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The context of this study is an introductory undergraduate finance course. A finance subject can be briefly described as a basic course in mathematics, statistics and economic theory applied to financial issues. The overall goal was to enhance both subject learning and students’ development of digital skills. In order to achieve this goal, spreadsheet usage was fostered through innovative learning and assessment interventions. The subject design in Figure 3.1 has been informed by theory,

research-based evidence, teachers’ craft knowledge, feedback from students and col-leagues who continuously contributed to their learning experiences. This intervention research study has been in development since 2005, and involves iterative processes of design and redesigns.

The European Qualifications Framework as well as the Norwegian Qualifi-cations Framework (NQF) are not only underpinned by Blooms Revised Taxonomy (BRT), but also by Biggs’ (1996) principles of constructive alignment (Ottesen, 2012).

Accordingly, the course design discussed in the present study is constructively aligned in the following three ways. First, a teacher should begin at the end when aligning a course constructively (Paper 1). Beginning at the end identifies where he/she wants the students to end up (i.e. what they should eventually know and be able to do in both school and work). Second, a teacher should design assessments which capture real-world applications of the students’ knowledge and skills (Paper 4, Paper 6). Third, a teacher should develop and teach a curriculum which guides the students towards the demonstration of their knowledge and skills on the assessment tasks (Paper 5).

In other words, learning outcomes, assessments, teaching and learning

methods are interdependent. To support student learning, assessments should not be disconnected from teaching and learning outcomes. Instead, they should be aligned with the overall learning process. Biggs’ (1996) model of constructive alignment implies that in curriculum design, a well-crafted course should include the following:

1) learning outcomes that are clearly identified; 2) appropriate assessment tasks that are designed to directly assess whether each of the learning outcomes has been met;

and 3) learning methods that empower the students to master the assessment requirements.

Both formative and summative assessment activities should be included in a course design (Knight, 2002; Paper 1; Paper 5). Assessments that certify achieve-ment include a feed-out function since the grades can be treated as a performance indicator for the students. Such assessments are often referred to as ‘summative’ or

‘assessments of learning’ (Knight, 2002). Conversely, assessments may have a formative purpose that modifies learners’ thinking or behaviour to improve overall learning (i.e. Evans, 2013; Shute, 2008; Paper 6; Paper 7). Formative assessments are known as ‘assessments for learning’. Educational research has emphasised the

The course design context 41

powerful influence on learning through formative feedback and assessments (Black &

Wiliam, 2009; Evans, 2013; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Shute, 2008).

Table 3.1 outlines the most important theoretical perspectives that underpin the present study (right column), while the theories related to the course design items are included in the left column (for an illustration of the course design intervention, see Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1. The course design intervention. Cours E

design context

Table 3.1. Review of significant theoretical perspectives underpinning the study Course design item Theoretical underpinning

Embedding spreadsheet usage within the subject culture

Sociocultural perspectives of learning. The intention was to making the spreadsheet tool a cultural extension of the learning environment. Through this approach, it could ‘stand back’ and let the academic learning come to the foreground.

Aligning the course constructively

Cognitive perspectives of learning. Teaching materials, learning activities and assessments were linked and balanced in order to achieve the intended learning outcomes.

Fostering deep learning Cognitive and sociocultural perspectives of learning. Learning tasks were constructed with the aim of challenging students and evaluating their higher-order thinking skills.

Promoting active learning

Cognitive and sociocultural perspectives of learning. Based on a pragmatic view of knowledge, learners (together) constructed knowledge by engaging in (more or less) authentic practical activities using relevant artefacts.

Textbook reading Behaviourist and cognitive perspectives of learning. Learning tasks were arranged in sequences based on their relative complexities. However, spreadsheet-based exercises were embedded within the text to encourage a more active approach when working with the textbook.

Attending plenary lectures

All three perspectives of learning: behaviourist (‘the sage on the stage’); cognitive (activating students through worked-examples); and sociocultural (creating a community of practice through subject discussions in plenum).

Watching interactive micro lectures

Behaviourist and cognitive perspectives of learning. Learning tasks were arranged in sequences based on their relative complexities. However, the videos could be replayed while watching and the spreadsheet-based exercises were embedded within the microlectures to encourage a more active approach.

Using interactive

Cognitive and sociocultural perspectives of learning. In large classes, the teacher’s capacity to provide high-quality

individual formative feedback is insufficient, both verbally and in writing. In this context, spreadsheet-based problem-solving tasks provide formative digital feedback on learning process improvements and serve as a teaching supplement.

Learning communities Sociocultural perspectives of learning. In learning

communities, learners help, encourage and challenge one another in order to achieve greater results. Those participating in learning communities challenge one another’s zones of proximal development and utilise one another for scaffolding.

Compulsory assignments Cognitive (constructive alignment) and sociocultural perspectives of learning (persistent formative feedback and scaffolding for the final examination).

Macro cycles of intervention design and implementation 43

Summative assessments All three perspectives of learning: sociocultural (authentic digital examination papers by allowing students to use spreadsheets); cognitive (constructively aligned through comprehensively constructed-response tasks); and

behaviourist (some multiple-choice questions included in the examinations).