4437
Black and Red Urban Spaces; Crime and Terrorism
Mohammed Abdul-Kadhum Al-Ghiyadh1,* and Saba J. Neamah Al-Khafaji2,* 1 Research Scholar, Architecture Department, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq 2 Professor, Architecture Department, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Iraq * Correspondence: m.malik1204@coeng.uobaghdad.edu.iq; dr.saba_alkhafaji@yahoo.com
Article History: Received: 10 January 2021; Revised: 12 February 2021; Accepted: 27 March 2021; Published online: 16 May 2021
Abstract
Many security problems appear in cities, namely crimes and terrorist operations. Crime is more frequent in certain areas more than others, here referred to as the “black urban space” denoting the dark, isolated, and empty spaces that encourage crime, these areas are not necessarily the same places in which terrorism is committed. Thus, these areas in which terrorism is committed more is referred to as the “red urban space” signifying the violent and brutal nature of terrorism. The aim of the study is to identify the most important variables in urban planning which affect urban security such as: land use, urban management, street planning, infrastructure and services, legislation, in addition to urban design indicators such as: access control, surveillance, territoriality, geographical juxtaposition, defensible space, activity support and pathways, and lastly architectural design variables such as: building orientation, maintenance, target hardening, and technology devices. These “indicators” have a role in the formation of these two kinds of spaces and their study. Computer software such as ArcMap and depthmapX were utilized to produce results suggesting that the “black” urban space does not always coincide with the “red” urban space, as the first is located in dark deserted areas, far from the public’s view and high activity, while the second is concentrated in areas of high importance to the government and the public in which large concentrations of people, vehicles, and infrastructure are present.
Keywords: Black Urban Space, Red Urban Space, Urban Planning, Urban Space, Architectural design, Crime, Terrorism.
1. Introduction
Crime and terrorism are among the most dangerous problems in cities, with governments taking many steps and facing many challenges to overcome and reduce them and their impact. Earlier research indicated that some of the factors that influence crime and terrorism are economic, political, social, and psychological. However, the thought process and execution behind urban planning, urban design and architectural design in cities play an undeniable role in the potential formation of crimes and terrorist attacks. Spaces that encourage criminal activity will be referred for the purposes of the study as the “black urban space” due to the connection to dark and isolated areas far from human natural surveillance; and the “red urban space” that encourages terrorism and encompasses areas of important and influential government use and places crowded with people, vehicles and main streets. These are some of the indicators that the planner, urban designer or architect must consider in their work. The research problem is the ambiguity and lack of research that examines the identification of important indicators of urban planning, urban design and architectural design that have an impact on the occurrence of crimes and terrorist attacks. The proposed hypothesis is that it is possible to reduce the amount of crimes and terrorist attacks by identifying defects in the aforementioned indicators, urban planning, urban design and architectural design, and the importance of the study is highlighted by identifying the areas and spaces in which crimes are the most concentrated, called the “black urban space”, identifying areas in which terrorist attacks are more frequent, the “red urban spaces”, and finally identifying the most important indicators of urban planning, urban design and architectural design that affect security through their relationship with crime and terrorism. The study consists of four parts: the first discusses previous literature and their conclusions; the second clarifies the basic definitions and terms used in the study; the third discusses the role of urban planning, urban design, and architectural design and their effect on crimes and terrorism; and the fourth is a case study that includes a spatial analysis of the study area.
2.Literature Review
Table 1 Literature studies and research conclusion
Theorist and year Theory name Research conclusion
1. Elizabeth Wood
(1961)
Social Theory in housing design
Security could be increased by increasing social interaction between inhabitants, improving vision and surveillance in public and semi-public areas [1].
2. Jane Jacobs (1961) Eyes on the street Uses of sidewalks, uses of
neighbourhood parks, need for mixed uses, small blocks, aged building, and natural surveillance. Residential units should face the street to enhance surveillance [2].
3. Shlomo Angel
(1968)
Crime Prevention through city planning, Discouraging crime through city planning
Increasing numbers of people and increasing activity on streets [3].
4. Ray Jeffery (1971) CPTED: Crime Prevention
Through Environmental Design
Access Control, Natural surveillance, use of the physical environment to control behavior
[4].
5. Oscar Newman
(1972)
Defensible Space Territoriality, Natural surveillance,
Image and Milieu, Current Practitioners of defensible space, modifying existing environment [5].
6. Christopher
Alexander (1978)
A Pattern Language Buildings and towns will never be
“alive” unless they are built by people in the society [6].
7. RonaldV. Clarke
(1980)
Situational Crime Prevention, rational choice theory, routine activities theory.
Crime is normal, depends on availability of opportunity. [7].
8. Brantingham & Brantingham (1981)
Environmental crime, Pattern theory of crime
Crime depends on offender motivation, target characteristic, routine activities [8]
9. Kelling & Wilson (1982)
Broken Window Vandalism helps encourage crime,
building maintenance helps keep crimes away [9].
10. Bill Hillier (1984) Space Syntax Spaces can be broken down into
individual components to analyse connectivity, and accessibility. Also suggests a link between spatial layout and social places [10].
11. Allice Coleman
(1985)
Land use Land use could reduce criminal
activities and vandalism of places and properties [8].
12. T. Crowe (1991) Target hardening Suggests three basic measures:
-Mechanical measures
-Organizational or human measures - Natural measures [11].
13. Saville & Cleveland (1998)
CPTED 2nd Generation CPTED 2nd Generation include
social and psychology issues: social coherence, connectivity, community
4439 culture, and threshold capacity [11].
14. UNICRI (2011) CPTED 3rd Generation Improving urban security through
green environment design to improve communities & reduce crimes, 3rd generation concepts: place, people, technology, and networks. [12]. Table 1 shows some of the most important theories regarding the relationship between environmental design and urban security with the conclusions.
3. Methodology
The study will deal with the impact of urban planning, urban design, and architectural design on crimes and terrorism in cities. The study was conducted in the city centre of Baghdad (Capital of Iraq). It analyses four areas close to the government headquarters in the green zone, makes a questionnaire for the residents to identify vulnerable spaces and spaces perceived as dangerous, and finally conducts analysis through computer software like depthmapX and ArcGIS: ArcMap.
4. Definitions
4.1 Crime: Crime is any wrong towards the public, highly rejected by society and punishable by authority. Burglary, robbery, child neglect, rape and tax evasion are examples of crimes. It is also thought of as an anti-social behaviour [13].
4.2 Terrorism: Terrorism is violence — often politically motivated — committed against normal people living in society [13].
4. 3 Terrorism and Crime:
Acts of terror are almost always criminal acts too. This has practical implications: The responsibility of protecting communities against all forms of crime lies with the state or local justice agencies, and agencies responsible for intervention and homeland security can use policies that deal with crime to ensure the public’s protection against acts of terror [14].
4.4 The Criminology of Place
Four elements comprise a criminal event: the place, the target, the offender, and the law. The environmental criminology theory proposes:
• There are people motivated to commit crime.
• Given criminal intent, the occurrence of the crime is the end result of a complex and multi-staged decision process in which a criminal finds a suitable target.
• There are “activity spaces” and “awareness spaces” which comprise an environment and signal its different characteristics (should they be physical, legal, psychological, etc.).
• Motivated offenders use these emitted signals to find victims and targets. [15].
4.5 Hot Spot is a term used for describing areas or places that experience a high rate of calls for Police Service. The calls could be nuisance or criminal related [16].
4.5.1 Hot Spots for Crimes: It is standard procedure for the police to identify locations and the times at which these locations are more exposed to criminal activity. Aggressive experiences and violent attacks for example occur more at night than they do during the day, meaning that problems accumulate in both place and time, therefore, these places are “hot spots” because they are small places where crime occurs in concentration, frequently and in a highly predictable manner [17].
Hot spots should be eliminated in all cases where it is possible. If it is not possible to remove them, a program should be developed to keep unauthorized or unwanted individuals out of the area. Some may include applying environmental design and territoriality principles by placing low fences, gates and other features and materials to help inspire a feeling of “ownership” in the user [18].
Crime hotspots: Building and service designers working on projects in high-crime locations have a responsibility for crime prevention through preventing hot spots.
Hot-spots usually occur in areas of daily use, where offenders travel to meet friends or visit stores. As a result, criminal activity occurs on routes to commonly used facilities like shopping areas, transport services, schools and parks. Motivated offenders will actively look out for crime opportunities, particularly if the location is compatible with their preferred method.Pickpockets, for example, prefer crowded areas, where users of the space carry valuables and the perpetrator can go unnoticed, such as transport interchanges [19].
Table 2: Black & Red Urban Space
Space Description
1. Black Urban Space It is any space that stimulates and encourages crime. It is usually unlit or has weak or dim lighting, a deserted place, somewhere far from the main road, cannot be passively monitored by people or vehicles, and outside the range of police control. Criminals use it as a cover to carry out their crimes and escape easily without bringing attention to themselves or revealing their identity.
2. Red Urban Space It is the space in which terrorists usually carry out their operations due to its proximity to important and sensitive places and critical infrastructure. This space is usually located around a gathering of large numbers of crowds and vehicles, is not subject to control, inspection and surveillance. Terrorists rely on the element of surprise and unpredictability in their operations to inflict great damage on the state and society.
5-Role of Urban Planning, Design, and Architectural Design on Crimes and Terrorism The variables of urban planning, urban design, and architectural design that have impact on crimes and terrorism, clarified:
5.1 Variables of Urban Planning
5.1.1 Land Use: What is meant by land use is the functions or activities applied to the geographical space or area, such as industrial, residential or commercial use. These land uses have been postulated to affect neighbourhood crime [20].
5.1.2 Good Governance & Urban Management: It comprises a number of aspects:
-Regulation: Local authorities are responsible for crime prevention and control and have a many powers to regulate it, including executive powers and other resources that can be used to combat root causes causing insecurity and to reinforce security.
-Enforcement: In order to attend to conditions that create fear of crime and safety issues, law enforcement agencies should cooperate and establish partnerships with local communities.
-Engagement: City officials can utilize communication and engagement with public groups in order to create and develop resilient, law-abiding societies.
-Resilience: Innovative thinking should be used as part of a group of activities exercised by the authority to reduce vulnerability and foster resilience in different communities [21][22]. 5.1.3 Street Planning
Some road layouts provide advantages over others especially in cases where they disturb the escape and searching behavior of the criminal. The designer must be sure that the project is not compromised by excessive permeability, for example in cases of easy access to side boundaries [23].
The quality of the street has an effect on the user's feeling about the area around it. It addresses social issues related to safety and enhances the residents’ sense of community. The quality of the street also has the effect of reducing crime, in addition to impacting how the driver behaves and the behavior of a potential perpetrator of crime. The type of the street affects whether it is a through-route or a cul-de-sac, the speed of traffic, and whether it is in an open area or in a closed area running between buildings [8].
5.1.4 Infrastructure and services:
Infrastructure includes many concepts, including electricity network and grid, water and sewage services, communication networks and transportation.
Communication networks and transportation especially are more involved in the formation of criminal and terroristic activity. Public transport for example affects crime through impacting the link between different areas of the city, making more areas less isolated. Isolated areas suffer a plethora of problems, the most obvious are unemployment, inequality and crime.
5.1.5 Regulation
Crime prevention regulation in housing planning and development takes many forms. Namely, it can include legislation that places responsibility on the agencies that are responsible for planning
4441 decisions in developments to consider the potential results of their decisions on order and levels of crime [24].
5.2 Variables of Urban Design: 5.2.1 Access Control:
It aims to allow legitimate users and authorized personnel exclusively into an area. Through this, it reduces potential opportunities for crime by increasing the amount of effort needed by the offender to enter an area to commit a crime [17], it can be achieved by the means of a guard force, card readers, biometric security devices, gated entrances, and other physical security devices.
5.2.2 Surveillance: Surveillance includes all processes and actions undertaken to increase the chance that offenders are observed. Some methods may include having windows arranged in ways that allows residents to observe activity on all sides of the household, doors facing the street to allow pedestrians to also observe the insides of entranceways, and having only a few families use the same entrance so they can identify each other [17].
5.2.3 Geographical Juxtaposition: Refers to the capacity of surrounding spaces to influence the security and safety of adjacent areas and vice versa [25].
5.2.4 Defensible space
Defensible space is the practice of creating spaces and buildings that allow the residents of the space or building to repel potential offenders. The physical design of the neighbourhood can either increase or inhibit the sense of control of the space by the people which reside in it. Spaces were categorized into public (like the street in front of the house), semi-public (like the porch), semi-private (like the backyard) and private (the insides of the property). It will be clear to the owner of the space and to non-legitimate users, the latter of which should not be in the space [26].
5.2.5 Activity support
Activity support is related to designing an environment that allows legitimate users to make more use of the space and subsequently provide more natural surveillance. As the ultimate aim is enhancing surveillance, the CPTED principles of surveillance and activity support may be combined.
5.2.6 Footpaths
Footpaths should be well-lit and well-used, overlooked by dwellings and entrances. Footpaths
postulated to be underutilized or excessive that provide escape routes for criminals should be avoided. If short, separate footpaths are necessary, they are to be kept direct and well-lit. It is important that long, dark alleyways are avoided [27].
5.3 Variables of Architectural Design 5.3.1 Target Hardening
Target hardening is the process of increasing crime resistance by increasing physical security such as interior hinges and deadbolt locks for doors and locked windows [18].
It includes initial design, upgrades to physical structures and other techniques that make the area more difficult for illegitimate users to penetrate. It is also referred to as physical security [26].
5.3.2 Access Control: Access control is the process of designing buildings in a way that actively keeps unwanted users out. Its goals are 1. limiting the chance that offenders become aware of the area as a potential target; 2. making the offender's entry, navigation and exit harder should the offender choose it as a potential target; 3. increasing the difficulty physically of breaking into a space or building should they become aware of it as a target; 4. increasing the psychological difficulty for offenders to travel about an area without feeling conspicuous; and 5. to maximise the user's confidence and erase all doubts or excuses for potential offenders to be within a private or semi-private space [24].
5.3.3 Territorial Reinforcement: Physical design features can create a sphere of influence that allows the users of the space to develop a sense of control, with potential offenders noticing the resident's control being discouraged from entry. The strategy is fostered by features that create defined property lines and distinguish different spaces, specifically the private space from the public space [18].
5.3.4 Maintenance and Image: They are characteristics that signal that the property is under ownership. Deterioration signals less involvement and ownership by the owning party, resulting in vandalism. This is illustrated by the Broken Window Theory; if a window is broken and remains
unfixed, it is likely that additional vandalism will occur (another window gets broken). Unmaintained areas suffer from higher crime rates, with law-abiding people not feeling safe in them [18].
Image: In addition, areas free from vandalism, graffiti and litter do not suffer from stigma or poor social reputation [24].
5.3.5 Lighting: It is possible to reduce crime through additional lighting in ways other than deterrence:
1. Additional lighting provides more time for residents to maintain their front gardens and porch/front of the dwelling, increasing the amount of natural surveillance.
2. New or additional lighting could lead to more pedestrian movement thereby increasing natural surveillance, whereas some people may have avoided going outside before.
3. It is easier to detected potential offenders in areas with better lighting.
4. Police officers' and other authority's presence will be more visible and easier to notice [28]. 5.3.6 Building height
The high number of people residing in one residence implies that in a sense, others share their dwellings, or at least just the semi-public areas. Fear of crime is thus caused by the fear of strangers entering, and for many there is an absence of community and social support. Anonymous interaction makes not recognizing outsiders more common, making entry, navigation and exit easier for outsiders and potential offenders [29].
5.3.7 Building Orientation
Building orientation is one of the design guidelines that helps in safety and crime prevention.
Facilities conducting scientific research, providing government, educational, or medical services face a public space that distracts people from the adjacent buildings or spaces. Whenever it is possible, all buildings should face a public or open space, providing a pleasant visual experience and encouraging residents to use these public spaces for lunches and breaks [11].
5.3.8 Landscaping: In order to create a fun, attractive, and friendly environment that attracts people
to create a safe place and to achieve better natural surveillance by creating gatherings, it is necessary to work on landscaping, decorations and comfort utilities around the area. However, planting dense foliage or trees which create hiding places for criminals should be avoided near potential gatherings. 5.3.9 Technology: It has a big role in preventing crimes and recognising criminals:
Table 3 The Application of hard and soft technology to crime prevention Source: Byrne 2011 p20
Hard Technology Soft Technology
Crime Prevention -CCTV -threat assessment instruments
-street lighting -risk assessment instrument
-citizen protection devices (e.g. tasers, mace)
-bullying ID protocol
-metal detectors -sex offender registration
- breath alcohol ignition interlock device (drunk drivers)
-risk assessment prior to involuntary civil service
-potential offenders profiling
-usage of facial recognition software with CCTV There are two general types of technological innovations that can be identified: information-based technologies (referred to as ‘soft’ technology) and material-based technologies (referred to here as ‘hard’ technology) (table 2) [30].
5.3.10 Closed Circuit Television: Closed circuit television (CCTV) involves setting up video cameras in specific key points that should be actively monitored, such as elevators, children's play areas and parking spaces. The camera feed on areas of constant movement and activity is to be watched at all times in order to be an effective deterrent [27].
Table 4: Variables in Urban planning, Design, and Architectural design
Variables of Urban Planning Variables of Urban Design Variables of Architectural Design
4443 2. Good Governance & Urban
Management
Surveillance Access Control
3. Street Planning Geographical
Juxtaposition
Territorial Reinforcement
4. Infrastructure and services: Defensible space Maintenance and Image
5. Regulation Activity support Lighting
6. Footpaths Building height
7. Building Orientation
8. Landscaping
9. Technology
10. Closed Circuit Television
6. Study Area
6.1 The Location of Study Area
The study area is located in Baghdad, the capital of Iraq. Specifically, on the western side of the river Tigris, in the zone confined by Al-Jumhuriya Bridge to the Al-Ahrar Bridge, consisting of four areas: (figure 1)
1-Area 1: Al-Salhia Complex: A residential complex with buildings 6–12 floors high.
2-Area 2: Karadat Maryam: Located beside the complex. Consists of individual residential houses, some government buildings, and the Iranian embassy.
3-Area 3: Karadat Maryam: Overlooking the river bank. Consists of residential homes without the presence of other services
4-Area 4: Al-Salhia, behind Ibn Al-Bitar Hospital, which consists of residential houses, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Construction and Housing, and some government buildings.
6.2 Spatial Analysis
6.2.1 DepthmapX Analysis
The program was developed by A. Turner from Space Syntax Labortaory. In the figure below, the axial line analysis shows the connectivity, which can be defined as a direct connection of nodes to each single node. Degree of connectivity is shown with a graduation with red being high connectivity and blue being low connectivity. (figure 2)
6.2.2 ArcMap Analysis
ArcMap is one of the components of Esri’s ArcGIS programs. It is used to analyse geospatial data by using different variables and weighted overlay to analyse the study area. Many layers have been used, including buildings, land use, green areas, streets, checkpoints, cars, pedestrians, lighting, concrete walls, police offices and stations, crimes, and terrorist attacks (figure 3). The aim of the spatial analysis process is to identify the areas in which crime and terrorist operations are concentrated, and to identify the most important planning or design variables affecting them. Through the spatial distribution of crime sites, it was noted that crime is related to the following variables: street layout or distance from main streets, distance from checkpoints and police stations, distance from the presence of people, distance from the movement of cars, and darkness or lighting (figure 4,5,6). As for the spatial distribution of terrorist operations, it is linked to the main streets, proximity to important government buildings, the presence of the largest number of people and cars, and proximity to police stations and inspection places (figure 7,8,9,10).
Through the use of the ArcMap program, these variables were linked to both crime and terrorism, and the results of the spatial analysis showed that the areas of space were concentrated in which crimes were called the black urban space, and terrorist operations were concentrated in other places that were called the red urban space, and that the two spaces do not overlap. (figure 11)
Using the program, it is possible to find the best potential locations for the placement of security cameras through connecting the black and red urban space areas with the street linemap. Through improving surveillance, it is also possible to detect, record and identify offenders and offenses whether already committed or yet to occur (figure 12,13).
4445 Figur e 3 The la yer s of var ia bl es in S tudy A rea u si n g i n A rcM ap
Figure 5 variables linked in ArcMap - Black Urban Space
Figure 4 Crime in study area and Black Urban Space
4447
Figure 6 variables on crime distribution
Crime
Locations
Far from Main Street
Dark spaces
Less people
Less cars
Far from police station and check points
Figure 7 terrorist attacks in study area and Red Urban Space
Figure 11 Black and Red Urban Spaces
Figure 12 security cameras positions
Terrorism
Locations
Main Street
Near Important government buildings
More people
More cars
Near from police station and check points
4449 7.Discussion
It clarifies — through case study and analysis with computer analysis with programs like depthmapX and ArcMap — the relationship between these variables and the formation of those two kinds of spaces, to find the best potential solutions for eliminating them, and to find the best locations for security cameras to prevent the development of security threats.
8.Conclusion
1. From the previous analysis, it is apparent that most crime happened in the black urban space: the areas where there is not enough lighting; with vacant and neglected lots; abandoned buildings; difficult to access streets; spaces with little to no surveillance; areas far from main street and sight of people, vehicles, or police stations; crowded places; spaces with low visibility and less urban management; spaces with bad or no access to transportation and communication; in addition to places that ensure easy escape for criminals after committing a crime.
2. As for terrorist attacks, they were concentrated in the red urban space: located near important government facilities; crowded areas with many people and vehicles; near check points and police station, and in other places outside the definition of the black urban space (they occurred near gatherings and police stations, etc.)
3. The research showed that the black urban that space encourages crime and the red urban space that encourages terrorist attacks do not overlap or occur in the same areas.
4. The areas with the best potential for surveillance camera placement were also noted through connecting the results of the locations of the black and red urban spaces with the street map. 9. Recommendations
1. It is better to keep important government buildings away from residential complexes and other civilian facilities as they have a serious impact on people's lives.
2. Maintain buildings and keep them from abandonment as they may become gathering places for criminals.
3. Lighting public squares and buildings.
4. Application of access control to neighbourhoods and buildings.
5. Maintenance of buildings, streets, parks and public spaces to improve image. 6. Installation of public cameras in public areas and linking them to operations room.
7. Creation of new public with care to design guidelines, such as parks and children's play areas. 8. Finally, it is necessary to eliminate or reduce the occurrence of black and red urban spaces
which stimulate crime or terrorist attacks respectively.
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