a
l o t to do with each other, tecause the students with high s elf-es teem have less tro ub le with being anxious since they [XDSsess a higher degree o f s e l f -c o n f id e n c e . In the H azirlik c la s s e s o f the u n iv e r s i t i e s , the m ajority o f the students d e c la re that they cannot be as successful as they would lik e , mostly Ixicause they get anxious when using the language
whether spealving, lis t e n in g , w ritin g or reading. Thus, i t is
worth being aware o f the l e v e l o f anxiety the student is
oUior words, i f fho fcaclioM* is ini'onned alx^ut t:he le v e l of' anxiety t.he student is facrini? -trait, anxiety in the g'enera 1 sco]>o or s ta t e anxiety when Joiirning or using* tho.' lang'uage- Uie learning* o f \.he student can te enhanced by reducing* t.he
anxiety. rr the t.eacher is aware o f the anxiety levcil o f t.he
student, s/he can attempt, to help her or Fûm reduce it. by the successful creation c;f a ix?acc:iful c::lassroom atmosphere? and by father means.
Mcativation is yet another problem in the FL learning* o f
the H a z ı r l ık studeents. I t is not c?asy to keep the motivation
lii.gh fo r the teenage sludents who have entered the new world of' the u n iv e r s ity , i>ecause there ar-e so many other in te re s ts out.side the cIassroc;m that they would rather be involved in. HiCing released from the? years o f s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e that they have faced in th e ir e a r l i e r years o f education, they want to lx? d ealin g with othc-?r a c :tiv it ie s l ik e frien d s h ip , sports, and c u ltu ra l a f f a i r s . Besides, they are u s u a lly not yet aware o f the importance o f learn in g a foreign language f o r t h e ir
success in t h e ir fu tures. However, i t would not be wrong to
say that they a l l have some mot.ivation fo r learn ing English although they are not t o t a l l y aware o f t h is fa c t . That is why, i t i s the teacher^s r e s p o n s ib i li t y to i d e n t if y th e ir
ty|:)es o f motivation and design the? tc?ac:hing process accordingly so as to keep th eir in te r e s t in the language a l i v e in the classroom.
1.. '^. St:atciiKMit. o f t.hc' t.opic;
rho topic; o f th is i'osearoh is ’’Affoct. i vc fact.ors in t.lie KFh learniriiJ; at. t.ho Ihizirl ik programs o f Turkish u n i\ 'e r s it ie s ’
Jn this stucjy, each o f the affc3c:t:i\'e fac to rs mentioned iKd'ore -set f-est.eern, anxiety and mot.i \'at i on- are excimined by proviijiii<5 cJc'f ini tions and explanations o f t hem dc've.loi:>ed by di fferc'nt author's. \ ario u s types and le v e ls o f the a f f e c t i v e
factor's studied are a l s o pr'^esented.
1.1. St.aternent. o f the purpose
This st.uiiy aims t.o find out tlie tyi-X's o f motivation and thie le v e ls of s e lf-e s te e m and anxiety ex]xu.^ienced by the intermediate students a t the H a z ı r l ı k c la s s e s o f three English-medium u n i v e r s i t i e s in Turkey.
I t is ex]Xicted that the EFL learning o f these students can be improved through improving the teach ers’ understanding
o f these v a r ia b le s . I f the teachers are aware o f the
a f f e c t i v e factors in flu e n c in g t h e i r students, they can, presumably, enlighten themselves more about these concepts
and gage their teaching processes accordingly. Thus, b e t t e r
r e s u lt s can be achieved in the EFL learn ing o f t h e ir stu den ts.
There are many s tu d ie s about self-esteem , anxiety, and motivation carried out in the Turkish u n iv e r s i t i e s , both fo r
been designed to find out resuil.s d i f f e r e n t fr'om tliose
intended in t h is research. Besides, most o f Uicm a.re al)onl..
only one o f ilie fac(..ors examined in Uri s i‘f-"soa.i-ch. 'I’fils research study is o r i g i nai to the extent tliat it involves three a f f e e t i v e fa c to rs to g e th e r.
1.5 . SI .a tciinen t o f Ü )o mc^ l.hod
The data f o r (..his sivudy wei*e col lec.-lnd l.hrougli a
questi onnai r'o (.li.sl.i-i Inil.od to llu' H a z ırlık sljidenl.s oi' liirec* English-medi.uin u n i v e r s i t i e s local.ed in Ankara and Islanbul:
Bosphorus Uni versity', METÜ, and Billvcnt Un i ver s i l.y. A l,olnl
o f 184 questionnaires were d is t r ib u t e d l.o ini ermodial o Kl.dj stu d en ts.
The questionnaire was comi>osc:îd o f qu(\stions l.hat r e f l e c t e d (lie l.ypes o f the a f f e c t i v e factca-.s (hat Ihese students might be experiencing.
.1 .6. S (.atement o f J i in 1 (.ati ons
Since n eiU ier (;he scope nor ( ho time (.levot.ed I о (Iris study was broad enough (.o ma.ke an oxi.ensivc' ı·c'Sf^'ır(;·l') including aJl (lie a f f e c t i v e facd^ors, in a l l (ho Tuikisli u n i v e r s i t i e s or in sl.itu tion s e s ln b l i sherl fc.)r l ear-.hing Idd), t h is research was .1 Lmii.ed ( o on l y (Ju'C'e Idig I i нЬ-тегГипп u n i v e r s i t i e s in Turkey. i t covc^red only the H a z ırlık sl.UiJenlvS oi* (Лкгче u n i v e r s i t i e s .
The ad m inistrators, the t.eachers, or any otJier ix^rsonneL in
the Haz.1.rii.k ргоц’ггшя were beyond t.he scoi>e o f this study,
Ixjcause the aim was t.o reach some conclusions а1юи! the three a Г fee t i ve f’ac t:o rs i n f luenc ing the s tuden t s .
Only the learning o f Knglish was studied, and the students involved in the.' study had an i.nterrnediat..e level o f
FjigJish knowledge. Intermediate students were delibxirately
chosen as the sijunpie for data c o l l e c t i o n , because i t was thought that the le v e l o f the knowledge o f the t^irget
language could play a ro le in t h e i r res[X)nses. Since the
intermediate students }x)ssess enough but not too much knowledge o f the target language, the probable e f f e c t o f knowledge on th e ir responses would be minimized.
í.I.τl·:ц.vπ;ı^l·; im-:vij«v
Z. [ , (ieri'iM-a.l 1 nronnal;ion alx)u(, AiTocrt:i.vi t:y
Human bei.ni^s are not mar;hines, on the contrary, t.hoi'e are a numlxn* o f fac to rs Uiat (J i s t i rm'u j.sh them from machines rit I ho top o f ishich comes ’ ps\x;hological. ’ or' ’ a ffe c t i.vc’
fac to rs. Firown, shows tins distinc:tion as fo llo w s :
Human l;)eings are emotional ci'eatures. At t.he heart o f
a l l thought and meaning and action is emotion. As
’ intelJ ectuiil ’ as we woulci like- to iJiink we are, ave are i n f Luenced by our emotions. ” ( Flrown, 1987 : 19)
The t:errn ’ a f f e c t ’ has Fx^en defined in many d i f f e r e n t
ways by d i f f e r e n t authors. As Brown (1987) puts i t , ’’A ffe c t
r e f e r s to emotion or f e e l i n g ” . Likewise, according to
Leontiev (1981), an a f f e c t Is a reaction that a person shows to a s p e c i f i c s it u a t io n , however, i t is not only a reaction, because, i t leaves some ’a f f e c t i v e t r a c e s ’ on the person. In other words, an a f f e c t is always present since the ii>erson may use i t in his future. For example, i f an i c i c l e f a l l s on someone’ s head as he is walking down the road one day, i t i s l i k e l y that, the next day, he w i l l s t a r t walking on the other- s id e o f the road. In ¿iddition, a f f e c t s have dire?ct and a c tiv e
i.mpacts on the i ndividual ’ s 1 i f e .
Leontiev (1981:68) provides the fo llo w in g example o f such imi^acts: ’’The f i r s t time a man hears the words ”I love you” , he goes pale , is struck dumb and can hardly m o v e ...”
The fact l,hat l,he man bc?comes |>alo anrl is sl.rnr-k dumb, shows the d i r e c t and acrL.ive VN^ay that an aiTocl·, ¡nri.uc’ncos ai
per'son * s behavj.o r*.
Al.lhough d i f f e r e n t authors use ai l.ormi no n\' l.lictir' own and c a l l Uioso a f lee:.Live i:ac;l,oi'S /is ’ | )S,Vi.;ho I og i < ;U ’ ,
bmioL i on/il ’ , ’ eon i’I uonld or ’ Imm/in i si. i e ’ iViel.ors,
(Moskowi Lz, 1978) , l.lioy /il l /igrec' u|>on l lieir i mporl./me<s Im.)!· example, Schumann ( i n Richards, )978) uses Llie t<?inn ’ a r i o c l i ve /.actors’ Tor soinc-iî o f Lho v/iriablos lh<aL fh-own (1987) (;a\.I)s ’ a r f e c t i v e v a r ia b l e s ’ . S i.miJ ar I y , a.I Lhougl·) Moskow i Lz ( 1.978 ) p r e fe r s to use the term ’ humanisLic’ , Me Donough (1981) and
LeonLiev (1981) ex p la in these (\'ictor\s wi. Ui Ukî Ixvniis
’ emo t i.on ’ and * fee 1 i ng ’ .
A lso , according to Schumann (in Ri c-.liards, 1 978 ) ,
psychologica.l v a r ia b l e s such as personal, i l.y raf.-.(,ors ,cogn i I.i vi^ s t y l e fa c to rs and personal factors are relatecJ lo I i)e
language I.earn.ing o f .ind.i.vlduaLs and thal. a i'fe c tiv o f/uders Aire a ls o a p a rt o f these variabJes.
The phenomenon o f affect.i.v i ty can be under'sl ood by tlie revic.\>i o f tÎKî AT fee:, lave l.)om/iin /vnd some oi‘ II u' A fi‘er· Live:
.Factors* The A f f e c t i v e Domain is the ’’emotionaL sid e o f
human behavior" as Brown (1987:1.00) s ta t e s . "Undersl.anding
how human beings feel and res|>oïid and l)el iove /uid v/vlue is an exceedingly importanl. aspect o f n I heory o f socouil lA.inguage ac(|u i s i t i on. " ( Brewn, 1987 : 10 I )
2.2« ' ri'ie Л Г Гос I. i vo 1 )отл. iI n
'ГЬе ЛГГс-х:(:1 VC I)omn.in hr'is been spcci ricrl a.s n р/иЧ. оГ cdiK;aL i опа.1 objcc:l/i vc\s by IVl oom, Kra Lhwohl, anr.l a.nd Mawia.
( 19()8) it) l.fuM r Ьсюк 'Гахопоту O f' IsVIuc-a (a Г)па 1C)bjc<;;U vc\s. In Lh is book, Uio Ai‘icx;Li vc:; Dom/vin is c'I ass i i‘i or I in i‘ivo ca.Logoi‘ i cs a.s i*oI I c ^ s :
2 «2 . 1 « Receiving ( Attending)
In order' l o r the learning ГипсЫon l.o be r-oaJ i.zod, Uic le a rn e r should be ready and w i l l i n g l.o r'cccdvc? the concepts, phenomena, s it u a t io n s or objec;ts lie i s exposecJ to. ' In or'der* to receiv e a phenomenon the loai'ner sliould i‘ir*sl. bo conscious o f the рЬепопюпоп and have a wish to ixx‘C‘ivc it., guiding ami d ir e c t i n g h is atten tio n to that particular' |lic*noiiiciioii. Kor example, in a language-^ c l a s s , the .learner should have a w illi n g n e s s to learn the language from Lhe toaclicr.
2.2.2. liespcji id i ng
Oncje the loarncu' has ’’rcxxdi vecl·'* a pIioncjincMion, ho sfiould
be ready to respond l.o i t . Responding is vc'rii'icxi it the
le a rn e r accepts and responds to the phenomenon wi.l iiout. ¿шу cx)ercion and is s a t i s f i e d with llie resj)onse he givc's.
In a language:» c ia s s sciU/ing, (.he lc»aiTu»i· slıc.)ul·l toed ready to respond lo the questions he is asked and he should fu rth er be s a U s f ic x l wi th l.hc'i rospcnsc'i hc' has giv· ii.
2.2 .3 . Va.l и i ng
At thJs l e v e l , l:he l e a r n e r ’ s i nl.erna l i v a l i i i n i : ? e.ome.s
i.nLo l.he p icture. Valuln.i^ is real i in I he ioll«.)wing·
sl.e]>s. 'Г1к'‘ 1('аг‘пг'г‘ ac.<;:cipLs a v/i. luc^, sliows a. wi l l i i la'ness l.<j
pursue i t and sLays loyal Lo Lhe v/i I uo hr* has puisuchI. p’or
exajiipl e , I i* Lhe I earner i n Lfie I ап.ф 1адч ‘ c: I ass has dc'c i rJc'd LhaL leiaiTiing \he l.arget language is o f sr.nne :iinpr:)rl.anr:ci Гог* him, his (lofvlsion as such, should conLinue Uirf.)ugh(>ul,. Llie coi ii'se о r;* semes I e r*.
2.2 .4 . Organizing
A number о Г va. l ues (lie 1л\агтки:‘ has i nLerna I i zcid ar*o
conceptualized and organized inl.o a ’’value sysl.em” . The
learn er shovrld a ls o deLerrnine Lhe in lerrelaL io n slii ps among these values in order to e s t a b li s h a hierarchy in llie system
(Brov>?n, 1987). The language le a rn e r, for exam|)le, siiould
have made his dec ision aboul: (Tie degree о Г i ini )oi4 ance o f various language s k i l l s fo r him, before star-ting to learn
the language.
2.2.5. Being characterized wj Ui tlie values
Al. thi.s f i n a l and highest le v e l o f the Af fcM;:t i vr' Domain, the le a rn e r is iden(/i(‘ied wi tlr the v a lu e sysl/'iii hr- has
e s ta b lis h e d . This is attained in two steps. Tlio learn er
acts co n s is t e n tly wi th his in te r n a liz e d valıκ^s and the peo])le
İM his envi ronmoîit de\'e 1 c.)p an undersl.andin'^ o f hı.im in-
c-orısLdcM’iml; his system o f values. 'ITıis fin al sl.ep can be
exom])lifiod foı* a languag'e cl.ass setddng as follow s: i f the
learner has shown inLcrcîst. fo r learn luí;; the l.ang'ua^’o, he
should act cons i st,ently with his dc^cisLon as such by a c t iv e ly I>art. i. cipa t.i rig’ in the a c t i v i t i e s in the c l a s s . Thus, he w i l l
regarded as an interested student by Iris teachers and i'n 1 1 ow c l assniat.es.
'the A ffe c t iv e Doiiiciin is t.he heart o f the psychological
Ic-nels involved in the learning process. There are also
some si->ecific· psychological v a r ia b l e s which are involved in this domain rei'erred I'.o as the A f f e c t i v e Factors.
2.3. The A ffe c t iv e Factors
There are an unlimited number o f a f f e c t i v e factors to Ixri considered which have strong impacts on tbe learning process. Psychological v a r ia b le s l i k e m otivation, i n h ib i t io n , s elf-es teem , anxiety, ris k -t a k in g , extro v ersion , empathy, im itation, and a ttitu d es are only a few .of these v a r ia b le s
(Brown, 1987). Schumann (in R ichards,1978) sees the
concepts, ’ language shock’ , ’ cu ltu re shock’ , and ’ ego
p e rm e a b ility ’ as a f f e c t i v e fa c to rs . Since the scope o f this research i s not bpoad enough to examine a l l the a f f e c t i v e fa c to rs , i t w i l l be limited only to three o f them: motivation, s elf-esteem , and anxiety.
These three p a rL ic u la r ¿liTocl.¡.vf? iVir.-l.c.^rs ai*o
d e l i b e r a t e l y chosen t,o be studied hei'e, bocviuse Ihcy are tJie
the ones on which many authors have dwe] led. Wlion l.he
cuivrenL me (..hods of* I an;LÇu;v.i^e l.fv\ch i пд‘ ai*o охаинпсч], ¡1.. is s(*cn Ivhal. a great. j.mporl.anc:e i s pJ aced on Üieso I hi'cx· a i'i'eclv i vc;
fa c to rs . For exa.inpJe in the Nal.ural. Mcdliod, Krashc.'n and
T e r r e l l (1.983:38) argue Uiat ”por.rorine.rs \^\W\ .g(.)Ofl .seli'- irnages, do b e t t e r in second language acqu i.si l.ion” and adr.l d i a l "(.he best, situât, ions for language a.r.f |u i .s i I. i i.»n to 1и‘
(•.hose wlrich encourage lower anxiet.y le v fd s ". In
Suggestopedia, which i s a rec:ent method o f hangiiago t.ivu.Tiina' developed by Cleorgi. hozanov, i t. is verw import ant I liai, t he students Teel "re la x e d " a.nd "c.-.onrident." ( 1,аг::чс'П“ 19-е(:'тап,
1986: 82). Likewise, l.he Total ITiysicval l^.esi)onse Met.liod
developed by James Asher suggests (.hat anxic-it.y shouJc.l be avoided and tliat "feeli.ngs o f success and low anx.i.ety
f a c i l i t a t e learn in g" ( Larsen-Fi'eeman, 1986:117). As can be
seen from these suggestions, in the recently developed methods o f language teaching, motiva.tion, s elf-esteem and anxiot.y are regar'dexi as impor‘t.an|. i‘.ac(.c.)rs in lani'iiagr'
learn ing. One might ex])ec(. tha.l. tlioy are ( ‘гщаМу impordant
fo r the Turkish students studying EFL at. the llazir'llk l e v e l s o f the Fngli sh-rnedi um u n iv e r s i U çvs i n 'liirkey.
2.4 , MoLivaU on
Most auüiors agroo that mol4. vat.i on i.s a. rJi· j i ii^r ÎVurLor
in the achievonient o f a goal . Acc.-orc.liDg l.o SLovick (I97fi)
moLival^:ion rnay bo as siinj)lc-î as \ho proinisc' ÎV;)r a koy or a pièce o f candy providcxl liial. a cc^rta in goal is a( 11 i cn/od |>y
(:ho cliiid lo whorn Uio promise is madeo llowc^er, il. is
unden Labié as Madsen and Bowen ( in Brown, 1987) i)oinl. ()ul.., IhaL ik i.s a very irnporl.anl. facioi' for‘ suc.'crc'ssfnl larigua,ge learn ing.
Motivation i.s inof'o ofl.en ac-c'.eidx^d as an ” inncM· drjvo'î, impulse, emol/ion or desir^e" tlial. makes a p(u*son do
sometlii.ng (l.t‘own, 1987:114). In Uie case oi‘ languagc'
learn.i.ng and acqu i s i I. i c)n , Sc:hi imann , i ises 1.1 k * i‘o I I ow i ng wo i *( Is Lo d efin e motivation: "Mot i va.t.i o n ...involvc's IIjo I ea rTVia* ’ s reasons fo r attempti.ng Ix) acquirc" the sec.fjnd la.ngua.ge" (in R i. chard s , 1.9 78:16 7 )
When the learnei'ts reasons to Ic'ai'n .a socond or* .a
foreign l.anguage ar*e cons.iderecl, motivation can Ijo divided
i n lX) seve ra I c:a tego rvi e s .
2.4.1. In tegrat i.ve mot i vai, i on v s . 1 ns tnmonl.a I mot i va t i on
Intégral.i ve mol.ival.ion is quitc' differ*ent from
instrumental motivation. I f a i‘or-eign la.ngua.ge stiident is
i n t e g r a t i v e l y motivated, that means he d e s ire s [,o be cJ.oser Ix) the ta rg e t l.anguage and the natives speakers o>f thaï.
l.aniiua.go in шалу a..sjx îcLs . 'I’ha.l.. is l.o say, \yi:\w\:·. lo La.lk J lko LhcMii, hcr i ( 1о‘ПL i i*i c(.l wi Lh 1.1к'‘т, Icî/u-n а.1к.)пк Uiom.
llowevç^r, a learn er with InslnuiienLal rnoLi.val.ion lias Lho aini оГ acheiving personal ga.i.n llirough Jeaj-ning U)e Janguago. 1ns (.rumen Lai rnoLi.vaUon may a r i s e oui. о Г soiiirî pr'oi'c‘ss i ()rvn.l
rnoLives J.ilce (:he d e s ir e io carry oui. a sludy in lho c-ounLry
wfiore l.ho la.ngua.gc': is spoK'on or l.o gel. afic'ad in ()iи ( /ичмч·
or to read technical, mal.eriai .in the target la.ngua:.-c‘. Wil.hin
i n l.cgrat i VO motiva.tion, there i sl.il I aiK.)Uii'i· ( ./vl ( ';.п »i · i I. i ом
formulated by Graha.m (in hr-ovvn, 1987). He argue;'; l l i a t Ию'Ч'
i s a d.i s tin c tio n between intégra.!, ive and /is.'-d m i I a I. i v o
motivai.ion. According to (.iraham, ”a.ssimi la.tiv(* m o t i v a t i o n i s
(.he d riv e to become an undlsti ngu i slial)l c' member:· o f a speec.h coimunity” and l.hat .it is the ”<:.-hara(:.*l,eristic o f ]>ei‘sons who learn a second language . . . in orrler t(.> idcaitify . . . witli
that second c u lt u re " (I n Brown, 1987:1.17). However, a per.'son
may have intégrât.!ve motivation witliout (he dosii-e \.o l)e
absoi'bed into Ihe c.*ull,ur'e’ o f the see.ond I angu/rgc^.
Лс.-.сог‘( I i rig 1.0 Schumann, an i nl c*gi*a I. i ve 1 у c.)i· i en tc( I lf\a.rnei· would be mor*e lik e ly to a.chiev(*" suc.*.cess in U'ar-ning the
iairguage, bec:.a.use i nstr-umenl.,al. moti vatioii d riv e s I hr' p(u*son to learn l;,he language only to a, certa in e.Nlent decarred
nec:*essary by the Ifaarnei" (in Hicliai4.ls, 1978:187). liik<'wiso,
Krashen and 'Гса-геМ poinl.. out I hat "p(u*i‘oi*mra*s wilh oei-tain
types o f rnotiovat.ion, u s u a l l y , . . . * i.nt(*gi-/d i vi"'’ (k.) b e tte r in sec;on(.l language accju isiU on" (Krvvsh(.*n and 'IVa-r'ell, 198.1:88).
ThíiL is 1.0 s/iy !\ lo/vr-nor* wil.h i nLoí-ír.-vl. i ve' iiiol. i val. i on
would wanL Ix.) loa.rn as im.ic.-h í*ram Llic^ (.a.r.í>’cíL Ia.nt‘’n/iíj;c a.s ho c. -an. ]lowc“;ver, i f ho has the i ns ti Mimen tal mol.iva.tion oí‘, í'oi* e.\a.mi> 1 o , (:.^n I y 1 i /rl) I c: I .o revu I I .o(::hn i c.-a. I ma.l.( a- i al in 1.1 iC'
targed: IariíJ^uagcií, he* would be wi l l i ng lo Ic*a.i-n only the*
tec;hnj cal. languages nccc-issary fo r him to ho ahlr^ lo rc\a.d lhat
kind o f rnal.eria.1. That is why many aullior's (.-laim thal. somc^
in t e g r a t iv e motivextion i s essenl.iaJ lor forcti.gn and sc'c-.ond language? aequ j .si (J c:>n and ,lc?a ruing, 'lids has Ix'C'n :-liown l.)v
many síndicos, f o r exa.mple, many o f liamhca-tts studi/'s and oiko
stvidy by Spoisky lndic:a.tcod that ” inte^gr.at i vo iik.)!.i \'al.ion may i.ndc?c;(i be an i mporlxinl. reejuiremen 1. i'or suc.-.cc'ssfu I socc;)nd language J.earning" ( in Brown, 1.987:110).
2.4,2. Intr.i.ns.i c: motivation vs. Kxtrinsic.· mot i v/xt i on :
TJiere i s a fu rth e r catcogori nation o f moti vati c.>n wliich d i.s t i nguishes in t.r ins i c mo t i va t ion Í*ixmi o.\ I.i · i ns i c·., SIx"*v i c·)<
(1976) statcis that Uk?sco twc.? i.y|>C'S exf mol.ivation .arc* hatially d. i. f Icoreont from the? i nlxograti vc? and i nsl r-umcinl.a I {;.)nc‘:·: and l li/d.
I.hey shou.lcl be? sej>ara.tcd.y ;ma.l y/iO(.l and not Ik* Ihoughl .as synonymous. Ilowe?ver, he? a I sc; adds l,ha.t .an ini r i i is i í · motivation m.ay at the sa.me t/ime? be intograldve while .an e^xtгinsic; c;r instrumf?n ta I one** c.-ould .a.s wed I be? i nsti umenlal
or in l.egrative. In other words, al l;.hough tliese four typeos o f
motivation are not. i.ol.ally the same, l.hc?y migfit be involved -in c?a.c:h othc?r.
Inl^rinsic nioLi Villi on гоГог·-; lo Iho i 111л‘гм.п l i /.» м I \-aluo
the .learner* puts on learn.i.ng (.he language. 1.ч.)г instance, i i‘
a student reads some tiling in the language he is .1 earning for
ills own pleasui‘0, this is cin i n ti*i ris i c* motivation. Ilowc'ver, in the case o f e x t r i n s i c inol/i vat ion, llic' еГГес:1 on the lea,r-nei' to learn the language is com.ing from Uio o^nv i I'onincnl. I.hfit lie
is in. Jf a Jearner stu dies n Iranguagci in or-dc'i* lo gi'l a
high grade from a te st, this would be an e.xa.mi)lo tor- oxl.ri ns i c. moti v.-vt. i on ( WI odkowsk i , 1 ) .
Brown (1987) pi-ovidcxs tlie follow ing table' {.o riliow Ui/il
these four types o f motivaUon are di ffe re n t .
I n t e g r a t iv e Instrumental INmiNSlC L2 learn er wishes to In tegrate wi th l.»2 cuK.ure ( e . g . , f or Immigration or marriage)
Ii2 learnca* wishes to /u:h i (;'V(' goa. I s ut/il.izing
I.
j2
( e . g . , f o r a cai'cer) h x m i m i c Somi4.)iic' (' I s o w i s ik\s th e b2 l e a n i e r l.o Ivnow t l i e 1/2 f o r . i n i e g r a I : i . v o i'o a s o n s ( ( ' . g . , Japancxsc' p a i4 * n ts s('M (l k i d s t(;> J a I ).· 1r 1 о sr:'“ I a n g u / vgf' s c l КЮ I ) ' 1‘! \1о г п а1 p o w ('r w a n ts ] i2 |(.‘a r n o i· tf » l e / n n b2 ( e . g . , (..-.orpora I i i.)ii sends Japanese bi IS i I los.sman to U. S . for Janguage 1.1VI i n i ng) Tab If' 1('types of’ mot.ivaU.f.)M; 117)
‘¿ . o . So.) f~c.st.oc.*nj
Sr‘ ] is «Jeomcvi I fj lx* one* o f most iin]:>or(ant.
rar;Lors g'o\TM'n j.nc; liuman t>olia\ior. As Brown (1987) si.u^'^esl.s,
sci i'“Os(,ocmi is ja*ol)al)ly Uk* most pera'asi.ve as|x.!ict o f an\· human lx"(ia\ior. It. (';ouli.i cvrsily l>r* c;!.aimed Uiat no
suix-essful coi>'ni.l i\'o or* aTi'ecti ve act,.L\'i ty can Ix" carrioxi out witliout. some deg'rx-'e o f set f-est^eem, set f-confitJenco,
knowlodg'e* o f the s e l f and l)ol.iei* in one’ s own cap abiliti.es
for that activ’ ity. As can be seen, s e lf-e s t e e m re fe rs to the
desireo o f \'alue or worthiness whicli an individuaJ. ascribes t.(; li imsel f ( Sc;humann , i n Hi chan.ls, 1978) .
ih'own (1987:101) g'ivos a we 1 1-accepted d e fin it i o n o f
se lf-e s te e m o rig 'in a liy develoi:xxJ by Cooix?rsmith in 1967: ”Fty self-esteem , wc^ refer· to tiie evaluation which the in d iv id u a l makes and customarily maintains with reg'cird to him self; i t expresses an atiJ.tvide o f approval or disapproval and in dicates the extent to which an indi\-idual b eliev e s him self to l)c capable, s i g n ifi c a n t , s u c c e s sfu l and worthy.
In short, self-esteem is a ix-^rsonal judgement o f worthiness that is expressed in the attitud es that the in d iv id u al holds
towat'ds him self. I t is a s ubjective ex]:>erience which t.he
individua.l conveys to oU'iers by v erb al re]x>rts and other o\’e r t expressive behavior.
The terms, ’ s e lf-e s t e e m ’ , ’ s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n ’ , ’ s e l f - knowledge ’ , and ’ s e l f - c o n c e p t ’ , are used interchangeably by
d if f e r e n t authors to express the same concept. However those authors who regard humanistic concerns as important fa c to rs in education, a l l agree on the idea that education should aim
to improve the se lf-e ste e m o f the learn er. Moskowitz (1978)
p oin ts out th at learn in g is affe c te d by how students f e e l about themselves.
According to the ’ Hvimanistic Psychology’ developed by C a rl Rogers, i f a person liv e s at peace with h is fe e lin g s and re actio n s, he w i l l be open to experience without any
d efen siven ess, to renew him self every moment. That’ s why,
se lf-e s te e m sshould be s e rio u s ly taken into consideration during the process o f teaching (Brown, 1987).
Self-esteem is a ls o very important fo r the presence o f
m otivation. According to Combs and Snygg, " s e l f -
a c t u a liz a tio n and self-enhancement is the a ll- i n c lu s i v e hiunan need which motivates a l l behavior at a l l times in a l l places"
( in Moskowitz,1978:12).
The more se lf-e ste e m a learn er has, the b etter view o f
h im self he w i l l have. Thus, i f the self-esteem o f the
le a rn e r i s increased, learn ing w i l l be more s u c c e ssfu lly attain ed , because higher self-esteem is said to bring about
b e tte r le a rn in g . In the case o f fo re ign langtiage learn ing,
provided th at in stru c tio n i s carried out hand-in-hand with the e f f o r t to help the students develop p o s itiv e self-esteem in themselves, they w i l l be more lik e lj* to lea rn the target language successfvilly.
Moskowihi', (1,978:1.3) e x p la in s (iie e,r(V'i-(, oi' liifili s f l i-- esteem on language le a rn in g as fo llo w s : "As hhe shudenLs see the su b je c t matter as s e lf-e n h a n c in g , i t will, l)o v.iewed as re le v a n tly re la te d to th e ir l i v e s " and thus "l.hey wi l l then become more motivated bo J.earn to use l,hc fo re ig n bwiguage
V.
and . . . w i l l be more li k e ly to le a rn ". Also accordiriii^ to Stcvick (197(3:86), "tht'oats" to tlie imago that a. ixa-son has about h im se lf, "c o n s titu te a ric h and inexhaust.i.l)le source
o f a n x ie t ie s " . Since anxiety is more often regarded as a
negative fa c to r in second or foreign language I.ea.rniig, low s e lf-e ste e m wouJ.d most lik e ly d is tu rb tiio language' le'arning o f the .individual..
Self-estee m i s experieneexJ in three le v e ls . The f i r s t o f
these le v e ls i s g lo b a l self-e ste e m which is exa.mined below.
2 .5 .1 . G lo bal se lf-e s te e m
This l e v e l o f s e lf-e ste e m r e fe r s to the o v e r a ll
assessment o f an in d iv id u a l about h is worth o r value, 'fhal,
i s to say, i t i s the value an in d iv id u a l a s c rib e s to h im self taking in to account a l l h is rig h t s and wrongs, tlio good and
bad aspects o f h is ch aracter and h is l i f e s t y le . Ac;cording
to Brown (1987), g lo b a l s e lf-e ste e m is expected to be s t a b le in an a d u lt, but since no personali ty fa c to r c:an sl.ay sl.able at a l l times, i t may a ls o be open to change.
2. 5. 2. SI l.natJ.onal or six.*ci f i.r so..·!.f-est.e-iem
In th is sc-x;ond tyi:x? o f seif-o*st.oem, the concern is alx)ul the value:· Judgenii?nt an in dividual makers alx)ut himsel.f' in cc-rtain l i f e s itu a tio n s . F>ich in d iv id u a l takes on d ifferen t,
ro le s in fliffe re n t phases o f his l i f e . A businessman, for
instance?, p.I.ays the ro le o f a manager in h is officre, that, o f a hushaneJ at h.is home and hc^ is also? the fath er o f his
chileJren. His situational, seJ.f-estec-?m might be vc?ry high in
the cemrse o f h is profe?ssional l i f e , but he might fe e l tiiat
hc' is a ted husband or a bad fa th e r. In that ceise his
spec;i f ic self-esteem as a husband or a fath er would be ver\v lik e ly lo te J ow.
Jn the context o f langimge le a rn in g , th is tyf>e o f s e l f - este(-?m, r e fe r s to the value that the learn er a s c rib e s to him.self in the language ac:quisition process ( Brown, 1987). Thus, i f he has higher language success, h is self-estee m w i l l be higher and likew ise i f he has high s e lf-e s te e m , h is
language success w i l l be higher.
A kind o f s it u a t io n a l self-esteem concerns the s e l f - evalu a tio n o f an in d iv id u a l in c e rta in tasks and in certain s it u a t io n s . As Brown (1987) su ggests, th is type o f s e l f
esteem might r e fe r to p a rt ic u la r su b ject-m atter areas. In
the case o f l£mguage learn in g, th is would be the worth the le a rn e r a s c rib e s to him self in the r e a liz a t io n o f a s p e c if ic language s k i l l fo r example.
In a study th at Adelaide Heyde made in 1979 about the r e la t io n between se lf-esteem and o ra l production, and in another study c a rrie d out by Gardner and Lambert in 1972, a l l the r e s u lt s showed that self-esteem appears as an important fa c to r in language a c q u is itio n . However, no s t a t i s t i c a l evidence was obtained about the rela tio n sh ip between s e l f esteem and language success (Brown, 1987).
2.6. Anxiety
The l a s t o f the a ff e c t iv e facto rs which are studied in
th is research is an xiety. Because i t is an important
p sy ch o lo gical fa c to r fo r any human being, i t plays a v i t a l r o le in fo re ig n language learn ing.
There i s no one s in g le d e fin itio n o f anxiety, because, i t is n e a rly im possible to d efin e i t in one sentence. I t is asso c iated with fe e lin g s o f "uneasiness, s e lf-d o u b t,
apprehension or worry" (Brown, 1987:106). Scovel defin es
an xiety as a "s ta te o f apprehension, a vague f e a r . . . " (Brown, 1987:106).
’ F e a r’ , ’ a n x ie ty ’ , ’ s t r e s s ’ and ’ tension’ , though not synonymous, are o ften used by d iffe re n t authors to express the same fe e lin g . However, according to J e rs ild (1955), fe a r d i f f e r s from anxiety in p art, because, i t i s caused by
ex tern a l fa c to rs whereas the o rig in of anxiety is in sid e tlie person (in Stevick, 1976).
Leontiev (1981) uses the term ’ s t r e s s ’ l,o e>;i>iess the f e e lin g o fte n re fe rre d ho as anxiehy a.nd d e fin e it as "th at emotional s ta t e aroused by a s itu a tio n reckoned to l>e
dangerous o r e n t a ilin g excepti.onal responsibi l i l,y. " (Leon tiev, 1981:70)
S im ila r to s e lf-e s te e m , anxiety is expcuvicnc.-cxl in two d iffc ire n t le v e ls l,hc^ f i r s t o f wfiich is t r a i t anxiety.
2 .6 .1 . T r a it Anxiety
This type o f an x iety i s experienced on a g lo b a l s c a le . That i s to say, th is i s the Icind o f an xiety a person
experiences throughout l i f e , in every s e t t in g , no iiifil.l.er what
the circumstances a re . Those people who are pcrmanentdy
anxious as a p art o f th e ir nature are sa id l,o liave In'ait
an xiety . For example, the people who fin d something to worry
about in every s it u a t io n and who can never fe e l themselves a1.. peace f a l l in to the category o f people with t r a i t anxiety.
2 .6 .2 . S tate Anxiety
State an xiety, the second type o f an xiety, is
experienced a t the momentary or s it u a t io n a l l e v e l. In other
words, i t is the an xiety that a person fe e ls in c e rta in l i f e
sil.u atio n s and in r e la U o n to a |)articu la r event or act. Kor
instoince, the an xiety that a le a rn e r experiences b efo re a te st can be catego rized as s ta t e an xiety .
Leontiev (1981) provides a d iffe r e n t way o f
d is tin g u is h in g between the kinds o f the fe e lin g he c a l l s ’ te n sio n ’ . He argues that there are two types o f emotional tension: the ’p urely emotional ten sion ’ and the ’o peration al te n s io n ’ . Pt.irely emotional tension re fe r s to the fe e lin g that a person experiences when the "demands" o f a s t r e s s fu l
s it u a t io n do not match the cap acities or a b i l i t i e s o f that
person. He claims that the tension a student liv e s b efo re an
examination i s p urely emotional tension. O perational tension
on the other hand, i s "connected with the necessity o f
carry in g out a p a r t ic u la r a c t iv it y " and i t "allow s the person to ’ s e t t le in t o ’ that a c t iv it y " (L e o n tie v ,1981:70). For example, a teacher before s ta rtin g a lesson liv e s operation al
tension. L eo n tiev’ s concept o f operational tension is
s im ila r to the type o f anxiety c a lle d ’ sta te a n x ie ty ’ by Brown.
Stevick (1976) brings a d iffe r e n t viewpoint to the concept o f anxiety and provides a d iffe r e n t imdersbanding o f
the reasons fo r the anxiety the learn er experiences. He
s ta te s that w ithin the p erso n ality o f the learn er, there
are two ’ s e lv e s ’ which he names as the ’ Performing S e l f ’
and the ’C r i t i c a l S e l f ’ . The Performing S e lf, as e a s ily understood from it s name, performs the function o f allow in g
the use o f the language while learning i t . T h e·irribical
le a rn e r about h is f a i lu r e s . The tension between those two ’ s e l v e s ’ , Stevick argues, is an unfavorable s itu a tio n fo r the le a rn in g o f the language since a state o f anxiety i s
created. For example, when the student makes a grammatical
mistake w h ile using the language, his ’C r it ic a l S e l f ’ immediately s t a r t t e l l i n g him that he should not have made th at mistake, so the student finds him self in a - d i f f i c u l t s it u a t io n , because a tension is created between the two
’ s e lv e s ’ . So, next time i t is more d i f f i c u l t fo r the student to have the courage to use the language.
Anxiety i s most o ften regarded as ein unfavorable fac to r
in le a rn in g . However, there seems to be disagreement among
authors about the abso lu te n eg a tiv ity o f the e ffe c t o f
an x iety on le arn in g. When i t is regarded w ithin the scope
, *
o f another c la s s if i c a t i o n which distinguishes.between ’ d e b i l i t a t i v e ’ and ’ f a c i l i t a t i v e ’ anxiety, the la t t e r is regarded as a p o s itiv e fac to r in learning by some authors. For example as mentioned previously, Leontiev (1981) regards o p e ratio n al tension as a fac to r which allow s a person to " s e t t le in to an a c t iv i t y " . Leontiev’s d e fin itio n o f
o p e ratio n al tension i s s im ila r to the content o f f a c i l i t a t i v e an xiety .
According to those authors, in a classroom settin g , f a c i l i t a t i v e anxiety provides a p o sitiv e fac to r fo r learning, because i t s t a r t le s the learn er to engage in the a c t iv it y o f
le a rn in g . However, C a rl Rogers with his humanistic theory
o f le a rn in g , holds e view that the le v e l o f anxiety should
be kept low so as enhance learning (in Brown, 1987).
2 .7 . Conclusion
As seen from the information presented in th is chapter, authors have d iff e r e n t perspectives about motivation, s e l f
esteem and an xiety. Some o f them have a terminology o f
t h e ir own, w hile others share the same vocabulary to r e fe r to
these concepts. Some have contradicting ideas about the
e f f e c t s o f these a ff e c t i v e fac to rs on langtiage learn ing. However, whether they have common or contradictory ideas, they a l l agree about the fa c t that a f f e c t i v i t y and the a f f e c t i v e fa c to rs have a considerably important impact on
langxiage le a rn in g . This importance ciui best be examined in
the design o f the most recent methods o f language teaching lik e the N atu ral Approach, Suggestopedia, Total Physical
Response and Community Language Learning. In a l l o f these
methods, g re a t importance is placed on the learn er fe e lin g s . In other words, whether or not the authors agree on
term inology, they are a l l aware o f the s ig n ific a n t ro le s that these fa c to rs p lay in learning languages.
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
This chapter o f the study i s concerned with how data were c o lle c te d about the Turkish students a t the H a z ırlık le v e ls o f three English-medium u n iv e rs itie s in Turkey:
Bosphorus, METÜ, B ilk en t. The o b je ctiv es and the method o f
data c o lle c tio n are presented.
3.2. The o b je c tiv e s and the method o f data c o lle c tio n
A questionnaire was used to c o lle c t data in an e f f o r t to make a d is tin c tio n between the m otivation types and to lea rn about the types o f self-esteem and anxiety o f the respondents.
Data c o lle c tio n was aimed a t fin din g o ut.the answers to the fo llo w in g questions:
- Are the students motivated to learn English ?
- I f they are, do they have instriunental motivation, in te g ra t iv e motivation or both ?
- Do students have p o s itiv e self-esteem ?
- Is th e ir se lf-este em g lo b a l or s it u a t io n a l to learn ing English or both ?
- Do the students re p o rt sta te anxiety when de.aling with
English, t r a i t an xiety, both or none ?
In s e le c tin g the quesLlonnn.i re HieLhof.1, ¡L wa.s .ussurnprl th at the studenls* responses would make i t. j)ossil)l.e l.o reach some conclusions about, the types o f sel.f-esl.eem, anxj.efy and
m otivation that the students experience. Furl.hermore,
stu d en ts’ responses to questions could be q u a n tifie d in the
form o f frequen cies and percentages. Thus, the J'esearcher
might be a b le to compare and draw o b je c tiv e cone;Insions about the H a z ır lık students o f these u n iv e r s it ie s . AJ.so, tl)e
q u estio n n aire method wou.ld be u s e fu l with a la rg e number o f stu d en ts.
A t o t a l o f 184 interm ediate H a z ırlık sIndents 1‘rom the
th ree u n iv e r s it ie s were given the q u estio n n aire. Tiie
research er firs t, arranged with some teacliors from
u n iv e rsi ty a date and a time to d i.stri l)ul.e the quosl.ionnairc^ in th e ir c la s s e s .
3.3. Preparation o f the questionnaire
llie questions used to c o lle c t the data fo r l..h.is research were o f paramount importance because they were (.lie only
sources fo r the research er to draw coneLus:ions. Before
s t a r t in g to w rite the qu estio n n aire, lib r a r y researeh was done to fin d out the previous th esis stu d ies made on
m otivation, se lf-e ste e m and anx;iol.y to have an idea. a.boul. \}\c.
q u estio n n aire s ( i f any) that were used i.n these sl.udies. As
a r e s u lt o f th is research, the research er came across some previous work on m otivation, se lf-e s te e m , and anxiety in
L^fMieral oducat.ion and in languag’o .1 oarn.i пц'. It was founrl o u t
from tliese stu dies Uiat. use was made o f the ’Hacettoix^ l.n i.\ers i t.y Self-Ksteem Envent.ory^ and tJie ’STAl ’
questionn aire in the preparatdon o f l.hie questionnaire. These foui^ previous stu d ies ar-e:
A n , Ramazan. (1989). y^L>Ttr:Ş_.kî.TJ QâXÇİlk^İJ-ltkİItyii ИУО
İ:k" (жиш Ni Rc^l i.kler i nin 13eo
.^TM'lİjJs yo liyıun Düzeylerine h tk is i . Ankcira: Iiacette}X' Üniv'er-
s i t e s i , Sosyal B iljm le r Enstitüsü. Л Ph.D 'thesis.
düng4)r, Abide. (1989). У -JLQ Ö â T O liÇ İJ ^ e rjQ z şa \ :g ı Düz e y le -
IJILİ İXliİJoy_en ШЛ!]оп1^Т· Ankara: Hacetteix) Ü n iv ersite si ,
Sosyal Bilim ler· Enstitüsü. A FTı.D 'thesis.
Kahrajnan, F.Nur. (1988). An AnaJ.ysis o f Learner Factors
A t f ос t in g S tudents ^ Success in EFL a t Gazicintep U n iv e rs ity.
Ankara: ME"tU. A M aster’ s Thesis.
Çetin, Canan. (1983). 'the Role o f Moti v a ti on in Foreign
Language Learning; F lir t a t io n o f Mo t i v a t ion with Success.
Ankara: METU. A M aster’ s Thesis.
As a r e s u lt o f the exaniination o f the questionnaires used in these stu d ie s, the researcher formulated the
question naire to be used in her study. At the beginning 60
questions were prepared. There were ’'tru e -F a lse ’ questions,
m ultiple choice questions and questions with tw o .d iffe re n t p o s s ib le answers.
