DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAM
A STUDY ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A PROGRAM FOR
IMPROVING THE PRE-SERVICE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS’
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
Ph.D. THESIS
By
SALİHA DEFNE ERDEM METE
Ankara June, 2011
DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAM
A STUDY ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A PROGRAM FOR
IMPROVING THE PRE-SERVICE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS’
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
Ph.D. THESIS
SALİHA DEFNE ERDEM METE
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. ABDÜLVAHİT ÇAKIR
Ankara June, 2011
APPROVAL
Saliha Defne Erdem Mete’nin “A Study on the Effectiveness of a Program for Improving the Pre-service English Language Teachers’ Intercultural Competence” baĢlıklı tezi 29. 06. 2011 tarihinde, jürimiz tarafından Doktora Tezi olarak kabul edilmiĢtir.
Adı Soyadı Ġmza
BaĢkan (Tez DanıĢmanı): Prof. Dr. Abdülvahit Çakır
Üye: Doç. Dr. PaĢa Tevfik Cephe
Üye: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Nurdan Özbek Gürbüz
Üye: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Abdullah ErtaĢ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Dr. Abdülvahit ÇAKIR for his guidance and continuous support throughout the writing of this thesis. I also thank my jury members Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurdan ÖZBEK GÜRBÜZ and Assist. Prof. Dr. Cemal ÇAKIR, whose valuable comments and supporting attitude since the very beginning of the study helped me shape my ideas and gave me courage to continue studying in this area. I am especially grateful to Assist. Prof. Dr. Cemal ÇAKIR for inspiring me to carry out research in this field with his Intercultural Communication class in my doctorate study.
I would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. PaĢa Tevfik CEPHE, Assist Prof. Dr. Abdullah ERTAġ and Assist. Prof. Dr. Ġskender SARIGÖZ for their helpful comments.
I would like to acknowledge my special thanks to Professor Tej K. BHATIA, who gave me new insights with his World Englishes class and who always gave me motivation to do research in this area with his positive energy. I am also grateful to Dr. Serpil ġAHĠN GÖNÜL for sharing her opinions and resources with me.
I would like to thank Dr. Selmin SÖYLEMEZ and Assist. Prof. Dr. Korkut Uluç ĠġĠSAĞ for their supportive help with the rating process. Also, my thanks go to Dr. Türker KURT and Res. Assist. Yakup YILMAZ for their continuous help with the statistical analysis.
Lastly, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my husband and family members for their endless support. My deepest love and thanks go to my daughter, who was patient with me through the end of the writing of this thesis and whom I am looking forward to meeting.
ÖZET
ĠNGĠLĠZCE ÖĞRETMEN ADAYLARININ KÜLTÜRLERARASI YETĠLERĠNĠN GELĠġTĠRĠLMESĠNE YÖNELĠK BĠR PROGRAMIN ETKĠLĠLĠĞĠ
ÜZERĠNE BĠR ÇALIġMA ERDEM METE, Saliha Defne
Doktora Tezi, Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı Tez DanıĢmanı: Prof. Dr. Abdülvahit ÇAKIR
Haziran-2011, 186 sayfa
Bu çalıĢma Ġngilizce öğretmen adaylarının, kültürlerarası yetinin davranıĢsal beceriler boyutunda geliĢmelerinde, kültürlerarası eğitim içeren bir Sözlü ĠletiĢim Becerileri dersinin ne derece etkili olduğunu araĢtırmaktadır. ÇalıĢmada ön-test son-test kontrol gruplu deneysel araĢtırma deseni kullanılmıĢtır. AraĢtırmanın çalıĢma grubunu Gazi Üniversitesi, Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı’nda okuyan birinci sınıf öğrencilerinden oluĢan iki grup oluĢturmuĢtur. ÇalıĢma 2009-2010 bahar döneminde gerçekleĢtirilmiĢ ve deney süreci yedi hafta sürmüĢtür. ÇalıĢmanın nicel verileri katılımcıların YDS puanları, davranıĢsal gözlem puanları ve kendini değerlendirme puanlarından; nitel verileri ise kültürlerarası deneyim anketi ve çalıĢmanın sonunda yapılan bir görüĢmenin sonuçlarından elde edilmiĢtir.
ÇalıĢmanın ön-test ve son-test sonuçlarının analizi, öğretmen adaylarının kültürlerarası yetinin davranıĢsal beceriler boyutunda dikkate değer bir geliĢme gösterdiklerini ortaya çıkarmıĢtır. Ayrıca, öğretmen adayları deneyin gerçekleĢtirildiği derse karĢı olumlu görüĢler belirtmiĢlerdir. Dolayısıyla, kültürlerarası eğitim içeren bir Sözlü ĠletiĢim Becerileri dersinin, Ġngilizce öğretmen adaylarının kültürlerarası yetinin davranıĢsal beceriler boyutunda geliĢmelerinde etkili olduğu sonucuna varılmıĢtır. ÇalıĢmanın sonuçları doğrultusunda, ileride yapılabilecek bilimsel çalıĢmalar için önerilerde bulunulmuĢtur.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kültürlerarası iletiĢim yetisi, kültürlerarası yeti, kültürlerarası eğitim, sözlü iletiĢim becerileri, Ġngiliz dili eğitimi.
ABSTRACT
A STUDY ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A PROGRAM FOR IMPROVING THE PRE-SERVICE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS’
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE ERDEM METE, Saliha Defne
Ph.D. Thesis, English Language Teaching Program Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Abdülvahit ÇAKIR
June-2011, 186 pages
This study investigates the effectiveness of an intercultural training integrated Oral Communication Skills course on the development of pre-service English language teachers’ behavioral skills of intercultural competence. Among the experimental research designs, the randomized pre-test post-test control group design was employed in the study. The study group of the research included two groups of first-year pre-service teachers studying at Gazi University, English Language Teaching Program. The study was carried out in the 2009-2010 spring semester and the treatment took seven weeks to complete. The quantitative data were gathered from the YDS scores, behavioral observation scores and self-assessment scores of the participants, while the qualitative data were gathered from the results of a demographic survey of intercultural experience and an interview conducted at the end of the study.
The analysis of the pre-post test results of the study revealed that the pre-service teachers considerably improved in their behavioral skills of intercultural competence. They also expressed positive opinions towards the course carried out during the treatment. Therefore, it was concluded that an intercultural training integrated Oral Communication Skills course is effective for developing the pre-service English language teachers’ behavioral skills of intercultural competence. In the light of the findings of the study, suggestions are made for further studies.
Key Terms: Intercultural communicative competence, intercultural competence, intercultural training, oral communication skills, English language teaching.
TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL ... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ii ÖZET ... iii ABSTRACT ... iv DEDICATION ... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vi
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES... x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xiii
CHAPTER I ... 1
INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Statement of the Problem ... 1
1.2 Aim of the Study ... 7
1.3 Importance of the Study ... .9
1.4 Limitations ... .11
1.5 Assumptions ... 12
1.6 Definitions of the Key Concepts ... 12
CHAPTER II. ... 14
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ... 14
2.0 Introduction ... 14
2.1 Cultural Value Dimensions ... 14
2.1.1 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations System ... 15
2.1.2 Hall’s Behavioral Orientations and Communication Styles ... 15
2.1.3 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Variability ... 18
2.1.4 Bond’s Confucian Cultural Patterns ... 19
2.1.5 Trompenaar’s Cultural Dimensions ... 20
2.2 Intercultural Communication Theories ... 21
2.2.1 Constructivist Theory of Communication and Culture ... 21
2.2.2 Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory ... 22
2.2.4 Communication Accommodation Theory ... 24
2.2.5 Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory of Effective Communication ... 25
2.3 Intercultural Communicative Competence ... 27
2.3.1 Definition of ICC ... 27 2.3.2 Components of ICC ... 28 2.3.2.1 Knowledge ... 28 2.3.2.2 Attitude ... 30 2.3.2.3 Skills ... 31 2.3.3 Models of ICC... 33 2.3.4 Assessment of ICC ... 37
2.3.4.1 Behavioral Asssessment Scale for Intercultural Communication ... 37
2.3.4.2 INCA Project Tools ... 39
2.3.4.3 The Intercultural Development Inventory ... 39
2.4 ICC and English Language Teaching ... 41
2.4.1 The Intercultural Speaker ... 41
2.4.2 Common European Framework and ICC ... 45
2.4.3 Studies for Developing Intercultural Competence ... 45
2.5 Intercultural Training ... 48
2.5.1 Types of Intercultural Training ... 49
2.5.2 Methods of Intercultural Training ... 50
2.5.2.1 Role-Plays ... 50 2.5.2.2 Critical Incidents ... 50 2.5.2.3 Culture Assimilators ... 51 2.5.2.4 Small-Group Exercises ... 52 2.5.2.5 Videotapes... 52 2.6 Conclusion ... 53 CHAPTER III ... 54 METHODOLOGY ... 54 3.0 Introduction ... 54 3.1 Research Design... 54
3.3 Data Collection Procedure ... 57
3.4 Data Collection Instruments ... 58
3.4.1 The Behavioral Observation Checklist ... 58
3.4.2 The Self-Assessment Checklist... 61
3.4.3 The Interview Form ... 61
3.5 Analysis of the Data ... 62
3.6 Data Collection Process ... 68
3.6.1 Role-plays for the pre-post test observations ... 68
3.6.2 Weekly Treatment ... 70
3.7 Conclusion ... 75
CHAPTER IV ... 76
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 76
4.0 Introduction ... 76
4.1 Findings and Discussion Related to the First Sub-Question of the Research ... 76
4.1.1 The Comparison of the Pre-test Observation Scores between the Experimental and Control Groups ... 76
4.1.2 The Comparison of the Post-test Observation Scores between the Experimental and Control Groups ... 78
4.2 Findings and Discussion Related to the Second Sub-Question of the Research ... 81
4.2.1 The Comparison of the Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores in the Control Group ... 81
4.2.2 The Comparison of the Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores in the Experimental Group ... 83
4.3 Findings and Discussion Related to the Third Sub-Question of the Research ... 86
4.3.1 The Comparison of the Pre-test Self-Assessment Scores between the Experimental and Control Groups ... 86
4.3.2 The Comparison of the Post-test Self-Assessment Scores between the Experimental and Control Groups ... 87
4.4 Findings and Discussion Related to the Fourth Sub-Question of the Research ... 90
4.4.1 The Comparison of the Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores in the Control Group ... ..90
4.4.2 The Comparison of the Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores in the
Experimental Group ... 92
4.5 Findings and Discussion Related to the Fifth Sub-Question of the Research ... 95
4.5.1 Knowledge ... 95 4.5.2 Attitude ... 98 4.5.3 Behavioral Skills ... 102 4.5.4 Activities ... 104 4.5.5 Content ... 107 4.5.6 General Opinions ... 110 4.6 Conclusion ... 113 CHAPTER V ... 114
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 114
5.1 Summary of the Study ... 114
5.2 Pedagogical Implications ... 117
5.3 Recommendations for Further Research ... 119
REFERENCES ... 121
APPENDICES ... 136
Appendix I. Graphics on Statistical Findings ... 137
Appendix II. The Behavioral Observation Checklist ... 139
Appendix III. The Self-Assessment Checklist ... 140
Appendix IV. Demographic Survey of Intercultural Experience ... 142
Appendix V. The Interview Form ... 144
Appendix VI. Role-plays for the Pre-Post Tests ... 146
Appendix VII. Role-plays in the Treatment ... 152
Appendix VIII. Ruben’s Behavioral Observation Guide ... 156
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1. Cultural Value Dimensions ... 16 Table 2. Models of ICC ... 36 Table 3. T-Test Results for the Comparison of Experimantal and Control Groups’ YDS Scores ... 57 Table 4. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Results ... 63 Table 5. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Pre-test Scores for Interaction Management ... 64 Table 6. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Pre-test Scores for
Respect ... 64 Table 7. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Pre-test Scores for Interaction Posture... 65 Table 8. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Pre-test Scores for Relational Role Behaviour ... 65 Table 9. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Post-test Scores for
Interaction Management ... 66 Table 10. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Post-test Scores for
Respect ... 66 Table 11. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Post-test Scores for
Interaction Posture ... 67 Table 12. Kendall’s Tau Correlation Analysis Results of the Post-test Scores for
Relational Role Behaviour ... 67 Table 13. Mann Whitney U Test Results of the Comparison of the Pre-test Observation Scores in the Experimental and Control Groups... 76 Table 14. Mann Whitney U Test Results of the Comparison of the Post-test Observation Scores in the Experimental and Control Groups... 78 Table 15. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Interaction Management ... 81 Table 16. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Respect ... 82
Table 17. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Interaction Posture ... 82 Table 18. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Relational Role Behaviour ... 83 Table 19. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Interaction Management ... 83 Table 20. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Respect ... 84 Table 21. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Interaction Posture... 84 Table 22. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Observation Scores for Relational Role Behaviour ... 85 Table 23. Mann Whitney U Test Results of the Comparison of the Pre-test
Self-Assessment Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups ... 86 Table 24. Mann Whitney U Test Results of the Comparison of the Post-test
Self-Assessment Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups ... 88 Table 25. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Interaction Management ... 90 Table 26. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Respect ... 91 Table 27. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Interaction Posture ... 91 Table 28. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Control Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Relational Role Behaviour ... 92 Table 29. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Interaction Management ... 92 Table 30. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Respect ... 93 Table 31. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Interaction Posture ... 93
Table 32. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Results of the Experimental Group’s Pre-test and Post-test Self-Assessment Scores for Relational Role Behaviour ... 94 Figure 1. Global Competencies Model ... 34 Figure 2. Bennett’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity ... 34
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ELF: English as a Lingua Franca ELT: English Language Teaching
EIW: European Intercultural Workplace (Project) ESL: English as a Second Language
ESP: English for Specific Purposes IC: Intercultural Competence
ICC: Intercultural Communicative Competence ICW: Intercultural Communication Workshop IDI: Intercultural Development Inventory INCA: Intercultural Assessment (Project)
LACE: Languages and Cultures in Europe (Project) YDS: Yabancı Dil Sınavı (Foreign Language Exam)
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Statement of the Problem
In recent years, more emphasis has been given to the role of intercultural communication in language learning and teaching. Researchers of the field have been pointing out that not only communicative competence, but also ―intercultural competence‖ should be the aim in learning a foreign language. In the case of English language learning, this need appears to be even greater as English has become a ―lingua franca‖. As a consequence, today, non-native speakers of English outnumber its native speakers. Therefore, English is used not only in native to native speaker or native to native speaker communication, but also and mostly between native and non-native speakers in intercultural settings. Hence, the appropriateness of considering the native speaker as the model in English language teaching has become questionable. In this respect, the implementation of a model of ―intercultural communicative competence‖ (ICC) which extends the model of communicative competence in language learning and teaching has been suggested by some scholars.
Wiseman (2003) claims that while there does not seem to be a standard definition of ICC, most of the research reflects a view of ICC as a concept that involves ―the knowledge, motivation and skills to interact effectively and appropriately with members of different cultures‖ (p. 208). As emphasized in this definition, effective interaction and negotiation between members of different cultures is the main concern in intercultural competence. In order to highlight this point, Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) use the term ―intercultural interaction competence‖ which refers to the same concept of intercultural competence.
Block and Cameron (2002) emphasize social interaction as the medium of constructing and maintaining social relations among humans. In their discussion on the
consequences of globalization, they state that the global networks formed by members of the world require ―new ways of using languages they know already‖ which include communication skills (p. 2). Therefore, there are implications not only for the language learners but also for the native speakers of a language. Block and Cameron (2002) cite from Pierre Bourdieu who claims that mastery in communication skills is an important ―linguistic capital‖ (p. 5).
In this respect, language teaching field is one of the areas that has been gradually influenced by globalization. As Cameron (2002) puts forth, while it was certain occupations such as the business sector that were expected to be trained in communication skills; today, with the increasing mobility and global networks, language teaching professionals will also need to incorporate training in communication skills into their classes for the ―less elite occupational groups‖ (p. 71). Cameron (2002) uses the term ―communication skills‖ to refer to effective spoken interaction which is part of the ―life skills‖ that all humans need (p. 75).
In terms of the increase of mobility in the world due to globalization, Turkish students and teachers have been engaged in mobility activities especially with Europe owing to the educational exchange programs supported by the Council of Europe. As a consequence, more people from different nationalities come into contact and they use English as the medium of their communication. This communication takes place primarily as non-native to non-native speaker interactions. Therefore, taking the native speaker interaction patterns or the native speaker culture as the model would not help in these interactions. What is necessary is an ability to interact with the skills of intercultural competence, which is a dimension of ICC. Hoa (2008) states that effective communication not only involves mastering a linguistic code, but also means coping with various cultural values reflected in the use of language. From this perspective, the English language learners and teachers, including pre-service teachers, should be equipped with skills not only for interaction with native speakers, but also for interacting with non-native speakers of English in intercultural settings.
As Sercu (2005a) argues, ―the objective of language learning is no longer defined in terms of the acquisition of communicative competence in a foreign language. Teachers are now required to teach intercultural communicative competence‖ (p. 1). Intercultural
3
competence cannot be assumed to develop naturally with the learning of a foreign language (Meyer, 1991). Methods and materials to develop intercultural competence can be integrated in different ways into the language teaching curriculum. However, there is a lack of studies in this area in Turkey. This study is an attempt to fill part of this gap in the field. It tries to find out whether or not integrating intercultural training into an English Oral Communication Skills course can be an effective way for developing pre-service English language teachers‘ behavioral skills of intercultural competence.
There are few empirical studies which are related to the behavioral skills dimension of intercultural competence. In a broader picture, the study of intercultural competence in English language teaching is related to the teaching of ELF (English as a lingua franca). Acording to Sifakis (2009), there are very few studies on possible teaching practices for ELF. He suggests that the initial part of an ELF curriculum can focus on ―making learners aware of what is involved in contextualized instances of successful NNS-NNS [non-native speaker-non-native speaker] communication‖, and ―engaging them in similar interactions among themselves‖ (p. 231).
In the the field of English language teaching, Zehir Topkaya and Demir (2011) make the point that pre-service English language teachers‘ intercultural awareness need to be developed before they start practicing their professions. They carried out a study to find out the impact of a 14-week course titled ―Intercultural Communication and Language Teaching‖ on pre-service English language teachers‘ opinions on culture and culture teaching. It was found that the students had a more expanded viewpoint of culture which was not limited with the culture of the target language and which emphasized the importance of tolerance and understanding to cultural differences. As a result, they suggest that such courses should be integrated into the teacher education programs.
According to Nunn (2000), successful group interaction for negotiation of understanding ―is not only a necessary skill in terms of interaction in a foreign language, it is also worthwhile in terms of promoting truly intercultural exchange‖ (p. 170). It appears that the mostly related studies to the development of the behavioral skills dimension of intercultural competence in the foreign language teaching field have
focused on explicit strategy training for such kind of negotiation. In the field of English language teaching again; Bejarano, Levine, Olshtain, and Steiner (1997) carried out a study that aimed to enable effective communicative interaction in groupwork activities. With this purpose, strategy training was given to high school language learners for six weeks which included Interaction and Social-Interaction strategies. Modified-Interaction strategies included (a) checking for comprehension and clarification, (b) appealing for assistance, (c) giving assistance, and (d) repairing. Social-Interaction strategies included in the study were (a) elaborating, (b) facilitating flow of conversation, (c) responding, (d) seeking information or an opinion, and (e) paraphrasing. Students‘ ten-minute discussions in groups of four and five were videotaped both before and after the treatment. At the end of the study, it was found out that the training was efficient for the development of the quantity and quality of participation in discussions.
FitzGerald (2003) reports the findings of a study carried out in an English as a second language (ESL) teaching context in Australia, in which some intercultural competencies were taught explicitly. The interactions that took place between the participants of the study were videotaped in order to observe the development in three phases of pre-training, mid-training and post-training. The results of the study revealed that the participants had improvement in their intercultural skills to some degree.
In the field of foreign language teaching, Savignon and Sysoyev (2002) suggest sociocultural strategies for a dialogue of cultures. According to them, the prerequisite for effective intercultural communication is for the learners to ―assume their roles both as open-minded representatives of their L1 community and as subjects engaged in a dialogue of cultures‖ (p. 509). In their study, a taxonomy that includes sociocultural strategies is presented, as the formerly existing L2 communicative strategies have not dealt with cultural performance in particular. The taxonomy of sociocultural strategies proposed by Savignon and Sysoyev (2002) is composed of:
Strategies for Establishing and Maintaining Intercultural Contact
1. Initiating and maintaining intercultural contact for the purpose of learning about the values, norms, spiritual heritage, and so forth of an L2 culture; acting as a representative of your own culture.
2. Anticipating sociocultural lacunae that can result in misunderstanding, creation of false stereotypes and intercultural conflict.
3. Taking inititative and responsibility for avoiding intercultural misunderstanding, explaining features of one‘s own culture; asking interlocutors to explain features of their culture.
4. Using diplomacy for the purpose of maintaining a dialogue of cultures in the spirit of peace and mutual understanding; redirecting a discussion to a more neutral topic; dissimulation of personal views to avoid potential conflict.
Strategies for Creating Sociocultural Portraits of an L2 Context and the Participants in Intercultural Communication
5. Making analogies, oppositions, generalizations, and comparisons between facts and realities of L1 and L2 cultures.
6. Identification and interpretation of unfamiliar features of an L2 culture; identification of new communicative situations.
7. Classification, compilation, generalization of sociocultural information when working with mass media, including the Internet, and informational-reference literature.
8. Review of authentic cultural material. (p. 513)
Based on this taxonomy, Savignon and Sysoyev (2002) carried out explicit strategy training in an English as a foreign language (EFL) program of a Russian high school with thirty students who had advanced level proficiency in English. After approximately thirty minutes of strategy training per week for nine weeks, student opinions were found out about the training. The results showed that the students mostly had positive opinions and explicit strategy training was successful for the preparation of language learners for effective intercultural communication.
In the field of education, Mahoney and Schamber (2004) conducted an empirical study with two classes of first-year university students in general education courses. Their aim was to find out whether a curriculum that employs comprehension of information or a curriculum based on analysis and evaluation is more effective in developing the intercultural sensitivity of learners. Students‘ development was assessed based on their movement on Bennett‘s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. The content analysis on students‘ responses to the writing prompts and the results of an interview revealed that the curriculum that involved role-playing, research and small group discussions enabled learners to develop more intercultural sensitivity and be more effective in negotiating cultural difference. The findings of this study support the view that intercultural training that consists of both cognitive and
experiential techniques would be more effective than training that is based on only one of them (Gudykunst, Hammer, & Wiseman, 1977).
Again in the field of education, Barrera and Corso (2002) offer a relational approach to cultural competency and define it as ―Skilled Dialogue‖. In this approach, forming relationships based on three main qualities, which are respect, reciprocity and responsiveness, is argued to be the actual measure for cultural competency. Based on an action research and actual applications while working with culturally diverse families and children for over ten years, some strategies are suggested and example statements are given as concrete indicators. The strategies suggested by Barrera and Corso (2002) for each of the three qualities of ―Skilled Dialogue‖ can be listed as:
1. Strategies Related to Respect:
a. Get information about others‘ perspectives b. Examine your own perspective
c. Listen/observe without judgement
d. Identify specific contradictions or culture bumps 2. Strategies Related to Reciprocity:
a. Clarify others‘ understanding of your perspective b. Recognize others‘ contributions
c. Shift focus of conversation to ―equalize‖ participation d. Reframe contradictions into complementary perspectives
3. Strategies Related to Responsiveness:
a. Reflect understanding of others‘ perspectives
b. Keep listening and asking questions until you can credibly communicate (verbally and nonverbally)
c. Explore/create responses that incorporate multiple perspectives. (p. 111-112)
Hence, the study is related to the behavioral skills of intercultural competence and offers a perspective for its development.
Hammer‘s study (1984), which was carried out in the field of communication studies, is closely related to the subject of the present study with its methodology. Hammer (1984) used Ruben‘s behaviour observation methodology (1976) in order to measure the effects of an intercultural communication workshop on American subjects‘ intercultural communication competence. Each participant was involved in a structured communication event which formed the pre-test and post-test of the study. The
discussions in the pre-post tests lasted ten minutes and they were videotaped. The contrast-American technique was used in the pre-post test communication events. The subjects were assessed on six of the intercultural communication competence indices developed by Ruben (1976), which were display of respect, interaction posture, orientation to knowledge, empathy, interaction management, and tolerance for ambiguity. The intercultural communication workshop was a ten-week program that consisted of writing weekly journals, reading assignments, discussions on certain topics and task assignments for intercultural two-member teams.
Interrater reliability was tested for two judges and it was found that there was a high degree of correlation between their ratings. The results of the study, however, revealed that there was no significant difference on any of the six dimensions of intercultural communication competence. Therefore, the appropriacy of the pedagogical activities followed in the program was questioned for the development of the behavioral dimension of intercultural competence. Hammer (1984) suggests the investigation of ―what ICW [intercultural communication workshop] formats (activities) are related to what learning outcomes‖ for further studies (p. 261).
1.2 Aim of the Study
Intercultural training has generally been studied in the context of business studies. Taking place in a context of English language teaching, the present study explores whether the integration of intercultural training in a foreign language course would be effective for the development of students‘ intercultural competence. The research question of the study is as follows:
―Is an intercultural training integrated Oral Communication Skills course effective for the development of the pre-service English language teachers‘ behavioral skills of intercultural competence at Gazi University, ELT Program?‖
It is hypothesized that it is possible to improve the pre-service English language teachers‘ behavioral skills of intercultural competence through an intercultural training integrated Oral Communication Skills course. In order to verify this hypothesis, answers to the following sub-questions will be sought:
1. Is there a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test observation scores between the students in the experimental and control groups?
2. Is there a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test observation scores of the students within the experimental group and the control group themselves?
3. Is there a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test self-assessment scores between the students in the experimental and control groups?
4. Is there a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test self-assessment scores of the students within the experimental group and the control group themselves?
5. What are the opinions of the students on the intercultural training integrated Oral Communication Skills course in which the study was carried out?
As suggested in the literature for the assessment of intercultural competence, a mixed methods approach was used in the study which combines self-assessments of participants, observation assessments by instructors and an interview. The self-assessment results of the students revealed their self-perceptions about their behavioral skills of intercultural competence. Any differences between the self-perceptions and the observers‘ assessments were expected to display whether self-perceptions on the skills are reflected on the actual behavior. The students‘ opinions of the treatment were found out by the interview which demonstrates the strengths and weaknesses of the study, and give clues for future studies.
Components of intercultural competence are interdependent. Therefore, although the focus may be on one dimension, interventions for the development of intercultural competence need to address all three components which are knowledge, attitude and skills; in other words, cognition, affect and behavior. While the subjects were assessed on their behavioral skills of intercultural competence in this study, the knowledge and attitude dimensions were also addressed in the intercultural training. The cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions of the subjects‘ intercultural competence were expected to be reflected in their behavioral communication patterns after the training. As Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) state, different components of ICC would need different time-scales to develop. One of the reasons of focusing on the behavioral skills component of ICC in this study is that it is the component of ICC which tends to improve in a short to medium term (Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009, p. 201). Therefore, it is likely to be achieved in the classroom context with development
interventions. Another reason is that, as Kealey (as cited in Prechtl & Davidson Lund, 2007) points out, being able to show one‘s understandings of intercultural competence in one‘s own behavior is crucial for an interculturally competent person. On the other hand, while intercultural development interventions can be either culture-general or specific, in this study the training that was given to the students was culture-general.
In the light of the findings of the related studies in the literature, the current study would contribute to the field of English language teaching with a focus on the behavioral skills dimension of intercultural competence. Among the existing approaches to the teaching of intercultural competence, as stated by Sercu (2005a), the present study applies the approach of the integration of intercultural competence teaching into the foreign language teaching practices. In this respect, it aims to offer a way for the integration of intercultural training to a skills-based course for pre-service teachers of English.
1.3 Importance of the Study
Language teaching has been influenced by the needs that globalization has been causing. Due to the increasing mobility in the world, English is mostly used among its non-native speakers. As Byram (1997) states, in the past only the diplomats and the professional travelers were encouraged to communicate with people in other groups. Today, the new of condition of the world creates the notion of ―the intercultural speaker‖. This concept emerged as a consequence of the fact that seeing the native speaker as the model has been criticized. According to Byram (1997), ―a more desirable outcome is a learner with the ability to see and manage the relationships between themselves and their own cultural beliefs, behaviors and meanings‖ which are reflected in the language (p. 12). This intercultural approach to language teaching and learning brings with it the model of intercultural communicative competence. Hence, new objectives in foreign language teaching have been suggested.
These objectives are related to the intercultural competence dimension of ICC, which contains three main dimensions: knowledge, attitude and skills. While there is no doubt that ICC should be developed in English language learners, there are very few studies carried out on intercultural competence in foreign language teaching in Turkey.
Therefore, there is a need in the foreign language teaching field for studies that focus on the intercultural competence dimension of ICC. Besides, it is not only the language learners but also the language teachers who should have intercultural competence. Some researchers (e.g., Doğançay-Aktuna, 2005; Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996; McConachy, 2009; Seidlhofer, 1999; Sifakis, 2007) argue that the lingua-franca status of English has been imposing new roles on English language teachers. Communicative language teaching practices may no longer meet the needs of language learners. Teachers need to develop sociocultural awareness and a critical viewpoint towards pedagogies practiced in contexts other than their own.
As McKay (2002) claims, ―the comparison of bilingual users of English with native speaker models also needs to be challenged in reference to language teachers‖ (p. 41). Non-native teachers of English should gain an awareness of their own resources and insights in the process of developing an appropriate pedagogy that is suited to the needs of their own context. Hence, ELT teachers should not limit themselves with the native speaker as the model. For this reason, it is important to carry out studies on intercultural competence that involve language teachers as well as pre-service teachers as in this study. This study aims to contribute to the field by finding out whether or not integrating intercultural training into an Oral Communication Skills course is an effective way for developing the behavioral skills of the pre-service English language teachers‘ intercultural competence.
On the other hand, when it comes to the teaching of culture, what generally comes to mind is to expose the learners to information about the native speaker‘s culture. This understanding has formed the basis of most practices in integrating the teaching of culture into language teaching. However, the intercultural approach in language teaching is not about teaching the culture of a language community. As Myers (2006) states, ―foreign language learning must go beyond learning ‗about‘ a culture‘s rituals and histories and engage the learner in a reflective experience of the dialectic between language and culture‖ (p. 2). Limiting the learners to such kind of content in terms of culture would just be part of the ―knowledge‖ dimension of intercultural competence. However, learners also need to develop in terms of their attitude and skills of intercultural competence. Therefore, studies are needed to deal with these issues in
foreign language teaching. This need is greater in English language teaching because English language speakers are more likely to encounter intercultural situations.
Atay‘s study (2005) with sixty-five Turkish pre-service teachers of English reveals the limited knowledge of the prospective teachers in terms of intercultural competence. Another study carried out by Kurt and Atay (2009) shows that Turkish prospective teachers of English did not have a clear understanding about intercultural competence. Moreover, their teaching practices on cultural issues were not found to be effective.
According to Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009), behavioral skills including message communication and rapport management competencies are crucial in intercultural interaction situations. Therefore, they are essential skills for ICC. However, Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) state that ―such skills are crucial but strangely neglected in intercultural development interventions‖ (p. 214). The behavioral skills of intercultural competence that are dealt with in this study are closely linked to the message communication and rapport management competencies. Hence, this study would fill a gap by presenting findings on the impact of intercultural training on a neglected but significant dimension of ICC.
The research on intercultural communication and competence is not limited to a specific field. On the contrary, many disciplines have been doing research on different aspects of intercultural communication. It is believed that the findings of these disciplines can offer new insights and approaches to the research on intercultural competence in foreign language teaching. For this reason, this study has an interdisciplinary approach which also contributes to its importance.
1.4 Limitations
This study has several limitations. It is limited to:
1. Two classes of first year pre-service English language teachers studying at Gazi University, ELT Program in the 2009-2010 academic year and taking the Oral Communication Skills II course.
3. Four types of behavioral skills dimensions of intercultural competence which are Interaction Management, Respect, Interaction Posture and Relational Role Behaviour as stated in Ruben‘s study (1976).
4. The ―synthetic cultures‖ approach (G. J. Hofstede, Pedersen, & Hofstede, 2002) which is based on Hofstede‘s classification of cultural value dimensions (1980).
1.5 Assumptions
The present study is based on some assumptions. It is assumed that: 1. The data collection tools are appropriate for the aim of the study.
2. The expert opinions and the review of literature are sufficient in terms of the designed program.
3. The participants‘ responses to the data collection instruments are correct.
4. The subjects of the study were under equal influence of the factors that can not be controlled during the treatment process.
1.6 Definitions of the Key Concepts
Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC): ―Intercultural communicative competence‖ is an umbrella term that covers both ―communicative competence‖ and ―intercultural competence‖. According to Byram (1997), ICC includes linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and intercultural competence.
Intercultural Competence (IC): ―Intercultural competence‖ is a component of ―intercultural communicative competence‖. There are three main dimensions of intercultural competence: knowledge, attitude and skills which are also referred to as the cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions of IC.
Intercultural Training: Levy (1995) defines intercultural training as ―a cohesive series of events or activities designed to develop cultural self-awareness, culturally appropriate behavioral responses or skills, and a positive orientation toward other cultures‖ (p. 1).
Culture-General Development Interventions: Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) define culture-general development interventions as ―interventions preparing participants for dealing with all types of cultures‖ (p. 210).
Culture-Specific Development Interventions: Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) define culture-specific development interventions as ―those preparing participants for dealing with a particular culture‖ (p. 212).
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction
This chapter aims to present an overview of the main concepts, issues and discussions related to intercultural communication competence. It starts with a broader view of culture and intercultural communication by providing information on cultural value dimensions and intercultural communication theories. Then, it gives a review of intercultural communication competence, its components, models, assessment and its relation to English language teaching. Lastly, intercultural training practices are reviewed.
2.1 Cultural Value Dimensions
Culture can be defined as ―a learned set of shared perceptions about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behaviors of a relatively large group of people‖ (Lustig & Koester, 1996, p. 35). Hofstede (2009) describes culture as ―the unwritten rules of the social game that determine which behaviour is accepted in which role in the moral circle‖ (p. 98). There is an important connection between cultural values and intercultural communication. Samovar and Porter (as cited in FitzGerald, 2003) define cultural values as ―the social guideposts that show us the cultural norms of our society and specify in large measure the ways in which we should behave‖ (pp. 21-22). Therefore, one‘s cultural values have a significant influence on the way one communicates. Lack of awareness in cultural values is likely to lead to misunderstandings in intercultural interactions as one would tend to assume that one‘s cultural value system is universal (FitzGerald, 2003).
Communication styles are also closely related to cultural values. Clancy (as cited in FitzGerald, 2003) defines communication styles as ―the way language is used and understood in a particular culture‖ (p. 79). One‘s communication style is influenced by one‘s cultural values. Hence, awareness of different communication styles that tend to
be employed in different cultures would lead to more effective intercultural communication. An overview of the mostly referred cultural value classifications are presented in Table 1.
2.1.1 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations System
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s work (as cited in Klopf & McCroskey, 2007) in cultural anthropology suggests that there are variations of value orientations in different cultures which can be based on five basic questions. The questions are claimed to have three possible answers. These questions are (as cited in Cooper, Calloway-Thomas, & Simonds, 2007):
1.What is the character of innate human nature? Are humans basically bad, good, or a mixture of good and bad? (Human nature orientation)
2.What is the relationship of people to nature? Are humans controlled by nature, control nature, or live in balance with nature? (Man-nature relationship)
3.What is the time sense of human life? Do they emphasize the past, present, or future? (Time orientation)
4.What is the culture‘s activity orientation? Are humans being, being-in-becoming, or doing? (Activity orientation)
5.What is the social relationship of humans to one another? Is it authorization, group, or individual? (Relational orientation). (p. 22)
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (as cited in Cooper, Calloway-Thomas, & Simonds, 2007) claim that in a specific culture people tend to choose one of these three solutions and these tendencies form that culture‘s values. For example, it is claimed that while Americans tend to be future-oriented, Arabs are more likely to be past oriented.
2.1.2 Hall’s Behavioral Orientations and Communication Styles
Orientation towards the world and different communication styles form the two main criteria to distinguish cultures in Hall‘s classification (1959, 1966, 1976). Context is one of the issues related to communication style. According to Hall (1976), cultures can be classified into low-context cultures and high-context cultures. Based on the view that context involves not only verbal but also nonverbal elements, Hall (1976) claims that low and high context cultures differ in the flow of information in communication. While low-context cultures focus on verbal codes, high-context cultures tend to be more concerned with nonverbal codes. Hence, in high-context cultures very little information
Table 1. Cultural Value Dimensions
Human Nature Relation to Nature Activity Orientation Human Relationships Relation to Time Context Space Orientation Information Flow Language Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) Good Evil Neutral Mixed Changeable Unchangeable Subjugation Harmony Mastery Doing Being Being-in-becoming Individualistic Colleteral (collectivistic) Linear (hierarchical) Past Present Future Public Private Mixed Hall (1960, 1966, 1973, 1976) Hall and Hall (1987) Agreements Monochronic Polychronic Amount of space Possessions In-and out –groups Friendship Authority Past Future Monochronic Polychronic Low/high context Public Private Intimate Personal Social Covert/overt messages Low/high context Hofstede (1980) Low/high Uncertainty Avoidance Low/high Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity Femininity Low/high Power Distance Individualism Collectivism Bond (1987) / Chinese Culture Connection (1987) Long/short- term Orientation Trompenaars (1984, 1993) Hampden-Turner Trompenaars (1993) Universalism Particularism Inner/outer directed Achievement Ascription Analysing Integrating Individualism Communitarianism Equality Hierarchy Affective Neutral Sequential Synchronic Past Present Future
Reisinger and Turner (2003).
is transmitted through the message, indirectness is valued and more information is conveyed through other contextual means such as silence. In contrast, in low-context cultures, most of the information is conveyed in the message and directness is preferred, which also has implications for the language used. For example, being noisy and showing excitement may be more tolerable in a low-context culture than in a high-context culture. Hall (1976) suggests that different cultures can be placed along a continuum between low-context and high-context, rather than being at the polar opposites. Related to the issue of communication styles, Hall (1966) thinks that cultures also differ in their use of personal space. For instance, while social meetings are valued in public space cultures, privacy and maintaining distance are valued in private space cultures (Reisinger & Turner, 2003).
In terms of orientation towards the world in Hall‘s classification, the valued way of making an agreement is an important indicator of the human nature. High-context cultures tend to value spoken agreements. Written contracts are not necessarily seen as unchangeable. In low-context cultures, on the other hand, written contracts which finalise the agreement are valued (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). In terms of human relationships, the use of space appears to have a significant role. According to Hall (1966), what is regarded as intimate in one culture, may be seen as public in another. The way possessions influence a person‘s motivation is another factor related to human relationships. While some cultures may be more motivated by power, position or possession; other cultures may be more motivated by social harmony (Reisinger & Turner, 2003).
In-group and out-group relationships, friendships and orientations towards authority form other elements of human relationships. In high-context cultures, people identify themselves with certain groups (in-groups) such as families and neighbours; it is not easy to change groups. In low-context cultures, in contrast, people identify themselves with many groups in their whole lives and it is easy to change groups. While long-lasting friendships are valued in high-context cultures, short-term friendships are more common in low-context cultures. In terms of authority, in high-context cultures people of authority need to feel responsibility for their subordinates‘ actions; whereas, responsibility is shared in low-context cultures (Reisinger & Turner, 2003).
In terms of the importance attached to time, different cultures may value either past or the future. While Americans tend to value future more, Asians are closely attached to their traditions and therefore they give more value to the past. Hall (1983) makes a distinction between monochronic and polychronic cultures. In monochronic cultures, time is seen as quite valuable. Therefore, schedules and punctuality are very important. Monochronic people tend to deal with one task at a time. In polychronic cultures, such as Asian cultures, maintaining human relations are valued more than being punctual. Completion of the task is regarded as more important than keeping to the schedule. Polychronic people can keep several tasks going at one time (Hall, 1966).
2.1.3 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Variability
Hofstede (1980, 2001) analysed work-related value orientations with the survey data collected from fifty countries. The comparison of work-related attitudes across the countries involved in the study revealed four types of cultural patterns: individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity/ femininity.
Individualism/Collectivism: The value attached to individual or group achievements determines whether a culture is individualist or collectivist. Personal goals, freedom, self-actualization, and personal needs are emphasized in individulist cultures. Competition, individual achievement, individual opinions and challenge are some of the valued concepts and identity is based on the individual (Hofstede, 1997). In collectivist cultures, opinions and needs of the in-group, such as a person‘s family, are more important than the individual‘s needs. Group goals, consensus and cooperation are emphasized. Members of a collectivist culture are expected to maintain harmony and conform to the norms of the group.
Power Distance: The extent to which a culture tolerates unequal distribution of power in relations and organizations shows power distance. High- power distance cultures value authority, conformity, hierarchy and obedience. Age, sex and status differences are maximized. Whereas; in low-power distance cultures, such differences and inequality are minimized. Independence and personality are valued. Low-power distance cultures have a more direct and less formal communication style.
Uncertainty Avoidance: The degree to which a culture feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations is an indicator of that culture‘s uncertainty avoidance. In high-uncertainty avoidance cultures uncertainty is avoided. The members of such cultures try to avoid conflict and risk-taking, seek for life and job security and prefer stability. Law and order, hard work and achievement are emphasized. In low-uncertainty avoidance cultures, low-uncertainty, ambiguity and deviant behaviours are tolerated. Risk-taking, flexibility and new ideas are valued.
Masculinity/Femininity: The extent to which a culture values masculine traits such as assertiveness, wealth and achievement determines a culture‘s masculinity/ femininity. In highly masculine cultures, ambition, competitiveness and excellence are emphasized. Sex roles are not equal and men tend to have dominance. Members of highly masculine cultures tend to have an aggressive communication style. In highly feminine cultures, in contrast, sex roles are equal. Emotion, sensitivity and nurturing are valued.
2.1.4 Bond’s Confucian Cultural Patterns
Michael Bond and his team developed and conducted a Chinese Value Survey which was based on forty Chinese values and which was administered to university students in twenty-three countries across the world. The aim was to test whether studies carried out previously in Europe and United States might have a Western bias by comparing the results with Hofstede‘s findings (1980). Bond‘s team claimed four dimensions of cultural patterns based on the results: integration, human- heartedness, moral discipline and Confucian work dynamism (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). The first three of these dimensions were found to correspond to Hofstede‘s dimensions (1980) of ―individualism/collectivism‖, ―masculinity/femininity‖, and ―power distance‖. The only dimension which was not related to Hofstede‘s dimensions (1980) was the ―Confucian work dynamism‖. Four of the Confucian work dynamism values that are positively associated with the dimension are thriftiness, persistence, status differences in relations and a sense of shame.
Hofstede (2001) claimed that these values and others such as reciprocation, hard work and importance attached to future are signs of a long-term orientation toward life. The four values which were negatively associated with the dimension were maintaining the face of self and others, practicing personal stability, following traditions and
reciprocity. According to Hofstede (2001), these values and tolerance, leisure, importance attached to the past and present, and spending signal people who have a short-term orientation toward life. After Bond‘s study (as cited in Reisinger and Turner, 2003), ―long-term/short-term orientation‖ was integrated into Hofstede‘s (1980) cultural patterns as a fifth dimension.
2.1.5 Trompenaars’ Cultural Dimensions
Trompenaars (as cited in Reisinger & Turner, 2003) and Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (as cited in Reisinger & Turner, 2003) differentiate cultures in a way similar to Parson‘s categorization (as cited in Reisinger & Turner, 2003). Therefore, they refer to ―universalism / particularism‖ to differentiate cultures based on how they describe things. In universalistic cultures, people describe each other and objects by acting according to general rules. In particularistic cultures, people follow specific rules to decribe and interact with others depending on the situation (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). In terms of relation to nature, ―inner‖ versus ―outer‖ directed orientation differentiates cultures based on whether they use internal or external motives to guide their behaviour. Inner-directed cultures which rely on internal motives believe that they can contol nature, while outer-directed cultures that rely on external motives unite with nature (Reisinger & Turner, 2003).
―Ascription/achievement‖ dimension is related to the way people assess each other. In cultures with ascription orientation, inbuilt qualities of people such as gender and race are used to base assessments and to predict behaviour. In cultures with achievement orientation, assessment and judgements are based on one‘s achievements (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). ―Analysing specifics/integrating wholes‖ dimension is also related to a culture‘s activity orientation. In cultures with an analysing specifics orientation, people catogorize others and objects based on particular facts such as the role and responsibility attributed to the person. In cultures with an integrating wholes orientation, on the other hand, people have a holistic way of categorization which integrates details, patterns and structures.
―Individualism/communitarianism‖ orientation is what Hofstede (1980) refers to as ―individualism/collectivism‖. ―Equality/hierarchy‖ orientation, which is another dimension related to human relationships, describes cultures which value equality and
make judgements based on authority. In terms of the ―affectivity/neutrality‖ orientation, on the othe hand, members of cultures that have affective orientation direct their behaviours by emotions. Members of neutrality orientation cultures, in contrast, control their behaviour based on facts (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). ―Time as sequence/time as synchronization‖ is an orientation related to time. In cultures which see time as sequence, being on time, getting things done sequentially and planning are important. In cultures which time is seen as synchronization, doing many things at one time and treating time as flexible are the characteristic features (Reisinger & Turner, 2003).
2.2 Intercultural Communication Theories
Intercultural communicaton theories have tried to explain the processes that result in effective or ineffective communication between members of different cultures. Most of the theories in intercultural communication are expanded from the theories that were originally developed to explain intergroup and interpersonal communication. The focus of the theories in the literature includes cross-cultural variability in communication, adjustment and acculturation, identity, adaptations in interactions, and effective communication (Gudykunst, 2005a). The theories in this chapter are the ones which are more related to the communication process in intercultural interactions, and hence more relevant to the subject of the present study.
2.2.1 Constructivist Theory of Communication and Culture
Applagate and Sypher (1988) developed constructivist theory of communication to integrate cultural influences on communication. The constructivist approach to communication sees communicative behaviour as a person-centered pragmatic action which is adaptable to the needs of the participants and which is goal-driven. Individuals taking part in the communication process employ strategies to reach their goals which they may not necessarily be aware of. According to Applegate and Sypher (1988), culture influences communication in terms of the logic of communication, the goals and strategic organization of action and the cognitive schemes. They present the following propositions of the theory which summarize its main points as:
Proposition 1: Communication is goal-driven, but actors are not always aware of their goals.
Proposition 2: Strategic communicative behaviour is indexed hierarchically to reflect increasing complexity in behaviour.
Proposition 3: Person-centered communication reflects an integration of process-oriented communication competencies.
Proposition 4: The influence of culture on communication is most evident in situations in which conventional goals and plans are ―given‖ to actors, but since conventions are implicit and routine; intercultural communicators often are unaware of the differences distorting communication.
Proposition 5: Cultural communication theories are learned through socialization.
Proposition 6: Cultural prescriptions are used rather than followed. Proposition 7: Culture defines the logic of communication.
Proposition 8: Cultures differentially value communication goals and alternative strategies for reaching these goals.
Proposition 9: Cultural communication theories specify how to place and organize events within larger contexts of meaning and elaboration.
Proposition 10: Intercultural training should focus on developing flexible and integrative strategic means for accomplishing goals. (p. 59)
The last proposition of the theory is especially significant for this study, as it highlights the importance of intercultural training and developing strategies for establishing successful intercultural communication. Flexibility, in this sense, is considered as vital to be able to adopt to different communication environments.
2.2.2 Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory
The theory is important and relates to this study as it highlights the necessity of finding a ―middle ground‖ in today‘s world where living with people with different values, beliefs and lifestyles is inevitable (Pearce, 2005). Therefore; it posits that ways of accomplishing accommodation should be aimed, rather than giving way for conflicts. In this process communication is seen as performative, and the acts of communication are suggested to take place always in multiple contexts. The theory originates from the question of ―How can we make better social worlds?‖ and therefore seeks constructivism. It aims to be a resource for understanding, describing and facilitating emerging forms of communication. It also acknowledges the importance of the teaching of values and skills effectively.
In terms of establishing coordination, one of the main concepts of the theory, the following maxims are suggested (Pearce, 2005):
- Be mindful that you are participating in a multiturn process,
- Be mindful that the process involves reciprocally responding to and eliciting responses from other people,
- Be mindful that this process creates the social world in which we all live. (p. 50).
According to Pearce (2005), the theory‘s view of communication implies commitments such as developing sufficient self-awareness to treat other people with curiosity and respect, developing abilities to think in terms of patterns, relationships and systems rather than only in terms of one‘s own intentions, developing habits and skills of listening to other people to understand them, and developing the ability to move among perspectives (p. 51).
2.2.3 Face Negotiation Theory
Intercultural conflict forms the basis of face-negotiation theory. According to Ting-Toomey (2005), either consciously or unconsciously, the cultural group membership differences between two parties may cause emotional frustration, and thus conflict. The main reason of conflicts, on the other hand, is the underlying beliefs and values of the individuals. At this point, the issue of ―face‖ comes into play, which is related to the ―emotional significance and estimated calculations that we attach to our own social self-worth and the social self-self-worth of others‖ (Ting-Toomey, 2005, p. 73). When there is conflict, face is threatened and this causes engaging in some verbal and nonverbal behaviors to recover face loss, which Ting-Toomey (2005) calls ―facework‖.
In face-negotiation theory, it is assumed that people try to negotiate face in all cultures. However, there may be differences in the ways that different cultures try to maintain face. According to Ting-Toomey (2005), there is a relationship between cultural variability dimensions and how facework is employed in different cultures. In this respect, Hofstede‘s dimensions (1997) of ―individualism-collectivism‖ and ―small-large power distance‖ are referred in the theory. For example, it is assumed that while members of individualist cultures prefer self-oriented facework, members of collectivist cultures prefer other-oriented facework. Also, while members of small-power distance cultures are expected to prefer horizontal-based facework, members of large-power distance cultures are expected to prefer vertical-based facework.
