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THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING KNOWLEDGE ON THE TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING STRATEGIES OF EFL LEARNERS
Morvarid SADRAEI
MASTER THESIS
DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES EDUCATION
GAZI UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
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TELİF HAKKI ve TEZ FOTOKOPİ İZİN FORMU
Bu tezin tüm hakları saklıdır. Kaynak göstermek koşuluyla tezin teslim tarihinden itibaren 2 yıl (24) ay sonra tezden fotokopi çekilebilir.
YAZARIN Adı : Morvarid Soyadı : SADRAEI Bölümü : İmza : Teslim tarihi : …../07/2015 TEZİN
İngilizce Adı : The Importance of Having Knowledge on the Types of Intelligences and Learning Strategies of EFL Learners
Türkçe Adı : İngilizceyi Yabancı Dil Olarak Öğrenenlerin Öğrenme Stratejileri ve Zekâ Türleri Üzerine Bilgi Sahibi Olmalarının Önemi
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ETİK İLKELERE UYGUNLUK BEYANI
Tez yazma sürecinde bilimsel ve etik ilkelere uyduğumu, yararlandığım tüm kaynakların kaynak gösterme ilkelerine uygun olarak kaynakçada belirttiğimi ve bu bölümler dışındaki tüm ifadelerin şahsıma ait olduğunu beyan ederim.
Yazar Adı Soyadı : Morvarid SADRAEI İmza : ……….
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Jüri Onay Sayfası
Morvarid SADRAEI tarafından hazırlanan “The Impartonce of Having Knowledge on the Types of Intelligence and Learning Strategies of EFL Learners” adlı tez çalışması aşağıdaki jüri tarafından oy birliği / oy çokluğu ile Gazi Üniversitesi İngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı’nda Yüksek Lisans tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.
Danışman: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Sevinç ERGENEKON EMİR
(İngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Gazi Üniversitesi) ………..
Başkan:
(Gazi Üniversitesi) ………..
Üye:
(Gazi Üniversitesi) ………..
Tez Savunma Tarihi: ……/07/2015
Bu tezin Gazi Üniversitesi Yabancı Diller Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı’nda Yüksek Lisans tezi olması için şartları yerine getirdiğini onaylıyorum.
Prof. Dr. Servet KARABAĞ
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to my supervisor, Assist. Prof. Dr. Sevinç ERGENEKON EMİR, who has patiently guided and supported me with her constructive suggestions and encouraging patience during the preparation of this study.
I would also like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cem BALÇIKANLI, the manager assistant of Gazi University Preparatory school, for not having denied his invaluable help whenever I needed.
I owe special thanks to all the participants for their willing participations, especially instructors of Gazi University Preparatory school.
I owe special thanks to each and every member of my family without whose support and encouragement it would be impossible for me to complete this study.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my husband who has aroused the required strength and motivation in me throughout my study.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING KNOWLEDGE ON THE TYPES
OF INTELLIGENCES AND LEARNING STRATEGIES OF EFL
LEARNERS
(MA Thesis)
Morvarid SADRAEİ
GAZI UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
September, 2015
ABSTRACT
This current study aims at introducing the theory of multiple intelligences which was proposed by Dr. Harvard Gardner and language learning strategies which were put forward by Prof. Rebeca L. Oxford and their contributions to education especially at foreign language teaching Preparatory classes. This study has five chapters. The first chapter presents the introduction part, the problem, aim, significance of the study, method, the assumptions and the limitations of the study. Chapter 2 presents the review of literature which comprises the theory of multiple intelligences and language learning strategies, the classification of both intelligences and strategies and the importance of having information about the types of multiple intelligences and learning strategies of learners for language instructors. In chapter 3, the research design is stated. In addition, the analysis of the data collected from the students and instructors through an inventory are presented. This chapter also introduces some information about how the data is collected, analyzed and interpreted in detail. Chapter 4 offers some suggestions which could be considered by instructors in their teaching atmospheres. Chapter 5, which is the conclusion part of the study, summarizes the study. In addition, the findings, implications and suggestions for further researches are introduced. The present study have three appendices. The learners’ language learning strategies questionnaire is given in Turkish and in English in Appendix 1 and 2, the learners’ multiple intelligences questionnaire is given both in Turkish and in English in Appendix 3 and 4 and the instructors’ questionnaire is presented in Appendix 5. Science Code :
Key Words : Multiple intelligences, learning strategies, language teaching, contributions of multiple intelligences theory and learning strategies to language
teaching. Page Number : 107
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İNGİLİZCEYİ YABANCI DİL OLARAK ÖĞRENENLERİN
ÖĞRENME STRATEJİLERİ VE ZEKÂ TÜRLERİ ÜZERİNE BİLGİ
SAHİBİ OLMALARININ ÖNEMİ
(Yüksek Lisans Tezi)
Morvarid SADRAEİ
GAZİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ
EĞİTİM BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ
Eylul 2015
ÖZ
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Dr. Harvard Gardner tarafından ortaya çıkarılan Çoklu Zeka Kuramı ve Prof. Rebeca L. Oxford tarafından ortaya atılan Dil Öğrenme Stratejileri Kuramını tanıtmak ve bu kuramların eğitimde, özellikle hazırlık yabancı dil eğitimindeki etkilerini açıklamaya çalışılmıştır. Bu çalışmada beş bölüm vardır. Birinci bölüm giriş kısmı, çalışmanın problemi, amaç, çalışmanın önemi, varsayımlar ve kısıtlamalardan oluşmaktadır. İkinci bölüm “Çoklu Zekâ” ve “Dil Öğrenme Stratejileri” konuları ile ilgil kaynak taramasını kapsamakta olup, bu alanlardaki sınıflandırmayı açıklamakla birlikte İngilizce öğretmenlerinin öğrencilerin öğrenmeye yönelik stratejileri hakkında bilgi sahibi olmalarının önemini göstermektedir. Üçüncü bölümde araştırmanın metodu sunulmuştur. Ayrıca, öğretmenlere ve öğrencilere uygulanan anketlerin nasıl değerlendirip yorumlandığı anlatılmaktadır. Aynı zamanda bu bilgilerin nasıl toplandığı, analiz yöntemi ve sonuçların detaylı yorumlanması ile ilgili bilgiler verilmektedir. Dördüncü bölümde eğitmenler tarafından kendi eğitim alanlarında dikkate alınabilecek bazı öneriler sunulmaktadır.
Çalışmanın sonuç kısmını oluşturan beşinci bölümde ise çalışmanın özeti, bulguları, etkileri ve gelecekteki çalışmalarda faydalanılacak öneriler açıklanmaktadır. Çalışmada üç adet ek vardır. Birinci ekte öğrenciler için Türkçe ve İngilizce hazırlanan Dil Öğrenme Stratejileri” anketi, İkinci ekte öğrencilere Türkçe ve İngilizce hazırlanan “Çoklu Zeka” anketi ve üçüncü ekte ise okutmanlarca doldurulan anketler sunulmuştur.
Bilim Kodu :
Anahtar Kelimeler : Çoklu zeka, öğrenme stratejileri, dil öğretiminde öğrenme stratejilerinin ve çoklu zeka kuramının katkıları
Sayfa Adedi : 107
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... iv
ABSTRACT ... v
ÖZ ... vi
TABLE of CONTENTS... vii
LIST of TABLES ... x
LIST of FIGURES ... xi
LIST of ABBREVIATIONS ... xiii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1. Presentation ... 1
1.2. Topic ... 1
1.3. The Statement of the Problem ... 2
1.4. The Aim of the Study ... 2
1.5. The Significance of the Study ... 3
1.6. Method ... 3
1.7. Assumptions of the Study ... 3
1.8. Limitations of the Study ... 4
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW ... 5
2.1. Presentation ... 5
2.2. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences ... 5
2.2.1. The Description of Eight Intelligences ... 6
2.2.1.1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence ... 6
2.2.1.2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence ... 8
2.2.1.3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence ... 9
2.2.1.4. Bodily- Kinesthetic Intelligence ... 11
2.2.1.5. Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence ...12
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2.2.1.7. Intrapersonal Intelligence ...14
2.2.1.8. Naturalist Intelligence ...15
2.3. The Theory of Language Learning Strategies...16
2.3.1. Direct Strategies ...19 2.3.1.1. Cognitive Strategies ...19 2.3.1.2. Memory-Related Strategies ...20 2.3.1.3. Compensation Strategies ...22 2.3.2. Indirect Strategies ...23 2.3.2.1. Meta-cognitive Strategies ...23 2.3.2.2. Affective Strategies ...25 2.3.2.3. Social Strategies ...27
2.4. The Importance of Having Information about the Types of Multiple Intelligences and Learning Strategies of Language Learners ...28
2.4.1. Importance of Language Learning Strategies ...29
2.4.2. Importance of Multiple Intelligences...30
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY ...35
3.1. Presentation ...35 3.2. Research Design ...35 3.3. Participants ...35 3.4. Instruments ...36 3.5. Piloting ...38CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS ...41
4.1. Presentation ...41 4.2. Data Analysis ...414.2.1. The Interpretation of Data Collection According to Multiple Intelligence Questionnaire ...42
4.2.1.1. The Interpretation of the Data According to Common MI Profiles of the Learners ...51
4.2.2. The Interpretation of Data Collected via Language Learning Strategies Questionnaire ...53 4.2.2.1. The Interpretation of the Data According to Common LS
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Profiles of the Learners ...59
4.2.3. The Interpretation of Data Collected from Instructors’ Questionnaire ..61
4.2.3.1. Instructors’ Knowledge about the Theory of Multiple Intelligences61 4.2.3.2. The Use of Multiple Intelligences Theory ...62
4.2.3.3. Use of MI Theory in Gazi University Preparatory Classes...65
4.2.3.4. Instructors’ Knowledge about Language Learning Strategies ...65
4.2.3.5. The Use of Language Learning Strategies ...66
4.2.3.6. Use of LS Theory in Gazi University Preparatory Classes ...68
4.2.3.7. Important Aspects in Choosing Textbooks for the Instructors ...69
4.2.3.8. The Criteria for Selecting Extra Materials ...70
4.2.3.9. The Use of Activities which are Based on MI and LS ...71
CHAPTER 5 FINDINGS and CONCLUSION...75
5.1. Presentation ...75
5.2. Findings ...75
5.3. Conclusion ...81
5.4. Implications of the Study ...83
5.5. Suggestions and Further Research ...83
CHAPTER 6 SUGGESTIONS ...85 6.1. Presentation ...85 6.2. Suggestions ...85 REFERENCES ...95 APPENDICES ...99
Appendix 1. Dil Öğrenme Stratejileri Anketi ... 100
Appendix 2. Language Learning Strategies Questionnaire ... 102
Appendix 3. Çoklu Zeka Türleri Belirleme Anketi ... 104
Appendix 4. Multiple Intelligences Questionnaire ... 106
Appendix 5. Instructors’ Questionnaire ... 108
ÖZGEÇMİŞ ... 111
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Eight Ways for Learning ...31
Table 2. Number of Years of Teaching ...36
Table 3. Levels of English Teaching Experience ...37
Table 4. Instructors’ Knowledge about MI Theory ...61
Table 5. Research on MI ...61
Table 6. Use of MI Theory in the Institution ...65
Table 7. Instructors’ Knowledge about LS Theory ...65
Table 8. Research on LS ...66
Table 9. The Use of MI Theory in the Institution ...69
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Sample Activity for Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence ... 8
Figure 2. Sample Activity for Logical-mathematical Intelligence... 9
Figure 3. Sample Activity for Visual-spatial Intelligence ...10
Figure 4. Sample Activity for Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence ... 11
Figure 5. Sample Activity for Musical-rhythmic Intelligence ...13
Figure 6. Sample Activity for Interpersonal Intelligence ...14
Figure 7. Sample Activity for Interpersonal Intelligence ...15
Figure 8. Sample Activity for Naturalist Intelligence ...16
Figure 9. Diagram of the Strategy System: Overview ...18
Figure 10. Oxford’s Classification of Cognitive Strategies in Detail ...19
Figure 11. Sample Activity for Cognitive Strategy ...20
Figure 12. Oxford’s Classification of Memory Strategies in Detail ...21
Figure 13. Sample Activity for Memory Strategies ...22
Figure 14. Oxford’s Classification of Compensation Strategies in Detail ...22
Figure 15. Sample Activity for Compensation Strategies ...23
Figure 16. Oxford’s Classification of Meta-cognitive Strategies in Detail ...24
Figure 17. Sample Activity for Meta-cognitive Strategies ...25
Figure 18. Sample Activity for Affective Strategies ...26
Figure 19. Oxford’s Classification of Affective Strategies in Detail ...27
Figure 20. Oxford’s Classification of Social Strategies in Detail ...28
Figure 21. Verbal-linguistic Intelligence ...42
Figure 22. Logical-mathematical Intelligence ...43
Figure 23. Visual-spatial Intelligence ...44
Figure 24. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence ...45
Figure 25. Musical-rhythmic Intelligence ...46
Figure 26. Interpersonal Intelligence ...47
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Figure 28. Naturalistic Intelligence ...49
Figure 29. Common MI Profiles of the Learners ...51
Figure 30. Memory Strategies ...53
Figure 31. Cognitive Strategies...54
Figure 32. Compensation Strategies ...55
Figure 33. Metacognitive Strategies...56
Figure 34. Metacognitive Strategies...57
Figure 35. Social Strategies ...58
Figure 36. Common LS Profiles of the Learners ...59
Figure 37. MI Theory Use ...62
Figure 38. The Rate of Application of MI Theory in Language Classes ...63
Figure 39. The Frequency of the Use of MI Theory ...64
Figure 40. LS Theory Use ...66
Figure 41. The Rate of the Application of the Theory ...67
Figure 42. Frequency of the Use of the LS ...68
Figure 43. The Criteria for Selecting Extra Materials ...70
Figure 44. The Use of MI Based Activities ...72
Figure 45. The Use of LS Based Activities ...73
Figure 46. Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence ...88
Figure 47. Visual/Spatial Intelligence ...88
Figure 48. Logical/Mathematical Intelligence ...89
Figure 49. Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence ...90
Figure 50. Naturalistic Intelligence ...90
Figure 51. Cognitive Strategies...92
Figure 52. Compensation Strategies ...92
Figure 53. Metacognitive Strategies...93
Figure 54. Affective Strategies ...94
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ABBREVIATIONS
ELT English Language Teaching EFL English as a Foreign Language LS Learning Strategies
MI Multiple Intelligences
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Presentation
In this chapter, first, the statement of the problem is presented. Then, the aim of the study, significance of the study and assumptions of the study are mentioned. Finally, some limitations are stated.
1.2. Topic
Language learning is learning how to communicate with others. Communication involves the use of all four language skills namely; reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Without a language, people cannot convey information, thoughts, messages, or information. International integration has created a large need for people who can communicate in multiple languages.
Nowadays, English language is widely used all over the world and learning it as a foreign language is very important among foreign language speakers to communicate with one another. There are lots of reasons why great importance is given to the teaching of it. One of them is that English is the language of science. Therefore, Teaching English as a Foreign Language has become an important field of study at universities.
To have an effective language teaching, instructors should pay more attention to develop their learners’ motivation to have an effective communication. One major purpose of teaching foreign language is to have effective learning in students. To achieve this purpose, instructors should be aware of their learners’ different learning strategies and intelligent types. Each individual learns a language in different ways for his/her dominant intelligent type/s or learning strategies. Instructors should have enough information about the
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intelligence and learning strategies of their learners so that they can lead their learners to effective learning.
1.3. The Statement of the Problem
Regarding the fact that English is the world language, it is necessary for everyone to be able to communicate in that language. Yet, as it is widely accepted, despite the years of education in schools, most of the students graduate from those schools without having even threshold level in English.
Our supposition is that this failure results from the language instructors’ instructions without the consideration of learners’ intelligence types and learning strategies. It is claimed that if language instructors provide learners with instruction paying attention to the dominant intelligent type/s and learning strategies of them, more success could be achieved in teaching English as a foreign language.
1.4. The Aim of the Study
The goal of this study is the determination of the dominant intelligence types and learning strategies of foreign language learners at Gazi University Preparatory classes. Hence, the scope of this study will be limited to the exploration of some theoretical information about intelligent and learning strategies types of those students. There will also be the presentation of two questionnaires that will be given to some students and instructors at Gazi University Preparatory classes. Furthermore, according to the findings, there will be a discussion whether or not the trainees at Gazi University Preparatory classes are provided with an instruction proper to their dominant intelligent type/s and learning strategies. Finally, there will be some suggestions that could be considered by their instructors in their teaching atmospheres so that they can make their learners gain a good enough mastery in English language.
The aim of this study is to answer the following research questions:
1. Do instructors pay a fair amount of attention to the dominant intelligence type/s and learning strategies of their learners?
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2. Are the instructors of Gazi University Preparatory classes familiar with the theory of multiple intelligences and language learning strategies?
3. Do the instructors make use of the theory of multiple intelligences and language learning strategies in their classes or not? How much of the theory do they apply and how often do they do that?
4. Are the two theories applied in Gazi University Preparatory school?
5. Are the theory of multiple intelligences and language learning strategies important for the instructors while choosing textbooks?
6. Do the instructors use the theory of multiple intelligences and learning strategy based activities in their classes?
7. What are the dominant intelligences and strategy types of the learners at Gazi University Preparatory School?
1.5. Significance of the Study
The results of this study will help EFL instructors to have an effective foreign language teaching. Moreover, it will help students to be aware of their learning abilities by recognizing their own intelligence type/s and learning strategies.
1.6. Method
First some theoretical knowledge is given in order to reach the aim of the study. Then the theory of multiple intelligences and language learning strategies’ inventories will be administrated to the instructor trainees at Gazi University Preparatory classes. Meanwhile, the other inventory is administrated to the
instructors and instructors at Gazi University Preparatory classes. After analysis of the results, the findings will be presented in charts and graphs. At the end of the application period some suggestions are given to the instructors and instructors.
1.7. Assumptions of the Study
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1. Foreign language instructors do not pay enough attention to the dominant intelligent type/s and learning strategies of their learners.
2. If the instructors consider the type/s of intelligences and learning strategies of their learners, they can teach language more effectively and success level of their learners can be increased.
3. Variables will be taken under control while the questionnaires are being administered to the students and instructors.
4. The students and the instructors will be sincere when responding to the questionnaires. 5. The data collection instruments will have a high reliability and validity.
1.8. Limitations of the Study
The sample student groups will answer the research questions in the questionnaire about the eight types of intelligences and six types of learning strategies. In addition, language instructors will be given an interview form. This study involves only students in the sample groups of Gazi University ELT Prep School; therefore, some of the results may not apply to other contexts.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Presentation
This chapter deals with the theory of multiple intelligences and the description of eight intelligences. Then the theory of language learning strategies and the description of direct and indirect strategies are given. Finally, the importance of having information about the learners profiles based on these two theories for language instructors is presented.
2.2. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
More than 20 years ago, a psychologist named Howard Gardner investigated new types of intelligences in order to express his new theory which is called multiple intelligences. The theory states that each individual has the capacity for several intellectual competences. Gardner (1999) explained intelligence as a bio-psychological potential to process information which can be modified in the cultural settings for problem solving or creating valuable products in the culture. Gardner (1983) believes that intelligences are independent from one another and they are adapted by individuals with regard to the culture they live in. He puts forward seven intelligence types, namely; verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily- kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal. Gardner (1999) adds that the first two have been associated with schools while the next three are more inclined towards the arts, and the final two are what he has called personal intelligences. In the late nineties, naturalist intelligence was also involved in the intelligence types. Other intelligences such as existential, spiritual and moral are still under consideration to be attached.
Each person has strength and weakness in these intelligences and these intelligences can be changed or improved through education. Gardner (1999) states that certain elements such
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as the value of a particular culture, the opportunities available in that culture, and the personal decisions made by individuals or their families, school instructors, and others can change intelligence profiles on each individual.
Gardner provides eight criteria to describe intelligence: 1. Potential for brain isolation by brain damage
2. Place in evolutionary history 3. The presence of core operations
4. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbolic expression 5. A distinct developmental history
6. The existence of exceptional individuals 7. Support from experimental psychological tasks
8. Support from experimental psychometric findings Gardner (1999, p. 62)
2.2.1. The Description of Eight Intelligences
Based on the criteria that he developed, Howard Gardner identified the following eight intelligences.
2.2.1.1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
The capacity to use language whether orally or in a written way for the communication purposes or convincing others is called Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence. Thomas Armstrong (2000) believes that this intelligence includes the ability to use the syntax, phonology, semantics, and the pragmatic dimensions. Shearer (2004) states that the ability to use words effectively for reading, writing, and speaking activities are mostly used by people having linguistic intelligence.
As known, linguistic skills are important for people to provide explanations, descriptions, and expressiveness. Gardner (1983) claims that individuals who have the ability to write poetry have strength in the linguistic intelligence. He also indicates that people who have a keen sense of semantics, phonology, pragmatics, and syntax are good at using unique words and ideas because they have a strong verbal-linguistic intelligence.
Gardner (1983) assumes that another form of linguistic intelligence involves the ability to keep information like lengthy verbal lists in mind. He also indicates that people who have a highly linguistic intelligence are good at using both written and oral language. In Howard
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Gardner’s words (1999), linguistic intelligence leads the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically.
Some professionals who are strong in linguistic intelligence are instructors, reporters, librarians, linguists, journalists, editors, lawyers, storytellers, poets, politicians, writers and radio, television announcers, etc.
William Shakespeare, Barack Obama, and J.K. Rowling have strength in linguistic intelligence.
Instructors can play an effective role in the improvement of learners’ logical intelligences. Accordingly Thi Dung & Trong Tuan (2011) suggest that by holding activities such as role playing in conversation parts, retelling stories, extracting information from texts, reading books, newspapers or parts of a play, brainstorming, debates, discussions, enriching vocabulary through word games and puzzles, memorizing, note taking, summaries and translation exercises, instructors can help their students to improve their linguistic intelligence.
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Figure 1. Sample activity for verbal-linguistic intelligence (Richard, Hull & Proctor, 2005, p. 21)
2.2.1.2. Logical -Mathematical Intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence represents the capacity to reason well, think about problems logically and use numbers effectively. Thomas Armstrong (2000) states that people with this kind of intelligence are often sensitive to logical patterns and relationships, statements and propositions, functions, and other related abstractions.
Shearer (2004) says that individuals having logical-mathematical intelligence are skillful at calculations, reasoning and problem solving activities. Borek (2003) claims that English learners who have highly logical-mathematical intelligence most of the times have trouble with some tasks which are relating to emotion or imagination. People who have strong logical-mathematical intelligence like to make predictions, be aware of logical and numerical patterns and investigate science. Lazear (1993) suggests that this intelligence is related to scientific thinking. Some professionals who are strong in this kind of intelligence are statisticians, science instructors, economists, computer analysts and programmers, scientists, mathematicians, accountants, logicians, engineers, etc.
Famous people such as Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton, Thomas Edison, Madame Curie, Blaise Pascal, and Bill Gates have high Logical-Mathematical Intelligence.
Science demonstrations and experiments, organizing with diagrams, sorting, classification; using symbols, problem-solving language activities using logic, reasoning puzzles and logical argumentation, analyzing grammar, pattern identification, code making, code breaking, working with a calculator, and doing hypothesis tests are activities that Nguyen
A Read the article. Then check the best description of the article. 1. The article starts with a description and then gives advice. 2. The article starts with a description and then gives facts. 3. The article gives the writer’s opinion
B Where do these sentences belong? Write the number of the paragraph where each sentence could go.
……… a. You can also ask a friend to come to your home before the event. ……… b. Ask yourself: “How would I feel if someone told my secrets? ……… c. Do you ever make up excuses to explain your unfinished work? ……… d. Are you ever so late that the people you’re meeting leave? ……… e. You can also ask a friend to call you to ask about your progress. ……… f. Are people afraid to tell you things about themselves?
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Thi Dung & Trong Tuan (2011) advise to instructors to use in order to strengthen their students’ logical-mathematical intelligence.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching.
B. Complete the word map. Add two more words to each category. Then compare with a partner.
beach bicycle cat
collect comic books paint play chess rabbit scrapbook snake soccer ball summer camp tree house
Figure 2. Sample activity for logical-mathematical intelligence (Richard, Hull & Proctor, 2005, p.4).
2.2.1.3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Christison (1996) defined visual-spatial intelligence as an ability to maintain the sensitivity to form, space, color, line and shape. It also involves visualizing things either mentally or graphically. Armstrong (2000) believes that this type of intelligence includes the ability to visualize, to graphically represent visual or spatial ideas, and to adapt oneself appropriately in a spatial matrix. Gardner (1983) describes people with a strong spatial intelligence as individuals who are excellent at performing tasks that require seeing with the mind’s eyes, such as visualizing, pretending, imagining, and forming mental images.
Shearer (2004) points out that this intelligence includes the abilities which are used to represent the world through mental images and artistic expressions. Gardner (1983) defines this intelligence as a capacity not only to perceive the visual world accurately but also to perform transformations and modifications upon one’s perceptions. Furthermore, it can be viewed as an ability to re-create aspects of one’s visual experience, even in the absence of relevant physical stimuli.
Borek (2003) believes that students with highly spatial intelligence mostly have trouble in understanding the grammar patterns, logical-mathematical or linguistic tasks so they can solve their own problems only by putting the structures in the graphs or making a picture in
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their minds about them. People who have strong spatial intelligence prefer drawing a picture or work with graphs to writing a paragraph. They enjoy solving problems by using a map, graphs, pictures or visualizing. Some professionals who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are graphic artists, painters, mechanics, photographers, pilots, decorators, designers, architects, navigators, sculptors etc.
Famous people such as Leonardo DA Vinci and Pablo Picasso have strength in linguistic intelligence.
As a view of Nguyen Thi Dung &LuuTrong Tuan (2011), instructors can help learners to improve their visual-spatial intelligence by using activities such as; giving guided visualization, using pictures to create, interpreting, and illustrating stories, drawing maps, diagrams, illustration, graphs, tables, photos, making mind maps, using charts and grids, designing, drawing, using imagination and fantasy, colorful classroom environment, and watching videos, slides and movies in the classroom.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching.
Furniture and fittings
Match each item from the following list with the correct letter from the picture bellow. Table bed carpet bookcase cushion chair pillow rug Shelf curtains armchair mattress sofa cupboard stool Desk wardrobe lamp chest of drawer sheet drawer Washbasin lampshade blanket
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2.2.1.4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Gardner (1993) describes bodily-kinesthetic intelligence as ability in the use of which an individual activates his/her whole body or part of the body to solve problems, to express an idea or to fashion products. Armstrong (2000) states that students who develop their bodily kinesthetic intelligence are interested in doing things with movements and actions. They may enjoy acting, dancing, touching, gesturing, and like hands on activities. Shearer (2004) explains that people with kinesthetic intelligence have the ability to use their body or parts of the body for the purpose of expression such as dancing, acting and goal-directed activities like athletics.
Gardner (1983) states that people who use their muscles to control their body movements, have a hand-eye coordination, and are able to manipulate their bodies and thoughts to get a message since they have strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Borek (2003) asserts that these learners can be demotivated by traditional classrooms; therefore, instructors should make an active curriculum to motivate them. Some professionals who are strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are dancers, athletes, surgeons, craftspeople, actors, actresses, mimes, models, acrobats, sculptors, carpenters, gymnasts, mechanics, etc.
Famous people like Michael Jordan, Michael Jackson, Arnold Schwarzenegger and Elizabeth Taylor all exhibit highly developed bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
Nguyen Thi Dung & LuuTrong Tuan (2011) assume that doing the following activities can improve this intelligence: Incorporating movement into the lessons, mimes, dramas and role plays, games, creative movement, using learners’ body language, the kinds of physical education and dance, classroom aerobics, human sculptures, using graphs and table, hands-on activities, cooperative group rotatihands-on or chands-onstructihands-on and manipulative activities.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching.
Figure 4. Sample activity for bodily-kinesthetic ıntelligence (John and Liz Soars, 2006, p.92).
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2.2.1.5. Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence
The musical-rhythmic intelligence is defined by Armstrong (2000) as a capacity to perceive, discriminate, transform, and express musical forms. Individuals’ sensitivity to the rhythm, pitch or melody is defined as musical intelligence. Shearer (2004) explains that individuals with strong musical intelligence are very sensitive to melodies and rhythms. They may also like singing songs, playing musical instruments, listening to the music, and singing, tapping feet and hands or learning rhythmic words easily.
Gardner (1983) believes that musical intelligence is related to auditory abilities and that the musical mind is concerned with tonal memory. Borek (2003) also claims that the combination of sound patterns and language can make musical learners productive individuals. Musicians, music instructors, music therapists, piano tuners, songwriters, disc jockeys, composers, conductors, singers, music critics, music experts and studio engineers are professionals whose musical intelligence is strong.
Famous people like Beethoven, Madonna, Michael Jackson, and Mozart all exhibit highly developed musical-rhythmic intelligence.
We all know that it is difficult for instructors to keep the class quiet during the writing examination. Some noises from outside the classroom may bother students and these lead to less concentration. So, Borek (2003) suggests that rhythmic music can help learners who are highly musical to concentrate more.
As a view of Nguyen Thi Dung &LuuTrong Tuan (2011), instructors can help learners to improve their musical-rhythmic intelligence by using activities such as; turning some parts of lessons into a song or rhythmic chant, jazz and chants to memory lesson, playing recorded or live music, making music instruments, choral reading, singing and speaking, creating and forming songs or tunes encouraging awareness of surrounded sounds in the classroom.
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Figure 5. Sample activity for musical-rhythmic intelligence (John and Liz Soars, 2006, p. 28).
2.2.1.6. Interpersonal Intelligence
This intelligence is due to the individual’s sense of self and communication with others. These learners are interested in cooperative learning. They like pair work and discussion activities. Shearer (2004) states that individuals with interpersonal intelligence can be successful in having relationships with others. This makes their difference among other individuals and it is an ability to recognize the emotions, moods, perspectives, and motivations of people.
Checkley (1997) indicates that people having this intelligence usually become instructors, doctors, policemen, or sales people because of their needs of being successful in his/her workplace. Armstrong (2000) defines this intelligence as a talent to detect as well as make differences in the moods, aims, motivations and feelings of other people. It also involves the ability to deal with people or understand them. Borek (2003) asserts that interpersonal students may be demotivated by the use of standardized assessments because they are willing to have discussion about subjects.
Nguyen Thi Dung &LuuTrong Tuan (2011) believe that individuals who have strength in interpersonal intelligence are good at persuasion, negotiation, interaction and working well
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in teams. They also have characteristics such as socializing, working in groups, teaching others. Lawyers, business executives, travel agents, politicians, psychologists, instructors, school principals, social workers, diplomats and counselors, team leaders, supervisors, coaches, directors, and coordinators are professionals whose musical intelligence is strong. Bill Clinton, José Mourinho, Carl Rogers, Nelson Mandela, Alfred Hitchcock, Alfred Binet, Ivan Pavlov, and Jean Piaget all exhibit highly developed interpersonal intelligence. As a view of Nguyen Thi Dung &LuuTrong Tuan (2011), instructors can help learners to improve their musical-rhythmic intelligence by using activities such as; group brainstorming, and group problem solving, project working, pair working, group discussion, peer teaching and peer editing, circling time and self-esteem activities, giving and receiving feedback and constructive criticism.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching.
Figure 6. Sample activity for interpersonal intelligence (John and Liz Soars, 2006, p. 90).
2.2.1.7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
Same as interpersonal intelligence, this intelligence is due to the individual’s sense of self. This intelligence involves the internal aspects of an individual. Shearer (2004) claims that accurate appraisal, goal setting, monitoring or correction, and emotional self-management are the main functions of intrapersonal intelligence. Checkley (1997) also asserts that people with intrapersonal intelligence are usually aware of their own personalities, abilities, reactions and desires.
Students, who are having intrapersonal intelligence as the dominant one, often daydream. So, they are conscious of their internal life and they think they do not need any one else in their life. Pair work and discussion activities are not suitable for them because they enjoy working alone. In general, Borek(2003) states that students with intrapersonal orientation
What do you think?
Where do you think there might be other volcanic eruptions in the future?
Do you think scientists will one day find ways of stopping these disasters? How best could they help us?
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are very comfortable and productive with activities such as journaling, creating mind maps, using personality inventories for character analysis.
Armstrong (2000) assumes that this intelligence includes self-awareness, self- intentions, self-motivations, self-temperaments, self-discipline, self-understanding, and self-esteem. Gardner (1999) calls the interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences as the personal intelligences and these are the most argumentative ones among the other types of intelligences. Some professionals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are writers, therapists, theologians, philosophers, counselors, Poets, Psychotherapist, religious leaders, etc.
Sigmund Freud, the Buddha, Albert Einstein, and Aristotle have strength in intrapersonal intelligence.
Nguyen Thi Dung &LuuTrong Tuan (2011) assume that to help students enrich this intelligence, instructors can consider activities such as activities with a self-evaluation component, personal journal keeping, individualized projects, reflective learning activities, writing about personal goals and hopes for the future, goal setting, recording thoughts, feelings and moods, self-evaluation, circle time and self-esteem activities.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching. Work with a partner. Discuss which beginnings can go with which endings. More than one is sometimes possible. Which are formal? Which are informal? Which are usually only used in emails?
1 Dear Peter,
2 Dear Ms. Lombard, 3 Hello Cathy, 4 Dear Sir Or Madam, 5 Dear Mum,
6 Hi Rob,
a Lots and lots of love, Harry xxx b Love, Concetta
c Yours George d Bye for now, Sammy
e Yours faithfully, Daniel Miles f Yours sincerely, Kay Macey g Best wishes, Dave
Figure 7. Sample activity for interpersonal intelligence (John and Liz Soars, 2006, p. 108).
2.2.1.8. Naturalist Intelligence
In the late 19th century Gardner added naturalist intelligence to his intelligence types. This type of intelligence is related to individual’s understanding of natural environment and these people have good relationship with nature life. Gardner (1999) claims that a naturalist is someone who has the ability to recognize and classify objects.
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Visser, et.al. (2006) believe that the students, who have a high level of naturalistic intelligence, are very good at pattern-recognition. Furthermore, a central element of Gardner’s naturalistic intelligence is the capacities of learners to categorize objects regarding similarities and differences among them. Gardner (1999) assumes that people with naturalist intelligence can demonstrate ability in the discovery and classification of the any categories of his or her environment. Furthermore, Armstrong (2000) believes that this intelligence includes sensitivity to natural phenomena and the urban environment. People who have strength in this type of intelligence are conservationists, zookeepers, animal trainers, biologists, farmers, botanists, environmentalists, ornithologists, and geologists.
Charles Darwin, Linnaeus, Jack Horner, E. O. Wilson, and Jane Good all have strength in intrapersonal intelligence.
Nguyen Thi Dung &LuuTrong Tuan (2011) assume that to help students improve this intelligence, instructors should consider activities such as talking about pets or natural places to classmate, collecting natural things like leaves, flowers to show and describe to others, reading books, magazines, newspapers on the nature, showing slides, films that features nature, organizing activities that involves nature like bird watching, growing a plant and describing the developing process, discussing animal rights and earth preservation, drawing or photographing natural objects.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching.
Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom consists of Britain and Northern Ireland. Match each item below with the correct number on the map.
Countries/Regions (1-5)
ENGLAND: pop 46 mill. (of 56 mill. In UK)
REPUBLIC OF IRELAND: ‘Eire’, pop. 3 mill. , 94 % Catholic NORTHERN IRELAND: ‘Ulster’, in UK but not Britain
SCOTLAND: in UK but with separate educational and legal systems WALES: coal/industry in S, mountains in N, Welsh still spoken
Figure 8. Sample activity for naturalist intelligence (Thomas, 1986, p. 58-59).
2.3. The Theory of Language Learning Strategies
To have an effective teaching, instructors should be aware of their learners learning strategies. As Rubin (In Oxford: 2003) states some learners are poor because they do not
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use the right learning strategies in their attempts to gain information exposed to them. However, the questions are how these strategies will help them to improve their learning abilities and what the importance of leaning strategies are.
Scarcella & Oxford (In Oxford: 2003) believe that learners make use of different techniques, behaviors and actions to improve their own learning and tackle the language tasks they have been asked to perform. Choosing meaningful learning strategies, matched with specific language tasks can motivate the learners and make them aware of their own language learning. According to Oxford (2003), the learners will perform well, feel confident and experience low anxiety when there is harmony between the learners in terms of strategy preferences and the combination of instructional methodology and materials. McCormick (In Oxford: 2003) indicates that learners intentionally use and consciously control their learning strategies; therefore, instructors should teach the learners different learning strategies in order to help them deal with assigned lessons and tasks and motivate them to be autonomous learners. However, Kohonen (In Susan Bull & Yingxin Ma, 2001) rejects the conscious application of learning strategies and believes that it may become automatized.
Oxford (2003) also asserts that if the strategy relates well to the foreign language task, the learner employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant strategies; a strategy will be useful for learners to make their learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations. Oxford (2003) assumes that a given strategy might be useful and effective when learner is aware of how to use and evaluate it as well as how to transfer it to other related tasks and situations. Learning strategies play effective role in the importance of learners’ proficiency and self-confidence in order to enhance their learning process. Oxford (1990) believes that one of the language learning strategies’ features is communicative competence. It helps learners to learn language by using meaningful and contextualized activities. For example, affective strategies improve learners’ self-esteem in order to achieve communicative competence, and the main purpose of social strategies is interaction which is one of the important aspects of communicative competence.
Oxford (1990) also emphasizes that instructor should be more creative because in language learning strategies instructors’ role is very important. They should act as an authority,
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manager, director, facilitator and also a helper to guide learners. They should also make good relationship with learners to improve their learning skills.
Different researchers such as Wong Fillmore (1978); Bialystok (1978); Rubin (1981); O’Malley and Chamot (1990); Oxford (1990); Wenden (1991); Stern (1992) and Cohen (1998) have classified language learning strategies (In Aziz: 2007). In this study, Rebecca L. Oxford’s (1990) classification of learning strategies has been used. Accordingly, there are mainly six major groups of language learning strategies which are divided in two groups; namely, direct and indirect strategies.
Learning Strategies
INDIRECT
STRATEGIES II. Affective Strategies DIRECT
STRATEGIES
I. Metacognitive Strategies
III. Social Strategies II. Cognitive Strategies I. Memory Strategies
III. Compensation strategies
B. Applying images and sounds A. Creating mental linkages
C. Reviewing well D. Employing action
B. Receiving and sending messages strategies A. Practicing
C. Analyzing and reasoning D. Creating structure for input and output
A. Guessing intelligently B. Overcoming limitations in speaking and
writing A. Centering your learning B. Arranging and planning your learning
C. Evaluating your learning
B. Cooperating with others A. Lowering your anxiety
C. Taking your emotional temperature
B. Cooperating with others C. Empathizing with others
A. Asking questions
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2.3.1. Direct Strategies
According to Oxford (1990), direct strategies are strategies which refer directly to the language in different tasks and situations to help learners through mental development. Direct language learning strategies include cognitive strategies, memory strategies, and compensation strategies.
2.3.1.1. Cognitive Strategies
According to Williams and Burden (1994) cognitive strategies are mental processes directly related to the processing of information. Oxford (2003) also claims that cognitive strategies help learners use the language material in direct ways through reasoning, making analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information and practicing structures and sounds formally. O’Malley et al. (1990) assume that cognitive strategies are limited to the specific tasks which are related to the long term memory such as; identifying, inference, transfer, deduction, imagery, remembering, storing or retrieving words, sound or other aspects of the target language like skimming and scanning which learners use during reading comprehension.
Cognitive Strategies
Receiving and Sending Messages Practicing
Creating Structures for Input and Output Analyzing and Reasoning
Using resources for receiving and sending messages Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
Analyzing contrastively
Summarizing
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns Repeating
Recombining Practicing naturalistically
Getting the idea quickly
Analyzing expressions Reasoning deductively Translating Transferring Taking notes Highlighting
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As we can see in figure 2, Oxford (1990) separates cognitive strategies into four groups which are practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structures for input and output. These strategies are based on practice and individuals may not always choose them consciously. Usually, in the classroom in individual or group activities, some activities miss their proficiency so using cognitive activities help learners to improve the missing part weather in group or individual activities.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching.
Figure 11. Sample activity for cognitive strategy (Clare and Wilson, 2012, p. 12).
2.3.1.2. Memory-Related Strategies
Oxford (1990) explains memory-related strategies as powerful mental tools that can be helpful for the activities which need memorizing or recovering information, especially in communication skills. Oxford (In Blazkova, 2011) states that memory-related strategies are very helpful for meaningful activities such as vocabulary buildings and are necessary for memorizing, arranging things in order, making associations and reviewing, too. Language learners have many difficulties in remembering vocabularies. For example, in English there are a lot of meanings for a simple word and memorizing all of them is impossible and memory strategies are helpful tools in these cases. Based on the intelligence types of learners, instructors will play an effective role to solve learners’ problems. For example, for learners with highly visual-special intelligence instructors can create activities that link verbal label with visual images of word or for bodily-kinesthetic learners, they can link verbal materials with touch.
Oxford (1990) states that memory strategies often involve pairing material such as creating mental linkage, combination of images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing action and body movement. Thu Ha (2008) explains that memory strategies which is mostly used by elementary learners focuses on the accuracy of usage. But many leaners do not use
A. Think about your own relationships. Prepare to talk about one man and one woman in your life. Use the questions bellow to make notes.
Who are they?
What is their role in your life?
How often do you see them?
How have they helped you and how have you helped them?
I’m a member of a football club, and we meet every week. Our coach is fantastic and he has helped our team a lot.
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these strategies because they are not aware of them and instructor can help them effectively by organizing meaningful activities. Oxford (2003) asserts that memory strategies makes learners relate two items together in a neat arrangement without having deep understanding. Memory-Related Strategy B. Applying images and sounds C. Reviewing well A. Creating Mental Linkages D. Employing action 2. Semantic mapping 2. Associating/Elaborating 1. Grouping
3. Placing new words into a context
1. Using imaginary
3. Using keywords
4. Representing sound in memory
1. Structured reviewing
2. Using mechanical techniques 1. Using physical response or sensation
Figure 12. Oxford’s classification of memory strategies in detail (Oxford, 1990, p. 39)
Purpura (1997) claims that the use of memory strategies in a test-taking situation has a considerable negative relationship with learners’ test performances in grammar and vocabulary.
Disadvantage of this strategy is that remembering is easy. However, if it is not used, it will be lost after a while.
Memory strategies are divided in four main parts by Oxford (1990): creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing and employing action (see Figure 3). All these strategies are helpful for foreign language learners to solve their problems especially in essential parts of communication skills such as vocabulary.
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Figure 13. Sample activity for memory strategies (Clare and Wilson, 2012, p. 13).
2.3.1.3. Compensation Strategies
According to Oxford (2003), compensatory strategies help learners to improve their knowledge in four basic skills (listening, reading, writing, and speaking) by activities such as guessing from the context, using synonyms and talking around the missing word, and using gestures or pause words. She (1990) also assumes that these strategies are effectively used to improve learner´s range of grammar and vocabulary. Two common types of compensation strategies are guessing and overcoming. Guessing is mostly used in listening and reading while overcoming is limited to speaking and writing (see Figure 14).
Compensation Strategies
A. Guessing intelligently in listening and reading
B. Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
1. Using linguistic clues
2. Using other clues
5. Selecting the topic 1. Switching to the mother
tongue 2. Getting help 3. Using mime or gesture 4. Avoiding communication partially or totally 6. Adjusting or approximating the message 7. Coining words 8. Using a circumlocution or synonym
Figure 14. Oxford’s classification of compensation strategies in detail (Oxford, 1990, p. 48)
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Compensatory strategies are linked to the practice. Not only do they focus on the meaning of new language but also they focus on producing a new language. Guessing strategy helps learners processing the new information better and overcoming strategy helps producing language especially in speaking and writing skills. Therefore, these strategies help learners communicate better and improve fluency. However, Cohen (In Oxford: 2003) claims that compensatory strategies should not be considered as language learning strategies because these strategies, which are known as communication strategies, are just supposed to language use.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching.
Figure 15. Sample activity for compensation strategies (Thomas, 1986, p. 105).
2.3.2. Indirect Strategies
Oxford (1990) states that indirect strategies are the ones which refer indirectly to supporting and managing language learning, but these strategies do not include target language. She (1990) states that these strategies have a vise versa relationship with direct strategies. Indirect strategies include meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies.
2.3.2.1. Meta-cognitive Strategies
Meta-cognitive strategies are related to the cognitive strategies and help learners to set goals and plans in learning a foreign language. They play an essential role in learning foreign language by helping learners to manage, coordinate and evaluate their learning. Oxford (Cited in Blazkova: 2011) claims that language learners quite often have problems in subjects that are confusing or they are not interested in subjects such as unfamiliar vocabulary, confusing grammatical rules, and different writing systems. Using meta-cognitive strategies help learners to pay more attention to the subjects; therefore, they can
For each pair of words below give another word which has the same meaning as both. e.g. Volume/reserve book now/gift present
a) world/soil e) worried/eager
b) not left/correct f) type/helpful c) company/stable g) insect/go by air d) piece/separate h)rear/support
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learn language effectively. Instructors can also help learners’ focus and attention to the subject by using some familiar materials or overviewing strategy.
Oxford (1990) divides meta-cognitive strategies in three main parts namely, centering learning, arranging, planning learning and evaluating learning all of which are essentially needed for foreign language learners to improve their learning progress.
Meta-cognitive Strategies
Arranging and planning your learning Centering your learning
Evaluating your learning
Paying attention Overviewing and linking with
already known material Delaying speech production to
focus on listening
Self-monitoring Setting goals and objectives
Organizing
Identifying the purpose of a language task Planning for a language task Seeking practice opportunities
Finding out about language learning
Self-evaluating
Figure 16. Oxford’s classification of meta-cognitive strategies in detail (Oxford, 1990, p.137)
According to O’Malley et. al. (In Thu Ha: 2008) meta-cognitive strategies include organizing materials, paying attention, managing, planning for learning, self-monitoring, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and self-evaluation.
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Figure 17. Sample activity for meta-cognitive strategies (Lebeau and Rees, 2008, p. 27).
2.3.2.2. Affective Strategies
Students’ feelings and emotions are very important factors in learning new language. Stress and anxiety are the negative factors that can affect learning process. To learn more effectively, learners should enjoy the subject and relieve stress. To create relax atmosphere, instructors should pay more attention to the learners’ emotions and try hard to influence their attitudes.
Using affective strategies help instructors to impress learners’ motivation. Oxford (1993) suggests three different ways that help instructors to change their classrooms’ atmosphere to the enjoyable and effective one. First, giving more responsibility to change social structures, second, using more naturalistic communication activities and finally using affective strategies in their teaching methods.
One of the effective factors in learning foreign language is raising positive feelings and emotions in the learners. Blazkova(2011) believes that affective strategies including self-esteem, emotions, attitudes, motivation, anxiety, cultural shock, inhibition, risk taking, and tolerance for ambiguity will help learners to learn foreign language pleasantly. For instance, anxiety is the main obstacle factor that learners face through learning foreign language. Although this is a negative factor, instructors can change it into the positive one by using affective strategies. Blazkova (2011) states that affective strategies can help instructors motivate learners by making significant impact on the classroom atmosphere.
Task: planning a TV program
6a Work with a partner or in a small group. You work in the program development department of a TV channel. You are going to design a weekly television program for the channel. Read the instructions below and prepare some ideas and suggestions.
1 Decide on the target audience for the program, e.g. teenager, young adults, elderly people, professional people, housewives and house husbands, male or female…
2 Decide on the day and time for the program, e.g. a weekly lunchtime program, a Saturday evening program…
3 Decide on the content of the program, e.g.
What topic should the program cover? How can you make it interesting for your target audience? Can you think of any fresh angles for the topics? How many presenters should the program have?
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The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching. What is your star sign? Find out all the star sings in the class. Which is the most common? Do you think it is interesting or necessary to know the star of your boyfriend/girlfriend?
Figure 18. Sample activity for affective strategies (Soars, 2006, p. 10).
Oxford (1990) divides affective strategies in 3 main parts: lowering anxiety, encouraging yourself and taking your emotional temperature, that all of which can increase learners’ self-esteem and decrease their anxiety (see Figure 18).
27 Affective Strategie
Encouraging yourself Lowering your anxiety
Taking your emotional temperature
Using music
Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation
Using laughter
Taking risks widely Making positive statements
Rewarding yourself
Using a checklist Listening to your body
Writing a language learning diary Discussing your feelings with
someone else
Figure 19. Oxford’s classification of affective strategies in detail (Oxford, 1990, p. 141)
2.3.2.3. Social Strategies
The main purpose of learning foreign language is to have communication with others. Asking questions and talking with others in the target language are such social activities that can increase learners’ motivation and interests so it helps them understand target language better. Oxford (2003) believes that activities such as asking questions for getting verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms will increase learners’ awareness of target language culture. In this type of learning strategies, Oxford (1990) also suggests three types of strategies including asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others (see Figure 19).
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Social Strategies
Cooperating with others Asking questions
Empathizing with others
Asking for clarification or verification
Cooperating with peers
Developing cultural understanding Asking for correction
Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
Becoming aware of others´ thoughts and feelings
Figure 20. Oxford’s classification of social strategies in detail (Oxford, 1990, p.145)
Samida (2004) states that by asking questions, learners can be made to communicate with others in target language and their motivation can be increased. Because of that, asking questions is the importance one among the three. He (2004) believes that cooperating improve learning achievements, attitudes, and proficiency in learning language. It also increases learners’ self-esteem, confidence, and group spirit. In learning new language, it is very important that learners feel confident during learning process and instructor can help them changing their attitudes from confrontation and competition by cooperation.
Samida (2004) also asserts that the last factor of social strategies is empathy which is important in communication. This can help learning to understand foreigners’ point of view by putting her/himself in their situations and it can also help grasping their feelings and cultures easily. However, instructor can help their learners to improve their communication skill in foreign language by using social strategies in the classroom.
The following activity is the sample activity which instructors can use it in their teaching. “Work groups of three. If money and time were not a problem, what large structure would you like to design and why? Think about size, location, purpose, materials, transportation and safety.” (Cotton, Falvey & Kent, 2008, p. 95).
2.4. The Importance of Having Information about the Types of Multiple Intelligences and Learning Strategies of Learners for Language Instructors
All language learners use unique types of multiple intelligences or learning strategies consciously or unconsciously while learning a new language. They use these to make the learning process easy.
