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ITALIAN F U R N I T U R E DESIGN AFT ER 1945
A THESIS
SUBM IT T ED TO THE D EP A R T M E N T OF
INTERIOR A R C H I T E C T U R E AND E N V I R O N M E N T AL DESIGN AND THE INSTITUTE OF FINE ARTS
OF BiLKENT U N I V E R S I T Y
IN PARTIAL FU LF I L L M E N T OF THE R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR THE DEGREE OF
MA S T E R OF FINE ARTS
by
Sedef A K S O Y February 1992
I c e r t i f y that I have read this thesis and that in my opinion it is ful l y adequate, in scope and in quality as a thesis for the d e g r e e of Ma st e r of Fine Arts.
Assoc. Prof. Dr> Principal Advisor)
I c e r t i f y that I have read this thesis and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality as a thesis for the d e g r e e of Ma s te r of Fine Arts.
Assist. Prof. M e h m e t Asateki n (Co. Advisor)
I c e r t i f y that I have read this thesis and that in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality as a thesis for the d e g r e e of Ma s te r of Fine Arts.
.
IpFOf/.Assist. |prof|L Dr. Halime Demirkan
A p p r o v e d by the Institute of Fine Arts.
Prof.Dr. Bülent özgüç. Direc t o r of the Institute of Fine Arts i i
ITALIAN FURN I T U R E DESIGN AFTER 1945
Sedef AKSOY
M.F.A. in Interior A r c h i t e c t u r e and Environmental Design Supe r v i so r : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Y i l d i n m YAVUZ
February, 1992
The aim of this study is to investigate the Italian
f u r n i t u r e design from d ifferent a spects which has showed
an incremental development and has gained an
international success after the Second World War.
Political, cultural and s o cio - e c o n o mi c impacts,
technological d e v e l op m e n t s and the materials that are
used to create innovative designs are d iscussed in a
historical perspective. Various f actors that s u p p o r t its
success; ma n uf a c t u r i ng firms, the designers, Milan
fu r n i t u r e fairs and Triennials, periodicals and Composso D ’oro awards are analysed. The important design m o v e m e n t s
and leading desi g n e r s of Italian furniture des ign are
st udied taking into cons i d e r a t i on their philosophical and a r ti s t i c concerns.
ÖZET
1945 SONRASI İTALYAN M O B İ L Y A TASARIMI
Sedef AKSOY
İç Mimar lı k ve Çevre Tasarımı Bölümü Yüksek Lisans
Tez Yöneticisi : Doç. Dr. Yıl d ı r ı m Yavuz Şubat 1992
Bu çal ı şm a n ın amacı İkinci Dünya Savaşı s onras ı n d a
g i derek artan bir gelişme göstererek uluslararası başarı
kazanan İtalyan m o b i l y a tasarımını değişik açılardan
incelemektir. Politik, kültürel ve s osy o - e k o n o mi k
etkiler, tekn o l o ji k gelişmeler, m a l z e meler in yenilikçi
t a s a r ı m l a rı n yaratımındaki kullanımı tarihsel bir
p e r s p e k t if içinde incelenmiştir. İtalyan m o bilya
t as a r ı m ı n ı n başarı kazanmasını de stekleyen çeşitli
etkenler; üretici firmalar, tasarımcılar, ulusal ve
uluslararası Milano m o b i l y a fuarları, süreli yayınlar,
A lt ı n Pergel ödülleri araştırılmıştır. Öncü t a s arı mcı lar
ve önemli t as a rı m akımları felsefi ve artistik ilgi
alanları göz önüne alına r a k incelenmiştir.
An ah t a r S ö z c ü k l e r : İ t a l y a n M o b i l y a Tasarımı, tasarımcı 1 a r , akımlar
F o r e m o s t I woul d like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Yıldırım
Yavuz for his invaluable supervision, guidanc e and
e n c o u r a g e m e n t during my studies. I would also like to thank Assist. Prof. Mehmet Asate k in for his advice and c r i t i c i s m s in the d e v e l o p m e n t of the thesis.
I wou l d like to extend my gratitudes to Feyzan Beler who helped me a lot with her comments t h r ou gho ut the study.
Special thanks to my friend Dr. Tunç Gökçe for his
s u p p o r t and friendship during the pre parat ion of the
t h e s i s .
A C K N O W L E D G E ME N T S
Last but not least thanks to my family for their c o n s t a n t support.
TABLE OF C O N T E N T S A B S T R A C T ... i ii ÖZET ... İv A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S ... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vi LIST OF FIGURES ... vi i i 1 I N T R O D U CT I O N ... 1
2 F U R N I T U R E INDUSTRY AND DESIGN IN ITALY ... 4
2.1 Political, Cultural and So c i o - E c o n o m i c Impacts 4 2.1.1 (1945-1960) Liberation and Industrial Revolution ... 4
2.1.2 (1960-1970) Economic Boom and C o n tr a d i c t i on s ... 8
2.1.3 (1970-1980) S o c i o -E conomic Instability 11 2.1.4 (1980-1991) Time of Formal Innovations 14 2.2 Technological Progress and Use of New M a t er i al s ... 16
2.2.1 (1945-1960) R e c o n str uctio n and New M aterials ... 16
2.2.2 (1960-1970) New Production Meth ods ... 24
2.2.3 (1970-1980) Steady Growth in Industry 27 2.2.4 (1980-1991) Technological I mprovements 31 3 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE D E V E L OPMENT AND SUCCESS OF ITALIAN FURNITURE DESIGN ... 38
3.1 Ma n u f a c t u r i ng Firms ... 38
3.2 The Role of Designer ... 40
3.3 Mil a n Furniture Fairs and T riennials ... 43
3.4 Pe ri o di c a l s ... 45
3.5 Co m p o s s o D ’oro Awards ... 46 vi
4 LEADING D E S IG N E R S AND I MPORTANT DESIGN M O V E M E N T S . 48
5 CON C L U S IO N ... 63
LIST OF R E F E R EN C ES ... 66
LIST OF FIG U RES
Figure 1 Bent Plywood Armchair ... 20
Figure 2 Sheet Metal Chair ... 20
Figure 3 Oak wood frame dining table ... 21
Figure 4 Solid oak wood chair ... 21
Figure 5 "Superleggera" chair ... 22
Figure 6 "Jack" table ... 22
Figure 7 "Fiorenzia" armchair ... 23
Figure 8 "Lady" armchair ... 23
Figure 9 "Lambda" chair ... 25
Figure 10 "Selene" chair ... 25
Figure 11 "Plia" chair ... 25
Figure 12 "Serpentone" chair ... 26
Figure 13 "Bobo" sitting e l e m e n t ... 26
Figure 14 "Up 1-6" upholstered pro gra m ... 27
Figure 15 "Dondola" rocking chair ... 27
Figure 16 "Carioco" series ... 28
Figure 17 "Artona" series ... 29
Figure 18 "Maralunga" sofa ... 30
Figure 19 "AEO" chair ... 30
Figure 20 "Natalie" bed ... 31
Figure 21 "Celario" mobile wall partions ... 33
Figure 22 "Aforismi" interchangeable m o uld ing s .... 33
Figure 23 "Sinbad" dressed f u r n iture ... 34 vi i i
Figure 24 "Quinta" chair ... 35
Figure 25 "Francesca Spanish" chair and "President M" table ... 35
Figure 26 "Ititi" bed ... 36
Figure 27 "Light-Light" chair ... 36
Figure 28 "4310" tables ... 37
Figure 29 "Allunaggio" stool ... 51
Figure 30 "Tube" chair ... 52
Figure 31 "Sacco" sitting e l e m ent ... 54
Figure 32 "Joe" sitting element ... 54
Figure 33 "Mickey Mouse" series ... 56
Figure 34 "Mies-lounge" chair ... 57
Figure 35 "Quaderna" series ... 58
Figure 36 Redesign of "Breuer" chair ... 59
Figure 37 "Beverly" sideboard ... 61
1 INTR O D U C TIO N
Italy, a c ountry which has a rich artistic heritage, has
always been a center of inspiration for the great
c i v i l i s a t i o n s of Europe and Italians have alwa ys played an important role in the design world. Italian furniture
design has gained an international success after the
Second World War.
During the Second World War, because of fas chist
cencorship, Italy was an unlikely c a ndi date for
leadership in many areas and also in the international
f u r n i t u r e industry. But, f o r t u n a tel y fasch ist control in
Italy had not been very strong. The war s t i m ulate d some technological advances.
After the war, although phys icall y and mora lly
devastated, the situ a t i o n in Italy d i d n ’t seem so
unpromissing. There was a new d e moc racy emergin g from a
f a s c h i s t rule and an o p t i m i s t ic attitu de towards the
future. P e rhaps the most important com p o n e n t of the
Italian style was the n a t i o n ’s attitude to liberation.
Italians, a n aturally f r e e - s p i r i t ed people embraced
liberation w ith a sense of elation.
The talented desi g n e r s were ready to respond to the chal l e n g e and they attacked design proble ms w i thout
p r e c o n c e iv e d ideas, instead relying heavily on their sense of style. The r e was a c o m b i n a t i o n of a few large scale comp an i e s whi c h were ready to adopt the modern r e q u i r e m e n ts and an immense need of penetrating foreign m a r k e t s .
The c o m b i n at i on of all these factors with the
c o n t r i b u t i o n of her rich cultural heritage and the
su p p o r t of powerful far-si g h t e d patrons provided Italy an international success in the design world after 1945.
Italian furn i tu r e design has displayed a fearless
c r e a t i v e drive which s t i mulated interest and captured
imagination in the design world. It has increm ent ally
attai n e d international recognition and great success.
The aim of the thesis is to e x a m i n e the dev e l o p m e n t and su cc e s s of Italian furn i t u r e desi gn from 1945 o n w ar ds c o n s i d e r i n g d i ff e re n t points of view. Political, cultural
and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c impacts, technological progress and
use of new mate ri a ls are expl a i n e d in the second chapter.
In this c h apter a pp r o p r i a t e time intervals are chosen in
order to evalu at e the d e v e l o p m e nts more suitably. Various reasons for the success of Italian furnit ure design are
analy s e d in the third chapter. The forth ch apter deals
with the important design m o v e m e n t s and leading d esigners of Italian furn it u r e which opened new horizons by their philosophical and a r t i s t i c concerns.
The thesis is deve l o p e d by a literature survey and
s u p p o r t e d by the o b s e r v a t i o n s fro m the last Milan
Triennial (A p r i 1,1991). In the c o n clu sio n under the light of this research, d i s t i n c t i v e ne s s of Italian f urniture design is ex plained briefly.
2 FURNITURE INDUSTRY AND DESIGN IN ITALY
2.1 P O L I T I C A L C U L T UR A L AND S O C I O - E C O N O MI C IMPACTS
A p p a r e n t l y Italian furn i t u r e d e s i g n ’s d e v e l opmen t can not
be sepa ra t e d from the political, cultural and s o c i o
e c o n o m i c events. These impacts are analyse d by time
i ntervals from 1945 onwards.
2.1.1 (1945-1960) Liberation and Industrial R e vol ution
In the immediate post-war years there begun a huge
e f f o r t to restore Italy to its pre-war status
e c o n o mically, c u lturally and socially. Italy underwent an
industrial revolution within which design played a
fundamental part. Tho s e years were c h ar acter ised by
h ar d s h i p but because of new democrac y and hope for the fu t u r e this was also an exciting period.
After the war, the gov e r n m e n t policy was the new Italian
republic, a n t i - f a s ci s m and the industrial reconstruction
whi c h was largely effec t e d by the implementation of the sta t e policy. There was a direct state control over the af f a i r s of private industry, e n c o u r a g e m e nt of a laissez- faire approach towards trading on the international
ma r k e t and a p r ot e c t i o n i st attitude towards the home
market. These policies were generally followed. But the
state also took some direct steps to help industry get
back on its feet by granting credits, providing cheap
energy and steel etc. Also it helped ma nufac tur ing
industry to produce c o m p e t i t iv ely priced goods by
i mp lementing a low wag e s policy. Labour was plentiful and
so trade unions remained weak. There was an impact of
industrial r e construction but there was also great
h a r d s h i p and massive unemployment.
Up to 1946 the trad i t i o n of Italian design had been
formed and developed along the lines of cultu re closely
linked to Rat i o n al i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e . The change in the
political picture of the 1 9 4 0 ’s was reflected in design. A t t i t u d e s began to change.
R a t i o n a l i s t approach became combined on an ideological
plane with the political a nti - F a s c i s t m o vem ent of
national liberation and with a strong tradition: It was
centred e s p ecially in Milan, still i n t e r nat ional ist and e l i t i s t and c oncerned with the standard element s and p r é f a b r i c a t io n ( G r e g o t t i , 1972).
Inter i o r furnish i ng s a p p roached with philosh opy that forced the r a t i o n a l i s t s ’ belief in the n e ces sit y of mass
p r o d u c t i on and design for the industry. Two exhibitions
of the early post-war years de monst rat ed this Neo-
RIMA (Riunione Italiana Monstre per 1 ’A r r e d a m e n t a - I t a l i a n
E x h ibition Meeting for Furnishings) in 1946 on the
s u b j e c t of popular furniture. The main production
material was timber and the problems of serial
production, shortages of raw m a ter ial s and small living
spaces caused the production of stackable fold ing chairs which mea n t to meet the requirements of the day. The 8 th Triennial which was held in 1947 repeated the same theme.
It took the home as a "focus" and proposed a neo
ra t i o n a l i s t solution to the p r oblem of post- war housing.
After the war, during the few months of the regime the
left-wing parties formed an important eleme nt within the
coal i t i o n government, but in 1947 the C o m m u n i s t s and
s o c i a l i s ts were excluded and the C h risti an Democrats favoured by the industrialists assumed a more prominent
role. With the expulsion of Commu nis ts and Socialists
from the coalition g o v e rnment in 1947, n e o - r a t i o n a l i s m
gave way to a new an t i - r a t i o n al i s t design philoshopy. It
defined itself as a m o v e m e n t more d e f i n i t e l y - b o u r g e o i s ,
rather than specifi c a l l y working class ten d e n c i e s (Sparke 1988).
" The catch phrase ’utility plus b e a u t y ’ came to
c h a r a c t e r i s e the Italian design a esthetic of the late
1 9 4 0 ’s and 1 9 5 0 ’s" (Sparke, 1988, p.87). This implies
that pre-war rationalism was no longer a pp r o p r i a t e in the post-war years and domination of a r c h it ectur e should be
with the dismissal of this early post-war emphasis on
n e o - r a t i o n a l i s t themes like pr efabr ica tion and
s t a n d a r d i s a ti o n a new conc e n t r a ti on began on ’a r t i s t i c ’
qualities. Italian design began to adopt very
par t i c u l a r visual identity and began to display that its
rec o n s t r uc t io n could earn it a special place in the
w o r l d .
During this period Italian culture and eco nomy was
d e p e n d e n t on the U S A . , which provided the necessary
funds, ’k n o w - h o w ’ and t e c hnology to enable the Italian
industry to get back on its feet. This was a two way
process. While Italy was impressed by all things
American, the vogue for ’Italian S t y l e ’ grew rapidly
both in the USA and in the European c ountries during the
5 0 ’s. The r e was a large scale emig ratio n of Italians to
other coun tr i e s and this can be linked to that effect.
The fa ctors which p a r t i c u l a rl y co ntr ibute d to
econom i c de v el o pm e n t during the 5 0 ’s were; cheap
manpower, a strong foreign mar ket and a large
backlog of unsatisfied demand for the labour
goods. Of these, the latter two factors have been
direct l y influenced by a design, c apabl e of
imposing a new style not only on behaviou r but
also on family life and structu re (Comminotti,
1972, p.345).
Presence of new factories e q u i pp ed with mo der n methods, t e c h n i q u e s and mate r i a l s whi c h were c o n c ent rated on mode r n i s i n g their production systems was also another factor for the basis of good design during the 5 0 ’s.
If we look today at the products design in the fifties, they never,
never, appear to be either truly
products or authentic e x p re ssi ons
culture. The positive feelings they
s timulate are more exp r e s s iv e then nature (Branzi, 1984, p.41). of Italian or almost i ndustri al of popular u n doubt edl y a cultural
2.1.2 (1960-1970) Economic Boom and C o n t r a d i c t i o n s
The 6 0 ’s were full of excitement and contradictions, both for the Italian people and the Italian design. The decade
had began with an economic boom which greatly improved
the average Italian purchasing power and it ended with s t udent protests of 1968 and trade union mov ements
involving v arious spheres of industrial and econ omic
sectors. These were also the years during which the
femin i s t m o v e m e n t had begun.
During I t a l y ’s economic boom, d esigners did not come up with a l t e r n a t iv e proposals or su gge stion s for a di fferent approach to e c o n om i c development.
Design was seen mainly in its relation to
business as a model for d i f f er ent iatin g various
co m m od i t i es and lines of products, to increase
market p e ne t ration to the maximum, to e n h a n c e the c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s of goods and to e nco u r a g e the
demand for replacing them before they were
o u tworn (Comminotti, 1972, p.346).
At the close of the 5 0 ’s the c o n s u m e r ’s desire and atten t ion was directed to the "new". The nove lti es which
penetrated the Italian market gave the Italian consumer
dr a s t i c a ll y d i srupt the custom er modes of Italian interior design. Most Italians continue d to furnish their homes as they always had.
In the mid 6 0 ’s, the demand for goods became even more complex due to the economic boom. The c ons u m e r now, had more p u r chasing power and a greater choice. " ’Novelty
c o n s u m e r i s m ’ which had been aimed at integrating the
individual into urban industrial society gave way to
’status c o n s u m e r i s m ’ in which the i n d i v i d u a l ’s social
status was highlighted through the ch oices he made,
independent of their novelty" (Raimondi, 1990, p.12).
By the end of 6 0 ’s the aims of the middle cl asses like
p o s sessing f a s h io n ab l e clothing and fine fur n i t u r e were partly satisfied. But the new political events, the trade union a c t iv i ti e s and the student protests deeply affected this group.
Italy was t r ad i ti o n a l ly known as a land of poverty. Ne v e r t h e l e s s during these years the country was washed by a wave of feminism, radicalism, t ec h n o l o g y as well as a rebellion a g ainst we l l-being and a glut of consumer goods. These created strange c o n t r a d i c t i on s in the home, in the school and in the country. D if fer ent concept ions of life arose and clashed with each other.
The so c i al i s i ng of youth and the f em ini st ideology shape the behaviours and tastes that emerged during this
groups, work groups and new forms of socialisin g all had
their c ou n t e rp a rt s in living and furnishing styles.
V a r i o u s people, who shared their lives wit hou t adopting the formal bonds of family rel a t ionsh ips or playing the traditional sexual roles brought diffe ren t uses to spaces whi c h had been designed for a traditional life style. The
reflections are seen more in the fur nishings then in
fixed architecture.
Room p a rtitions were created with m o vable
elements; panel caddies akin to hav ersacks were
hung on the walls along with posters that served
more as ideological s t at e m e n t s then as
decoration; rejected mate r i als such as unused
drainage tubes or scaffolding element s were used as shelving; informal seating was cut loose from parlour designs based on s ymmet ry and social
difference; artificial material such as oil skin
took the place of natural leather upholstery;
plastic replaced walnut in furnitu re (Raimondi,
1990, p p . 12-13).
During these years the Italians particip ated the Paris
and C o logne trade fairs while M i l a n ’s Salone del Mobile
sti m u l a t e d them into a race for n ovelty and renewal of
models. The Salone was full of e l a b o r a t e d i splay s that
wou l d high li g h t and enhance company images. Unlike its
c o u n t e r p a r t s abroad Italian f u r n itu re design as soc iated
w ith lively showmanship.
One important thing to mention from the 6 0 ’s is that the
f u rn i t u r e industry began to make use of every form of
c o mm u n i c a ti on med ia like video films, c a t alog ues and
co mp e t i t i on to create new environments, type of behaviour
and life-style trends, the emphas is was on the
importance of creating a c o o r d inated image on the b u y e r ’s choi c e s .
2.1.3 (1970-1980) S o c i o - E c o n o mi c Instability
The 7 0 ’s were ec o n o m i c a l l y and c ulturally years of
absol u t e cloudiness.
Between 1969 and 1971 Italian economy was effected by
v i o l e n t political unrest and strikes and a sharp decline
in productivity. It was followed by the oil crises in
1973 which in 1975 caused the strongest econo mic
dep r e s s i o n since World War II. These years of econ omi c hards h i p were also effected by the small rules which were left from the 6 0 ’s and by a series of weak governments. The high rate of inflation was caused not just because of
such reasons as the explosion of p e tr ole um prices. These
price increases were already loaded with inflationary
p r e r e q u i s i t e s . Demand was uncertain and erratic, peaking
and than dropping off suddenly. Co n s u m e r s tended to save
less and buy more on credit. " The atmosphere of
u n c e r t a i nt y and instability undermined faith in
s o c i a l i s a t i on and g o v ernment intervention in the economy" (Raimondi, 1990, p.106).
In the 7 0 ’s Italians embraced many of the causes calling
for social change. Political sys tem was impervious to these causes and it only adopted them some tim es with
minimal com m i tm e nt and only for the purpose of party
s t r a t e g y .
In the 7 0 ’s particular importance was given to w o m e n ’s issues and demands, the family and the relationships
within it, d e cisions to live together, to divorce and
other day to day deci s i o n s were discussed publicly and
they became political issues. " The wish to change
society had invaded the personal sphere. People started to e x amine their own lives, bodies and r ela tionships with
others. They began to e x p e r i e n c e the present, witho ut
putting anything off in the hope of a better t omorrow (Raimondi, 1990, p.106).
During the years 1976-79 there was a gradual
a b a t e me n t of social unrest, a progr ess ive
ove r c om i n g of the so-called Lead years that had seen the c u l m ination of political t e r r o r i s m and a strong productive resurgence. This was tri ggered off by the vitality and capacity for imprevisión of the small and me d i u m industries and of the increased activity of the so-c alled undergro und
economy (a m agma formed by small c r a ftsma n and
w o r k s h o p s that m a i ntained in addition to their
official activity one or more "moonlighting"
operation). This coincided with a revival of
interests in the industrial design. Very little
remained of the revolutionary ideas of ten years before (Albera and Monti, 1989, p.37).
In spite of the econo m i c crises, Italian design became international in the 7 0 ’s and moved also to the markets ou tside Europe. It c o ntinued on the same f o r m u l a that had worked well in the boom years of 6 0 ’s. But it contained
neither the energy nor the e n t h u s i a s m of that period
except for a few examples (Sparke, 1988). Particularly,
in the area of home f u r n i shings it continued to create interesting products. Designers offered a new culture of
design for the home with a brilliant quality of
invention and elegance of aest h et ic solutions. This new culture of design remained as the most com ple te and
s i g n i f i c a n t fact of Italian design in 7 0 ’s (Albera and
Monti, 1989). Traditional status materials like leather,
wood and marble largely replaced the innovative use of new materials. This introduced a new c o n s e r v a t i s m into modern Italian furniture design.
One important event that must be mentioned f rom the 7 0 ’s
is the e x hibition entitled "Italy, The New Domestic
Landscape" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York which
was directed and presented by Emilio Ambasz. The
c o l lection of objects and interiors illustrated the
remarkable design vitality that has recently emerged in
Italy. "Visitors were to realise that design in general
and Italian design in particular, meant more than simply
creating objects to satisfy functional and emotional
needs: The processes and products of desig n could
the m s e l v es be used to offer critical com m e n t a r y upon
society" (Ambasz, 1989, p.55).
2.1.4 (1980-1991) Time of Formal Innovations
The situation of the Italy in the 7 0 ’s was an econo mic an
political crisis and this was felt heavily in the
beginning of the 8 0 ’s. The crisis implied the industrial
sector and political tensions ran high. But, there were numer o u s signs that through its m a nuf actur ing ability
alone, Italy was still a strong country. This cloudy
b eg i nnings of the 8 0 ’s passed and the overall situation
could be con s id e r e d positive by the end of the decade.
In the 7 0 ’s inflation had comp oun ded the existing
problems but in the 8 0 ’s technological i mpr ovements
helped the e c onomy to get back on its feet. O th e r factors also contri b u t ed to this positive economic trend are the general improvement in educational levels, an increase in
life exp e ct a n c y and in geographical mobility and the
pr o g r e s s i v e internatio n al i s a t i o n of the nation (Raimondi, 1990).
The f urniture sector in the 8 0 ’s continued to be highly frag m e n te d with a low growth rate. Between
1981 and 1983 structural p h en o m e n a for example;
inflation, building crisis and the rising cost of labour per p roduct furthered this fragmentation. Lasting c hanges in consumer tastes and habits caused a drop in demand, with lower profits and reduced investments c o n t r i buti ng to a general
slowing of the industries growth ( Raimondi,
1990, p.218).
In the interior design field there was a formati on of a
cultural approach to consumption. An aest hetic logic that replaced for religion, morality, politic s and ideology was the factors that e s t a b lished and moti vated this
people. The public tended to buy ei ther lower quality
produ c t s or on the contrary the produ cts of o ut stand ing q u a l i t y solved as single elements for a p e r s onali sed t o u c h .
Tod a y the most o b vi o u s part of design seems to be c h a r a c t e r i s ed by a kind of w e l l - ai med e x h i b i t i o n i s m . l t is e x p r e s s e d by desi gn e r s who claimed to be prophe ts of a v a n t - g a r d e ideas and exploit a glorio us tradition at the
same time. The furniture industry for the home has
lately based its pr o duction more on image than on precise
m a r k e t i n g strategies. In the 8 0 ’s Italian de sig n e r s
p u rs u e d varied theoretical and political positions. Italian design has kept its v it ali ty and after a
period of deeply felt crises is again
cons o li d a t ing its image as a creative, fanciful,
e x p r e s si v e tool able to surprise year after year
with formal innovations. It offers unexp ected
e f f e ct s in a blend of research, play, advanced
t e c hnology and ironic a d ven tures and creates
o b j e ct s that are acceptable to the mar ket and at
the same time able to pr ovoke debate and
stim u la t e d i ff e re n t visions (Albera and Monti, 1989, p.41).
2.2.1. (1945-1960) R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and New Ma ter ials
The t e c h n o l og y of Second World War merged with needs of
p eo p l e to create a new era in f u rn itu re design. In the
years f ollowing the war, the c o mpan ies had begun to
e n l a r g e the scale of their production, wor k i n g c o
o p e r a t i v e l y with each other and introducing new
materials. But they still remained modest operations. 2.2 T E C H N O L O G I C A L P R O G R E S S AND USE OF NEW M A T E R I A L S
In 1947 the 90 p e rcent of the Italian firms still
e m p l oy e d only five people or fewer. The
co e x is t e n ce of big companies with mecha n i s e d production sy stems and a huge number of small firms that combi n e d some m ech a n i s e d p r oduct ion
with skilled hand labour c r eated a dualism. This
d u alism c h a r a c t e r i z e the Italian Industry after
the war and became defined t owards mid 1 9 5 0 ’s
(Sparke, 1988, p.92).
The most s ig n i f i c a n t change in this deve l o p m e n t of p r o d u c t s was the adoption of new materi als and new p r o d u c t i on techniques. It was no longer enough to produce o nly a fine caref u l l y crafted product. Desi gne rs now had to progress, c o n st a n t l y pursuing the latest technology,
the newest material. They had to be innovative, original
and even futuristic. Italian f u rn itu re made of bent and
m o u l d e d plywood, she e t metal, metal rod, rubber and
p l a s t i c began to emerge.
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and uses of these new m a teri als in
Wood - H i s to r ic a l l y wood has been the primary source of c o n s t r u c ti o n material for furn i tu re and it also plays a
d o m i n a n t role in contem p o r a r y furniture. It can be
divided into two main families; soft woo ds and hardwoods. Soft w o o d s are g enerally used in building cons tru ction or inexpensive furn it u r e while h a rdwoods are preferred for
furn i t u r e because of their higher strength and
d u r a b i 1 i t y .
Lamination - The t echnique used frequently in post-war
furn i t u r e was well known as for back as 1856. Furniture
maker Henry Belter applied for a patent on a t e chniq ue he had developed; gluing layers of wood veneer with their
grains at right angles each other. This t e chn ique is
es s e n t i a l l y the same as that used in the c o n s t ru ction of modern plywood.
Plywood - It consists of layers of wood veneer laminated
together with the grain direction running at right
angles in each successive layer for balance and
strength. Lamination takes place when the layers are
glued together under pressure, the resulting plywood is
e x tr e m e l y resistant to problems of wa rping and
splitting. The main benefit of lamination is that it
e n ables wood to be worked in many ways impossible with sawed lumber.
M o ulded plywood - It was developed during the 2nd World War for the aviation industry. Compared to the ordin ary
War for the aviation industry. Compared to the ordinary
wood, plywood is an e xtremely stable material lending
itself well to broad, simple surfaces. The invention of
m o u l d e d plywood and its s u b s e que nt use in furniture
p ermitted an entirely new way of looking at furniture
design. For the first time, the technology to produce
light furniture, both visually light and light in weight
was available. The sense of lightness that was equated
with post-war design depended largely on the
a v a i l a b i l i ty of new c o nstruction m ethods and materials.
Metal - Togeth e r with moulded plywood, tubular metal
became a favourite constr u c t i o n material of post-war
designers. Although metal f urniture was common in the
19th century, it was rarely found in commercial use until the early twentieth century. The obvious advant age s of metal furni t ur e are its i n f lammability and the ease with
which it adopts to industrial production methods. In
furniture, metal usually takes the form of tubing,
sheets, bars or small structural elements. Furniture
frames are connected by cutting metal tubes into
sections, bending the cut lengths and a sse mbling them by w e l d i n g or mechanical connectors. After the piece is
welded, it is polished and finished to minimi se the
joi n t s .
Plastic- The true technological innovation of the 20 th century furn i t ur e was plastics. As an a djective " p l a s t i c ”
synt h e t i c or capable of c o n tinuous and perm ane nt change. Plastics can assume nearly any form. They were born into
an industrially advanced tec hno log y and seemed the
p e rfect m e d i u m for e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n with new forms. At
first, plastics often imitated natural materials-
synt h e t i c leather, for u p h olstery applications, wood
grained laminates as surfaces and so on. Plastics made
possible structural forms in furni tur e that previously only been imagined. W i t h o u t the d e v e l opmen t of plastics m ost post-war f urniture designs would simply not exist. But when designers began to think of plastic in a new
way, when they began e x p e r i m e n ting it with o u t trying to
copy any other known material a new era emerged (F e h r m a n , 1987).
Foam Moulding - In addition to the use of plastic as a
structural material for post war furniture, the process
of foam moulding also p e rmitted innovations in
upholstery. Urethane, styrene and po l y p r o p y l e ne can be
processed to form air bubbles, causing the material to
become a foam that can be produced in sheets or slabs and
than used in variety of ways , most commonly as
u p h o l s t e r y cushions or beginning in the 1 9 6 0 ’s as basic structural unit for furniture.
All these new materials, combined with technological
improvements resulted in new designs as will be
d i s c u s s e d .
Prior to 1945, Italian design has been closely
linked to architecture, it was strongly
traditional and centred in Milan. During the
years 1945 to 1948 Italian industry went through
a diff i c ul t period of reconstruction and
m o d e r ni s at i on but even before 1950 new ideas
began to spread (Fehrman, 1987, p.72).
In 1947, the works of Charles Eames was published in
Domus and this stimulated younger architects to try out
new ideas with new materials. Castiglioni and Vigano
tried using bent plywood; Figure 1 shows an exam ple by
Vigano. Cris ti a n o and Frattini e x p e r iment ed with sheet
metal seats and rubber joints as shown in Figure 2;
C h e s s a and Zanuso worked on small armchairs in metal.
Fig. 1 Bent plywood armchair Fig. 2 Sheet metal chair
Carl o Mol lino and his group in Turin began designing f urniture based on complex curves and carved wood and
curves of human body, the organic forms of the chairs, desks, tables and sofas recalled the twisted branches of trees and d e e r s ’ antlers. They were the most extreme ex a m p l e s of the expressive Italian furn iture style.
Figure 3 and 4 are two examples of Mol l i n o ’s work; an oak wood frame dinning table and a solid oak wood chair.
Fig. 3 Oakwood frame dining table
Fig. 4 Solid oak wood chai r
In Milan where most modern f u rniture was produced, such
e x t r o v e r s i o n was less apparent. The " o r g a n i c ” theme was
e q u a l l y popular, influencing the curved forms of foam
rubber sofas and chairs and the w oo d e n splayed legs of
di nning tables, c upboards and coffee tables. Apart from
con f o r m i ng the aest h e t i c requirements of the day, the
forms were the inevitable results of the use of new
ma t e r i a l s foam rubber and moulded plywood. 21
ma t e r i a l s foam rubber and moulded plywood.
The a r c h i t e c t - d e s i g n e r Gio Ponti was the bridge between the p r e-war middle class t r a d i t i o n a l is t s c ulture and the
new wave of modernism. His chair S u p erle gge ra
(s u p e r l i g h t w e i g h t ) in Figure 5, with bent ash wood
backr e s t and wic k e r seat is in produ ction since 1949. Some of his furn it u r e designs had une xpect ed shapes
(F e h r m a n ,1987, p.73). One of them can be seen in Figure
6, Jack table . A j a c k - shaped base is used to carry the
glass top .
Fig. 6 "Jack" table
The years 1951 to 1954 were critical in the growth of the
o r ga n i s a t i o n of Italian design. During this time, new
ideas were becoming more accepted and experimental
furn i t u r e developed. Franco A l b i n i ’s ’F i o r e n z i a ’ in
Figure 7; is conventional in its c oll e c t i v e a ppearance
but well t h o u gh t -o u t and inventive in detail. Marco
designed an armchair named ’L a d y ’ Figure 8, in 1951 which
had pioneered the innovative use of foam-rubber
upholstery and nylon cord. It was inspired by automobile production m e thods and so enc o u rag ed contact between the designer and industrial process.
Fig. 7 "Fiorenzia" armchair Fig. 8 "Lady" armchair
Up to mid 1 9 5 0 ’s, the furniture m a n u f a c t u r e rs remained
relatively small in size although they were geared to
modern production methods in the way they tried new
materials. Most of them tended to c o n c e n t r a t e on a
single material or manu f a c t u r i ng process. When other
p rocesses are needed they preferred to co l l a b o r a t e with
other companies. As a result, the f u rn iture industry
based around Milan developed between the large mass
production companies and the very small artisanal
workshops. Using modern methods, modern machinery, firms
produced s t y l is t ic a l ly advanced, excl usi ve f u rn itu re for 23
a wealthy, sophisticated, international client. They
remained relatively small scale in operat ion s and
retained much of their traditional skilled labour. But
the quality of their products always remained very high (S p a r k e , 1988 ) .
After 1955 design in Italy continued to play a
strong role within that c o u n t r y ’s cultural life
and its position in the world trade. By the end
of the decade the naive exu berance of the
early postwar period had been replaced by an
increasing sophis t i c a t io n in its m a n uf actur ed
goods (Sparke et al 1987, p.178).
2.2.2 (1960-1970) New P r o d u c t i o n Methods
Italian furn i t ur e design moved in a new direct ion with
the economic surge at the end of fifties. The industry
transformed itself with new production meth ods and
co n c e p t u a ll y th o ug h t - o u t furn i t ure attempted to seize the expanding market. A new g e n e ration of comfort furniture pieces appeared which left ea rli er post-war standards
behind. Plastic took control and became the sign of
the decade. The application of coloured ABS plastics,
p o l yethylene nylon, fibreglass and PVC cons tit uted the most important innovations for living space since the "tubular steel revolution"of the twenties. With anything that dealt with technology and design Italy assumed the
leading role (Bangert, 1988).
living areas not only drove out wood but also created a new and timely aesthetic. The a m b itio n to find an optimal a p p l i cation of new materials b rought about the firms
Kartell and Artemide. They had the best designers
form u l a t e ideal solutions for stacking plastic chairs.
The "designed" and m a n u f a c t u r ed products in large
m e c h a n i s ti c plants now determined the scene.
Some important examples of this period are: Marco
Z a n u s o ’s Lambda chair in Figure 9; out of sheet metal for G a v i n a in 1963, which became a model for the following
generation of plastic furniture, Vico M a g i s t r e t t i ’s
"Selene" plastic chair in Figure 10 and Gian Carlo
P i r e t t i ’s P li a-folding stacking chair in Figure 11 with
a l um i n i u m frame, transparent p l astic back and seat which
was produced in 1969. Ease, flexibility, precision and
serial production was the a s s i g n me nt for this design which
since its origin has been produ ced over 3000000 pieces.
Fig. 9 "Lambda" chai r Fig. 10 "Selene" chai r
.iiJF ilW g
Fig. 11 "Plia" chai r 25New product ideas for upholstered furniture and the introduction of plastic in sixties led to the founding of many new companies. C+B was one of these; believed that
cr a f t s m a n s h ip was no longer an issue. Furniture thus
became an industrial product. Italy built up its world
status in the sixties furniture industry. Some examples
are Cini B o e r i ’s " S e r p e n t o n e " , Figure 12, polyurethane
s i tting structure. The flexible sitting row represents the* a t t e m p t to throw prior notions of upholstered furniture
overboard. B o e r i ’s "Bobo", Figure 13, is another sitting
e l e m e n t solid - po l y u re t h a n e block covered with elastic
fabric; one of the first f u rniture pieces for sitting,
fully m a nufactured out of foam. P e s c e ’s upholstered
f ur n i t u r e program. Figure 14, flexib le fabric stretched
over polyurethane for C+B is another example. At the
showroom, the soft models were compressed to a tenth of
their volume and offered vacuum packaged in PVC wrapping. Cesari Leonardi and Franca S t a g i ’s "Dondola" rocking chair
in Figure 15 made of hard white plastic, represents the
high point of hard plastic design.
Fig. 12 "Serpantone" sitting
Fig. 14 "Up 1-6" upholstered Fig. 15 "Dondola"
program rocking chair
Much Italian furniture and this is typical for
the progress in the sixties, has become
idealistic, cul t u r a l l y oriented visions which
were previously u n i maginable and infeasible.
Towards the end of sixties the situat ion in
furn i t ur e design become a societal utopia and a
fiery display of bold ideas (Bangert, 1988,
p . 5 0 ) .
2.2.3 1970-1980 Steady Growth in Industry
At the beginning of 7 0 ’s the f urniture sector in Italy
were mainly consisted of small to mediu m size companies. These were often specia l i s e d and t e c h n o l o g i c al l y adopted. They were flexible and independent.
In 1971 the number of furniture m a n u f a c t u r e rs with nine
or fewer empl oy e es represented 88 percent of the sector. Many of t h e m ’s sp ec i a l i s a t io n were on f u r nit ure parts
like; drawers in general, frames for the u p hol stered
pieces sector, kitchen units with wooden doors. This gave rise to the intermediate suppliers that was so crucial to the success of Italian furniture industry. The furniture s e c t o r ’s steady growth between 1970-74 was acco mpa nied in
the number of businesses operating in this field. Their products were in evolution to keep abreast of the changing tastes of the consumers (Raimondi, 1988).
In this first half of the 7 0 ’s, after a decade of steel, glass and plastic, wood took the leadership; It offered a sense of solidity and safety to anxious buyers in an age of s o c i o - e c o n o mi c instability.
During these years many companies turned to the
p r oduction of modular furniture by serial production. Its parts permitted the furniture to dominate every room in a
number of diffe r e n t versions. An example is "Carioca"
series in Figure 16 designed by Pamio and Toso for S t i 1 wood in 1971.
Fig. 16 "Carioca" series
Hit by the w o r l d - w id e recession, inflation and the high cost of row materials, Italian furniture had to struggle
to m a i n t a i n its past reputation in the years following
1975. The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t d e v e l o p m e n t in the industry
after 1975 was the huge increase in the number of small firms w ith fewe r than fifty employees, co upled with rapid growth in the industry (Sparke, 1988).
During the second half of the 7 0 ’s some companies
returned to the pro d u c t i o n of finished pieces of
furniture. The d e s i g n e r ’s focus was on the size and
s u rface fi nnish of the pieces. Figure 17 shows an
example; A f r a and Tobio S c a r p a ’s "Artona" series for
M a x a l t o in 1975.
Fig. 17 "Artona" series
The m o d u l a r co n ce p t was also applied to seating
arrangements. This c o n t r i b u t e d to impr ove ments in the
p o l y u r e t h a n e t e c h n o l o g y both foamed and block- cut. This
led not only to a renewal of the traditional livin g-r oom
t y p o l o g i e s but also to the d i s c o v e r y of uni que objects
that o ffered new ways of sitting and acting. Also the
u p h o l s t e r y sector w ent through a phase of great
expansion. The prod u c t i o n was easy and can be feasi ble on 29
a small scale too. But the m ost popular mod e l s were
copied endlessly, the ma r k e t became greatly inflated.
In the se c o n d half of the 7 0 ’s the buying public was divided into cultural compartments. This is demon s t r a t e d by two p r o du c t s which reflect two diffe rent ph ilo s o p h i e s
and two idioms. The first one is Figure 18, “Maralunga"
by Magistretti Its adj u s t a b l e head rest renewed the
traditional sofa typology. The second one is Figure 19;
"AEO" by A r c h i z o o m group. It marked a turning point in
the design of soft, o v e r - s t u f f e d chair. It w as a chair
that looked fresh and t e c h n o l o g i c al l y sound. It also
r epresented the meeting of two industries; Att i r e and
furni t u r e .
Fig. 18 "Maralunga" sofa Fig. 19 "AEO" chair
A l t h o u g h tables and a rmchairs increased in 7 0 ’s except a few examp le s there were not any chairs that could represent the era as happened in the 6 0 ’s.
T o wards the end of 7 0 ’s the Flos company was founded as a m a n u f a c t u r e r of a speci f i c product; the bed. It was based
on a p r ecise technology; the fully removable, machine-
w a sh a b l e overall sleep cover. Figure 20 shows the best-
known and m o s t - i m i t a t e d bed; M a g i s t r e t t i ’s "Nathalie" in
1979. With the introduction of the textile bed the role
of fabrics were improved.
Fig. 20 "Natalie" bed
In the seventies, the evol u t i o n in furniture styles, from
p e r i o d - s ty l e to co n t e m p o r a r y design reached its peak
point and it became possi b l e to speak in terms of a
design style (Raimondi, 1988).
2.2.4 (1980-1991) Te c h n o logical Impro vemen ts
In 1 9 8 0 ’s the independent c onsumers no longer wanted to
be enclos e d in a simple geom e t r i c shape and form. This
c o mprises a series of fluid majorities, the targets of
c o n t e m p o r a r y furn it u re design. In this way, the concept
of minor it y has been scaled down. " This has facilit ate d the rise of many new products made by c o mpani es that
stepped into the lime light during these years, adeptly
c a r v i n g out few slices of the m ar k e t ignored by more
traditional c o m p an i e s " (Raimondi, 1990, p.222).
"What made the 8 0 ’s special was a fun, positiv e solar
o p t i m i s t i c t i m e " (Bel 1a t i , 1990, p.17) . Some de signers
and design groups in Milan came out with alternative, innovative ideas and design c o n c epts that quest ion the cultural and e c o n o m i c status-quo, which will be discussed
in C h apter 5.
The f urniture industry outside Milan, offered a series of products that were in general of a high standard,
altho u g h f r e q ue n tl y lacking a comparable innovative
ch ar g e with the ones that were c reated in Milan . On one
hand, innovation s t i mulated formal experimentation, on
the other hand it was often restricted to styling.
In the field of storage units, the large, s pec ial ised
comp a n i e s c o n t in u ed to produce f le xible modul ar systems. These were s u it a b l e for all e n v i r o n m e n t s and some details w ere changed to renew the look and to enrich the range of
match i n g pieces. An important ex ample is Figure 21; a
s y s t e m of mob i l e wall par t i t i o n s "Celario" by Afra &
T o b i a Scarpa for Cadel in 1980. The system could also be set up to store the el e ctronic devices.
Fig. 21 "Celario" mobile wall partition s
But the important c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s of the 8 0 ’s furniture must be sought in individual product s not in systems. O bj e c t s that can single handed t ra n s f o r m an e nvi ro n m e n t most c l early expressed the concept that d eveloped in this
period. One example is "Aforismi" in Figure 22; a
c o l l e c t i o n of pieces designed by Ant o n i o Astori in 1984.
The inter ch a n g eabl e m ouldings create an effect on
architectural importance that recalled traditional well-
p r o p o r t i o n e d pieces.
Fig. 22 "Aforismi" interchangable mou ldi ngs 33
Many armchairs and sofas of the 8 0 ’s had some extra kinetic devices like movable back and armrests, companion end tables jointed to the main framework. There was a
close link between fashion and interior design in the
8 0 ’s. This led to the de v e l opmen t of a series of
f u r n i t u r e that could be "dressed" with interchangeable
w a s h a b l e sleep covers. Vico M a g i s t r e t t i ’s "Sinbad"
Figure
23;
in 1981 has a heavy blanket with trimmededges, placed over a padded f r amework is an example.
Fig. 23 "Sinbad" dressed furniture
In substance interior design shifted from a
m o n o ce n t ri c vision to a p o l y centric one, in which the en v i r onment is d i s t i n guished not so much by the style of its furnishings as by the style of
its inhabitant (Raimondi, 1990, p.232).
In the late 8 0 ’s one material is highly favoured by some c om p a n i e s was metal. It was lacquered black or silver. Minimal colours were used after the sat uration of pastels in the late 7 0 ’s. Many chairs, tables, cupboard were made in this material. Some examples are "Quinta" chair Figure
by Mario Bot t a in 1985. " Fran ces ca Spanish" chair in t u bular steel and rigid p o l y u r e tha ne and ” President M" table in Figure 25; steel and a l u m i n i u m with glassed top by Phillipe Stark for Baleri in 1984.
Fig. 24 "Quinta" chair Fig. 25 "Francesca Spanish"
chair, "President M' table
P e o p l e ’s home act iv i t i e s that had once limited to living room began to spread into the other spaces of the home in the 8 0 ’s. This sti m u l a t e d a new look in beds and bedroom
f urniture in general. Achilla Castiglioni and Gia ncarlo
P o z z i ’s "Itititi" bed in Figure 26; for Interflex in
1986, revoluti o ni se d the f r a m e wor k with new materials
used in a logical and innovated way.
In the 8 0 ’s plastics came back in the interior design scene. S ixties had made a boom in naive plastics and some incorrect ap p l i c a t i o n s were seen. Seventies neglected the
use of plastics. Plastics are materials in constant
ev olution that offer diverse c o mbination of qualities.
Fig. 26 "Ititi" bed
The m ost innovative applic a t i o n s can be seen in the field
of fiber technology. Carbon fibers offer the most
potential combining, as they do mechanical resistance and lightness, meeting many needs in structural applications. A l b e r t o M e d a ’s "Light-Light" chair. Figure 27, for Alias
in 1987 is one of the important examples.
Fig. 27 "Light-Light" chair
Two mate r ia l s that had found broad appli cat ion in the 6 0 ’s came to scene again in the 8 0 ’s are plastic laminate and polyurethane. Because of its decorat ive potential p l astic laminate e njoyed a second youth in A l c h i m i a ’s and
M e m p h i s ’ furniture. A l c h i m i a ’s and M e m p h i s ’ examples of
f u r n i t u r e will be seen in Chapter 5. Po lyurethane in
s e m i - r i g i d form p r e ss - m o u l d ed for the desired finish had a p p l i c a t i o n s not only as a structural detail but also as
a p r imary component. For the use of plastics K a r t e l l ’s
"4310" tables in Figure 28, is an exa mple »constructed in v a rious plastics for their responsiven es s to specific r e qu i r e m e n ts (table top in polymer, pedestal in ABS, base in reinforced nylon).
Fig. 28 "4310 tables
3 F A CTORS THAT AF F E C T THE D EVE L O P M E N T AND S UC C ES S OF ITALIAN FURN ITURE DESIGN
3.1 M A N U F A C T U R I N G FIRMS
The stro ng e st force behind the Italian design phenomenon is the m a n u f a c t u r e r who during the years of the Italian
design e x pa n s i on after the post-war period, embraced
design in his search for a new product image (Sparke
1986, p.181).
In the years following Second World War many companies had began to work with leading archit ect s and designers.
They decided to move away f rom craft -ba sed custom
f u r n i s h i n g s and to mass produce a limited range of
a r c h i t e c t - d e s i g n e d furniture pieces.
The c ompanies were established under the pre tex t of ’idea
f a c t o r i e s ’ where designers, t ech nician and artistic
c r a f t s m e n could realise the f u r n i t u r e ’s m a n u f a c t u r i ng and forming proc es s e s with prototypes. This led the evolution of new furn i t ur e typologies and m an u f a c t u r i ng techniques. Some people are convinced that w ha t has saved Italian design and made it advanced has been the relative s mal l nes s of the industries in the sector t o g e t h e r with a regional concentration. This e n c oura ged both competition
and interchangeable ob s e r v a t i o n and gave an opportunity
for immediate adaptation. These conditi ons allowed
c o m p a n i e s to try d ifferent paths, to distinguish
t h e m s e l v e s a dynamic image, to put forward prototypes, to a t t r a c t attention at trade fairs and exhibi tio ns by p r e s e n t i ng prototypes on their stands. These prototypes were perhaps never really to be produced, but served as a t t r a c t i o n s and ended up giving the company a certain design image (Zorzi, 1986 p.12).
The Italian m a n uf a ct u r e rs Arflex, Zanotta, Cassina,
Kartell, B&B and others all saw design as a fundamental
q u al i t y of their consumer goods. Their support alone made the publication of so many design m a gazi nes possible in Italy and it is them who invested some money in promoting
Italian design in the rest of the world. Compa nies had
tak e n into account that an industrial product goes all
over the world, running into a m ul t i p l i c i t y of cultures. B e ca u s e of that decisions have to be faced about the rela t i o n s hi ps that has to be e s t a blis hed and modified b e tween routine and innovation, between ori gin ality and rule, between tradition and the future.
One important thing that has to be m e nti one d is the
design strategy of the companies. The choices behind a p r o d u c t or a product strategy are very precise and respond to the needs of the market. As far as the design
a p p r o a c h is concerned, the role of the company is to
identify potential market needs, to outline the salient 39
points and to respond to these needs in a concrete m a n n e r .
O u t l i n e of the scheme of the process is; firstly identif i c at io n of a need in a ma r k e t place has to be done, in other w ords a m arketing research, the technology whi c h is best suited for the creati on of that product m ust be su c c e s s i v e l y identified taking into c o n s i der ati on the specific nature of the firm, and the choice of the desig n e r who with his e x p erience also serves as a link in
the bond between marketing, firm and design. The
integration of these three f u nc tio ns leads to the
creat i o n of a quality product. This is a con cep t of
overall quality; it meets the need of the consumer,
conforms the m a n uf a c t u r i ng c a p a bili tie s of the firm and is the result of the reflections of a designer who has t h ought about m a t e r i a l s form and utilization using his exp e r i e n c e (Finizio, 1991 p.72).
3.2 THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER
After the Second World War f u r n i t ure design in Italy was quick to d e velop into a highly s ophis t i c a t ed ma rketing exerc i s e and Italian a r c h itects and desi gne rs turned
their a t tention to furniture. Lucie-Smith (1988, p.92)
states for the Italian designers that; " They approached all problems of function w i t h o u t pr econceived ideas. They
also had a sense of line, colour and luxury which was s o m e t i m e s lacking among their c o m p e t i t o r s ” .
O n e of the reasons for the s u ccess of Italian designers
is that most of them have an architectural background.
T his training is one thing that sets them apart from the o t h e r s ( A u l e n t i , cited in Sabino and Tondini, 1986). They have a global cultural background and a unique sense of the context of space in which they must operate.
A n o t h e r approach that sets Italian designers apart is
t h a t they treat design as an institutional cultural
activity. Design is not just a d ivis ion of industry, it
tak e s on wider intellectual a p p l i c a t i o n s to become a kind
of institution with its own history and dignity. Italian
design, distinct from art and a r c h i t e c t u r e and music has its own culture but it is not isolated from the general fie l d of visual arts.
Italian desi gn e r s practised an intellectual
approach that unite a hum a n i s tic view of culture
with science, c o n c e p t u a l i si n g a more,
aesthetically, functional product. These products change t o d a y ’s domestic landscape with their
formal and symbo l i c implications (Bellati, 1990,
p. 15) .
D e s i g n e r s were eager and armed as they were with a
technical ability of often exceptional quality. So; they
t ook on diff e r e nt types of problems which allowed greater
creativity. They tried out new ma te r i a l s whi ch might
o f f e r new solutions. They were looking again at the
o b j e c t s of the every d a y landscape, with new, fresher
eyes, freed from the c ustomary images (Zorzi, 1986 p.13) In Italy, most phases of the p r o d u c t i o n process develops with the design e r and the r e l a t i onshi p between the
c r a f t s m e n and d e s ig n e r is important. Italian craftsmen
re - e x a m i n es and keeps the t e c h n i q u e s alive that were used
in the past. They wo r k e d with the local d e si gners to
cr e a t e high quality furniture. The small co m p a n i e s and
ar t i s a n s work hard to produce fur n i t u r e in very small q u a n t i t i e s or even single pieces so a wide var iety of
items produced. This sti m u l a t e d Italian cr e a t i v i t y to
ad vance ahead of others forming an era which blends art and design. Artis a n s and desi g n e rs enc o u r a g e d each other to make things, d i splay them in e x h i b i t i o n s and reach a global audience.
In advanced count r i e s d esigners have become logical and
tend to think that the purpose of design is to logically
d e s c r i b e why a design c a n ’t be made. Italian des ign ers
are also logical but they d o n ’t need to give excuses about why they c a n ’t create a design. They always create s o m e t h i n g first and the most i m portant thing for them is the desire to create coming f rom their nature.
A n o t h e r important tendency of the d es ign ers is that they
have never aimed to design for the whole society. Italy
is compos e d of several, independent, self s uf fic ient
regions. I t ’s not a ho m o g e n e o u s society. People are proud of their region, love it and live there. People in the
