The Role of Theaters in Making Common
People Civilized in 19
th
Century’s Istanbul
Comparing with Vienna and Paris
LOHWLÁLP DUDÁW¿UPDODU¿
Dilek Özhan Koçak
Abstract
Paris where was already the center of bourgeois dominance transforms along with the cultural institutions and entertainment practices in 19th century. Theatre as a social art form not only responds to the wishes of new elites who desire to be seen as elite as aristocrats, but also become an institution where the “barbarians”, who just came to city from towns to work in factories, would be civilized and prepared to modern city life.
On the other hand modern repertory theatres first came into existence in Galata/Pera region in 19th century simultaneously with the urban transformation of Istanbul. Initially,similar to the theatres in Europe, they became the places where elites could highlight their position. However, since the theater performances in this district of the city were primarily in French, it was not possible for common people to follow them. Consequently, intellectuals and the ruling elite gave a special importance to theaters, which were thought to be the place where western norms could put into action. Because considering the literacy rate in this period, in the transition of western values, theaters’ accessibility for common people were much more easier comparing other media such as newspaper and journals. Thus, along with the theaters in Galata/Pera, Ottoman Theater had been constructed in the region where majority of population were Muslim Turkish people.
Keywords: Theater, civilization, culture, city, modernization.
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Theaters constructed in Galata/Pera region in 19th century’s Istan-bul become the places where bureaucrats and bourgeois could highlight their position similarly to the theaters in European cities. However some theaters, except the ones in Galata/Pera, were built for Muslim Turkish people in order to make them civilized and impede the distances which was probable to occur between common and elites after the declaration RI7DQ]LPDW)HUPDQ×The leading intellectuals and ruling elites believed that in the process of representation of the values of West and in making common people civilized, Western Theaters -comparing with other media such as newspaper and journals- would be more effective consid-ering the literacy rate. Hence the intellectuals adapted the plays properly to the common peoples’ culture while they were translating them. Art was used as a medium by intellectuals to educate and make common people civilized.
Norbert Elias onesmentioned that the expected attitute from a civi-lized man is not to touch but to watch with eyes, not to talk but to be guite, not to be active but to be passive. Pierre Bourdieu also consider in the similar perspective that he says the basic difference between the taste of middle class and proletariat is “distance” and “participation”. Consid-ering from Elias’ and Bourdieu’s arguments, this paper intends to under-stand the role of theatres particularly the ones in Istanbul in making
The Role of Theaters in Making Common
People Civilized in 19
th
Century’s Istanbul
Comparing with Vienna and Paris
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common people civilized and in expanding modern urban culture. Their position will be thought comparatively the theatres in other European cities such as Paris and Vienna with terms of “civilization” and “cul-ture”.
In the first part of the article, the reason why i dwell on the terms of
kultur and civilisation is to understand the changing socio-cultural
envi-ronment of 19th century’s Istanbul along with Europe. In the subsequent sections, after i touch on how theater audiences change along with the changing social, cultural and economical environment, i will mention how the mobilization which was started with Tanzimat, reflect the char-acter of Istanbul. On one hand theaters in Galata/Pera region responded the gentrifying effords of new elites themselves, on the other hand the leading cultural institution named Ottoman Theater which was con-structed in the district where commons reside had a role as a communi-cation medium in making common civilized. In the last part of the arti-cle, I will also dwell on the role of Ottoman Theater in making common civilized and in educating them proper to modern urban culture.
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The term of civilisation is created by the terms of civilise and civi-liser and used in its modern meaning in 18th century1 (Braudel, 1996:
1RUEHUW(OLDVDFNQRZOHGJHVWKDWWKHÀUVWZULWWHQGRFXPHQWEHORQJVWRMirabeau in terms
of the existence of the concept of “civilisation” in about early 18th century. (Elias, 2005: 114) Lucien Febvre also acknowledges that he did not encounter with the word of
civilisa-tionLQDQ\SULQWHGWH[WEHIRUH+HEHOLHYHVWKDWWKHZRUGFRPHLQWRH[LVWHQFHEHWZHHQ
Civilisation emerges not only to increase the power of the word of civilise but also differentiate from its previous meanings of civil and polite (Febvre, 1995: 28). As a matter of fact, synonymous terms of civi-lisé, cultive, poli, police are used to characterize the behaviors of courts, thus they can distinguish themselves from commons. Through these concepts, they could feel themselves higher than the others, “simple and primitive people” (Elias, 2005: 114-116).
Civilisation contained two ideas. Firstly, it is used as the counter phase of barbarism. Corresponding an uncivilised public, the idea emphasized that the civilisation was a process; thus, court could set itself apart from “barbarians”. As the result of weakening of aristo-cratic power, middle class inherited the attitudes of court and devel-oped the factors of being civilised; thus, they could place themselves LQDSULYLOHJHGSRVLWLRQVLPLODUO\WRFRXUW6HFRQGO\ZLWKLWV´WRWDOLWDU-LDQµDQG´XQLIRUPµPHDQLQJFLYLOLVDWLRQ (OLDV LJQRUHGWKH international differences in the late 18th century and the early 19th century during the rise of middle class. However the reaction to its totalitarian meaning was quick enough. The romantic reaction to the mentioned term gave rise to the term of kultur. When kultur2was first used in Germany, it was written as cultur which was a French term. In its first usage, it was used as the synonymous of civilisation which meaned “intellectual, spritual and material developing process”. Although kultur was firstly the part of “general spirit of enlightment”, in the course of time it turned into “deliberate attack” to its uniformity (Eagleton, 2005: 18, 20-21).
While the concept of civilisation in French included the meaning of the specific condition of French bourgeoisie, the meaning of kultur in German contained the specific social destiny of German bourgeoisie. With the rise of bourgeoisie the term of kultur was used as the “expres-sion of national consciousness” (Elias, 2005: 129). As a matter of fact, giving priority to the term of kultur in German, weakened the power of the meaning of civilisation. According to Tonnies (1922) and Weber civilisation was only “the sum of vehicles that impact nature”. Counter to civilisation kultur was, “normative principles, values and 2 In german
LGHDOV ZLWKDVLQJOHZRUGLWZDVPHQWDOLW\µ %UDXGHO 7KH question of “what is French or English” was obvious. From now on the answer of the question “what is German?” was kultur (OLDV The kultur of Germany came to a situation to compete with the civilisa-tion of France.
The term of civilisation included the behavior as well. Accordingly, “civilised” was used to describe the forms of human attitude or behav-ior and people’s relationship to their environments, their dress and ODQJXDJH (OLDV ,QRWKHUZRUGVWREHFLYLOLVHGUHTXLUHG the fullfillment of the rituals of being civilised.
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,QWKHILUVWTXDUWHURIWKFHQWXU\WKHDWUHDQGLWVDXGLHQFHVZHUH plebeian and masculin, before it was transformed into the place where nobles showed their civilised behaviors. The leading factor determin-ing the audience of theatre in this era was the negative attitude of palace to theater. For Henry IV and Louis XIII theatre was inferior. They thought that theatre was a plebeian entertainment; it was for rude men and immoral women. However this attitude changed in ZKHQ VRPH SHUIRUPDQFHV H[KLELWHG LQ SDODFH )URP ·V WKH nobles re-created theater and made it the entertainment of theirselves. ,QWKFHQWXU\&RUQHLOOH0ROLHUHYH5DFLQHDQGLQWKHILUVWKDOIRIWK FHQWXU\9ROWDLUHDQG5DFLQHZURWHWKHLUPDVWHUSLHFHVWRWKLVGRPLQDQW aristocrat audiences. Thus, fifty and sixty years before the French 5HYROXWLRQ WKH HIIHFWV RI ULVLQJ PLGGOH FODVV KDG VKRZHG LWVHOI QRW only in the other fields of culture but also in theatre. Undoubtedly, the best places in theatre halls had become under the command of aristo-crats and wealthy people with the begining of popularization of thea-WUHDPRQJDULVWRFUDWV /RXJK
+HQFHIRUWKWKHVHDWVLQWKHDWUHVLQWKFHQWXU\·V3DULVZHUHFHU-tain in the terms of class. The most expensive seats were belong to high FODVVDQGZHDOWK\SHRSOH /RXJK ,QWKDWWLPHZULWHUVVXFK as Moliere and Corneille classified the audiences in three categories: la
cour or les grands; le peuple4 or le bourgeois and le savants5 or le doctes /RXJK 5LVLQJ LQ WKH SULFHV RI VHDWV LQ WKHDWHUV ZHUH WKH most obvious proof that theater was no longer a plebeian entertain-ment.
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In the day of revolution, fires were opened on the clock towers in different points of Paris. This was the most obvious proof that a brand-new time began in France (Benjamin, 1995: 41). French revolution ended aristocratic society and started a new time, however it didn’t end an aristocracy which could only be distinguished by the titles (Hobsbawm, 1998: 200). The nobility and the rituals inherited by the bourgeosie from aristocracy continued without any remarkable change. Karl Marx, in his The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon highlighted that bourgeoisie made its history by taking over every-thing from aristocracy. Because the revolutionary French bourgeoisie had a close relationship with the aristocracy before revolution and did not break with the tradition of palace6, they took an attitude in the style of behavior connected to the tradition of the palace. Although the revolution destroyed the previous politic structure, traditional struc-ture in the style of behavior became permanent (Hobsbawm, 1998: 3HRSOHZKROLYHLQ3DODFH
4 Public 6FKRODUV
6 Norbert Elias mentions that the people from Palace and the bourgeoisie impressed each other. Accordingly, bourgeoisie is affected by the behavior of aristocracy and the aristoctacy is affected by the behavior of bourgeoisie. This “bottom-up effect” in )UDQFHLVOHVVLQWKFHQWXU\FRPSDUHGZLWKWKFHQWXU\<HWWKHERXUJHRLVLHEHJLQ WRLQÀOWUDWHWRWKHSDODFHLQWKHHUDRI+HQU\,9DQG/RXLV;,,,(YHQLQ/RXLV XIII presents a petition titled “the wishes and the materials for re-establisment and strengthening of the nobility” and contains the details of offers. As a further measure Louis XIV closes the doors of a large part of the chair of Palace to bourgeoisie. How-ever it causes the narrowing of the domain of Palace and the shaking of the economic foundation. The reason of this that their income come only from the soil properties they have. The proof of this mutual effect is the construction of the palace of Finance Minister of France before the palace of Versailles and become an sample of Versailles LQVRPHZD\V (OLDV
128). Theatres, previously being the places of aristocratic values, left its position to bourgeoisie character. As the new patrons and cultural centers began to emerge, the art spread over a wide area (Hauser, 1984: 20). Thus, theatres became the entertainment of commons’ once again. But this time, on the one hand theatre authors’ works became popular and were performed in public theatres of Paris, on the other hand WKHVHZRUNVZHUHSHUIRUPHGPDJQLILFHQWO\LQWKHFRXUWRI5LFKHOLHXE\ using the stage machineries and decorations that were brought from ,WDO\ 6RNXOOX $OWKRXJK WKH SOD\V ZHUH WKH VDPH WKH DXGLHQFHVDQGWKHVW\OHRISHUIRUPDQFHVGLIIHUHG +DXVHU The theater became not only an artistic form that contribute to create a new image of a civilisation but also one of the visual elements of the city which was the center of modern bourgeois society from now on and was reconstructed for a modern, economical, energetic, sensible, practical bourgeoises with less time and a lot of money. The new artis-tic stylies of city was created with new technology and construction materials. The ideal of Wagner, who was an artist and a city planner, was to raise uniformity to monumentality. Wagner believed that the uniformity with larger blocks where millions of people can leave could be raised to monumentality that directly express modern economic PDQ,QWKLVFRQWH[W9LHQQD·V5LQJVWUDVVHZDVUHDUUDQJHGWRIRUPD V\QWKHVLV RI DUW DQG XWLOLW\ 6FKRUVNH 1HFHVVDU\ HOH-ments for obtaining and continuation of a new capitalist economic V\VWHPZDVJDWKHUHGWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHXWLOLWDULDQWUHQGLQ5LQJVWUDVVH thus the new city life was aestheticized with the monumental elements which resembles “a complete work of art”. The cities just like the pal-aces were embellished and made monumental by their owners.
5LQJVWUDVVH ZLWK LWV PDJQHWLF SRZHU DWWUDFWHG 9LHQQD·V HOLWHV $ULVWRFUDWVWUDGHUVEXUHDXFUDWVZRXOGSUHIHUOHDYLQJLQ5LQJVWUDVVH The monumental buildings represented the highest values of domi-QDQWFXOWXUH6FKRROVEHFDPHWKHWUDLQLQJFHQWHUVRIIUHHHOLWHSHRSOH museums and theaters brought a culture together which would save the menial roots of novi homines (new man). Aristocratic spirit, theo-UHWLFDOO\ZRXOGEHRSHQWRDOOWKURXJKFXOWXUDOLQVWLWXWLRQV 6FKRUVNH 1981: 45; 54).
Theatres on the one hand corresponded to the wishes of new Elites, on the other hand became the places where the city of the Bar-barians, who came to the city from small towns, would become mod-ern city-dwellers. But the art as being a form to be protected as an indicator of “status” by the owners of new civilisation and an enter-tainment of the “high culture” would be an effective tool to highlight the distinction between classes. In the beginning theatres of Vienna and Paris became the center where “high culture” was taught and later on the places where “elites” could exhibit their own privileges. “Paris 2SHUDµ RSHQHG LQ DV D ODUJH DQG HOHJDQW SODFH SRUWUD\HG WKH continuity of baroque mentality of the aristocracy. With a library, a restaurant, a huge ball room, a dance school, it emphasized to be a FXOWXUDOFHQWHU :DWVRQDQG0F.HUQLH
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For people who came from small towns because of the industrial revolution to work in factories, was no longer correct to continue their traditional life in modern cities. “The song sung while ploughing can-not be sung in a place where is can-not ploughed. If it is sung then it is anything else but not a folk song anymore” (Hobsbawm, 1998: 296). Accordance with the criterias of urban civilisation began to be appear ZLWK ,QGXVWULDO DQG )UHQFK 5HYROXWLRQ SHRSOH ´WKH EDUEDULDQV RI civilized society” in cities were required to be civilized and became modern “city-dwellers”.
The meaning of the concept of civilisation in 19th century addi-tionally contained that one of the stages of civilisation process was achieved; from now on, people should have achieved this process among other communities or lower strata in their own communities: “Civilisation between the upper and middle classes is now perceived as an integral part of their”; from now on the desired is to “spread it over a wide area and go further within the framework of the reached VWDQGDUWVµ (OLDV 6SUHDGLQJ WKH FLYLOLVDWLRQ RYHU D ZLGH area was required in order to continue the developing process. “The lower and poor civilisation” did not share the luxurious and artistic
activity that previously belong to “a social minority”. If “the ground floor of civilisation” was thought to be its “reality plane”, in 19th cen-tury which was the cencen-tury of “new riches” and “conqueror bour-geois”, “ever-incresing number of those people” were invited to par-ticipate jointly in a civilisation. Notwithstanding the heavy social costs in this century, some advantages such as “the development of educa-tion, culture and access to universities, and social uplift is gained “ (Braudel, 1996: 44-45). Thus, from 19th century the aesthetic compul-sory departed from the certain cities or certain social strata.
Theatres had a great importance to integrate people in “civilisa-tion process”. The significant proof of it was the construc“civilisa-tion of a great number of theater buildings in many different European cities. For instance Bayreuth Opera with its simple and homely look, was built in this period by Wagner. Wagner deliberately set out many new arrange-ments inside and outside of the building. He laid out the seatings in amphitheater style so the viewers could see the stage without diffi-culty and give attension to the performance on the stage so that, they could watch the performance quietly and have a connection with art 6HQQHWW %\WUDQVIRUPLQJWKHWKHDWHUER[LQWREDOFRQ\ Wagner ended the priviled order in theater. However, it must have not been forgotten that Wagner got the financial support from his patron Ludvig II in the process of realizing his ideal. Althought Wagner cre-ated egalitarian and democratic watching atmosphere on stage, he left WKHVWDJHER[IRU/XGZLJ,, 6RNXOOX
Theaters became popular in 19th century. They began to fill up with people who had much less interest about intellectual ideas, peo-ple from working class, clerks, cashiers and merchants. Because most of them must have worked during the day, they filled up the theatres at nights. These audiences created a new concept in theatrical enter-tainment by showing interest (with applause) to the certain plays. Theatre was no longer filled with a poetic and literary allusion; plays were performed with simple and ineffective acting. Theaters of this period were affected by the behavior of rapidly changing world (Wat-VRQDQG0F.HUQLH
As a result of social and economic developments, producers turned theater into a circus for the people who had enough money and leisure time. They used animals in performances, puppet shows, vaudeville in order to convince the new theater audiences. The new audience chose realism rather than poetry, entertainment rather than art, and individuality rather than personality. They demanded for social dramas and melodramas as a serious entertainments (Watson DQG0F.HUQLH
Despite all these developments, theater also served for the pur-pose of educating the public. The famous Victorian actor and then the WKHDWHU PDQDJHU +HQU\ ,UYLQJ EHOLHYHG WKH HGXFDWLRQDO and developer role of theater. Irving in one of his conference said that theater should have been used as a tool to educate the public. Accord-ing to him, people still went to theater in order to have fun not for intellectual development; middle and working class must have been trained in watching good performances. In this way, theater could be PDGHPRUHUHVSHFWDEOH 5LFKDUGV +RZHYHUWKHDWHUEHJDQ to lose its elitist position by becoming popular and changing of the culture of watching because of the behaviors showed by the audiences during the play. Hence “the culture of everyday life itself” did not have a distance, “folk culture rejects the limits that is categorized EHWZHHQDUWDQGOLIHµ 7UNRùOX )RULQVWDQFHWKHDWHUDXGL-ences in United Kingdom had variable behavior. At that time a theater critic who watched a play in a small theater said that the audiences did not respect to the performances that they responded and talked to the players and at the end of the play threw oranges directly to the play-ers. Another audience in the theater during the performance observed that all audiences showed their feeelings clearly without any hesita-WLRQ :DWVRQ DQG 0F.HUQLH 3LHUUH %RXUGLHX H[SODLQV WKH differences between the classes in the forms of entertainment as fol-lows:
The most radical difference between popular entertainments-from Punch and Judy shows, wrestling or circuses, or even the old neighbourhood cinema, to soccer matches-and bourgeois entertainments is found in audience participation. In one case it is constant, manifest (boos, whistles)
sometimes direct (pitch or playing-field, invasions); in the other it is inter-mittent, distant, highly ritualized, with obligatory applause and even shouts of ethusiasm, at the end, or even perfectly silent (concerts in churches). Jazz, a bourgeois entertainment which mimics popular enter-tainment, is only an apparent exception: the signs of participation (hand-clapping or foot-tapping) are limited to a silent sketch of the gesture (at OHDVWLQIUHHMD]] %RXUGLHX
6LQFHWKHHQGRI WKFHQWXU\WKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQPLGGOHDQG working class was determined by controlling the feelings during the SHUIRUPDQFH DV VKRZLQJ HPRWLRQV ZDV D VKDPH 5HVSRQGLQJ WR WKH players on the stage was called “provincial blunder”. This “rude” LPDJHRIDXGLHQFHUHODWHGWRWKHORZHUFODVVDVZHOODVSURYLQFLDO 6HQ-QHWW WK FHQWXU\ PDQ GLG QRW NQRZ KRZ WR H[SUHVV himself in the public sphere, what to feel when watching a perfor-mance in a theater or listening to music. These people did not have to continue their traditional entertainments appropriate with “rituals of civilisation” since they were living in countryside or quarters in cities. However the main reason of expansioning the explanatory notes which were initiated and successfully implemented for the first time by George Groove in concerts and plays, was to teach people how to feel and what to see during the performances. The articles and pro-gram notes called Feuilleton were the first explanations indicating people what to feel. With these program notes critics described how the musicians play and how the music transmit. People without these brochures in their hands hear only the strange voices. These articles and program notes described how a work of art should be recepted by people. They emphasized that a work of art deserved to be protected and should have not been lowered in the value of commons’ level. The reason of the existence of such notes intended to reduce the distance between “down” and “high”. However, they tried to do that by not reducing the high taste to low taste but by raising the low taste to high. Thus, a work of art did not lose anything from its protected status and its value. In 1850s, audiences who could control their feelings were seen as ideal audiences. During the performance “spontaneity” was seen as “primitive”. At the HQG RI V DFWRUV ZHUH QRW DSSODXGHG until the end of performance and there was not any applauses between
the sections of symphonies in concerts. While the theater audience in Paris and London in 1850s did not hesitate to talk with the one next to KLPKHU LQVWDONLQJGXULQJWKHSHUIRUPDQFHZDVVHHQDVD´UXGHµ behavior. In order that the audiences could focus all their attension to the stage, the lights in the hall of theaters was turned off. These kind of practices was first initiated by Charles Kean in 1850 and became a law in Beyreuth,Q VGDUNHQHGKDOOVEHFDPHXQLYHUVDO 6HQQHWW
During the transformation of the cities in Europe particulary Paris and Vienna in 19th century, both the everyday needs of modern man and the expression of high culture were kept in the forefront. In this case, the art was positioned as a tool of the expression of high culture. However, the cities being the centers of industrial capitalism were not suitable for this new urban ideals with all its “barbarian” and “provin-cial” people. The theaters were made like a circus proper to the level of public by the entrepreneurs for whom the profit has priority. Thus, the theater did not represent the new urban ideal. In such a case, would the public reduce the level of art and made it vulgar or would the theater made public civilized?
While the quarters united with the boulevards by the destructive-constructive methods in the cities of 19th century, the “civilized” and the “barbaric” came closer to each other. The theaters in cities had more importance to make people come together from all classes. The public who encounter “high” art forms in theaters learned how should have they followed opera and theater performances from the explanatory program notes which were prepared for them and from the civilized counterparts who also watched the performance in the same place. Thus, they steped to be the integral part of “complete work of art”. Culture used to mean “high” culture. Over time it expanded to “down” and covered folk culture and in the near future it “laterally expanded”. In old sense culture implied WKHSRSXODUPHDQLQJVRIVFLHQFHDQGÀQHDUWV VXFKDVIRONPXVLFIRONPHGLFLQHDQGVR on). In recent years it refers to a large (images, tools, etc.) man-made things and system of practices (speaking, reading, playing) (Burke, 2006: 40).
While the city as an actor transformes in economic, social and cultural manner, the city dwellers transformes in accordance with these new changes.
6LQFHWKHILUVWSDUWRI WKFHQWXU\ZLWKWKHGHFODUDWLRQRI7DQ]LPDW )HUPDQ×,VWDQEXOZDVEHJDQWREHUHJXODUL]HGE\PRGHOLQJ3DULVDQG 9LHQQD7KHUHDVRQRIWKDW3DULVDQG5LQJVWUDVVHZHUHWKHV\PEROVRI the results of the city revolution of bourgeoisie and bourgeois power not only in Europe but also all over the world. Although regularization of Istanbul started simultaneously with these cities, a configuration in Istanbul on a large scale of these cities did not come true because of the lack of the bourgeoisie who had the financial, political and cultural power (Çelik, 1998: 128). Visible transformation were only seen in the region of Galata/Pera wherein the commercial bourgeoisie live. This UHJLRQZDVWUDQVIRUPHGE\´$OW×QF×%HOHGL\H'DLUHVLµZKLFKZHUHWKH unique municipality in 19th century Istanbul. During its reconstruc-tion, $OW×QF× 'DLUH was inspired by Paris’ Place de l’Etoile. During the reconstruction the needs and expectations of trading bourgeoisie had priority that the streets and sidewalks were constructed and the region ZHUHOLJKWHQHG7KXVVXFKDV5LQJVWUDVVH3HUDKDGDNLQGRIPDJQHWLF power which attracted the elites of Istanbul. Merchants, bankers, bureucrats would rather have stayed here and bought houses from here. Pera with its cultural institutions such as theaters and operas completed the “the image of civilisation” and emphasized the social role of regional bourgeoisie and ruling elites. Theaters in Pera became not only the places where high culture was tought and but also the places where elites could show and exibit their privileges and indicate their status. Theaters became the new entertainment form for Istan-bul’s elite strata.
One of the leading theaters in Pera was “Naum Theater” which became the center of the most obvious indicator of cultural change in WKDWWLPH,WZDVNQRZQDVDQ´,PSHULDO7KHDWHUµ $QG 8 hence it was supported by palace and its visitors were “noble”9. Being $EGOPHFLGDQG$EGOD]L]ZHUHUHDG\LQSULQFLSDOSHUIRUPDQFHV 'XKDQL
in Naum Theater meant to be elite, civilized and nobel. Not only Naum Theater but also the other theaters in Pera called French Theat-er and Bosco TheatTheat-er showed the portrait of modTheat-ern city-dwellTheat-er with the hand bills they published. For instance, in a hand bill published in between 1849-1850, the prices, the procedures of entering the theater, prohibition of smoking, the rules that must have been obeyed during the performances were explained10. These kind of information’s pur-pose was to maintain the order in theater. They were the first signs of regular, in other words modern everyday life as well. Having differ-ences between the first and second class emphasized the liberal values which privileged the bourgeois urban life. From now on, not the “reli-gion” but the “money” was the determining tool of the differences of people.
Hence the performances in theatres of Pera were in foreign lan-guages and at nights11 Muslim Turkish people could not follow them. Therefore they achieved to maintain their privileged status (Ceride-i +DYDGLV,VVXH IURP6HYHQJLO
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Due to the lack of municipality system outside Galata/Pera, the most of the city resembled a rural region. Both the rural and urban pic-ture of the city within the same framework was in fact the picpic-ture of 19th century’s Ottoman society. Westernisation movements did not cause a transformation equally in all the districts of the city; most significant changes were observed in Galata/Pera region where “commercial bour-geoisie” and bureaucrats reside. Thus, it can be expressed that in 19th century’s Istanbul and in its everyday life there was a dualism. The general character of the city could be described in this way.
9 For instance in 1869’s March, on behalf of Queen Victoria, her son and his wife came to ,VWDQEXOWRYLVLWWKH2WWRPDQ6WDWH7KH\ZDWFKHGDQ,WDOLDQ2SHUDLQ1DXP7KHDWHU WRJHWKHUZLWKWKH2WWRPDQYL]LHUVKLJKUDQNLQJRIÀFLHUVDQGIRUHLJQDPEDVVDGRUV 7KHUH ZHUH 6XOWDQ RQ WKH WKHDWHU ER[ ZLWK RQ KLV ULJKW ´3ULQFHVVH GH *DOOHVµ DQG RQKLVOHIW´3ULQFHGH*DOOHVµ 7HUDNNL1HZVSDSHU,VVXH WKRI0DUFK ,VVXH UGRI$SULO ,VVXH WKRI$SULO IURP 6HYHQJLO 10 )RUPRUHZULWLQJVLQKDQGELOOORRNRYHU 6HYHQJLO
Hence the applied reforms did not change anything in common peoples’ everday life, the distance between the goverment and the public increased. The intellectuals and the ruling elites gave impor-tance primarily to the theater. Because they noticed that the Western civilisation was founded upon the ideology of progress and for the continuation of the progress the civilisation should have been expand-ed. Hence the theaters in Pera was not close to the common people’s life, theater should have been taken to their foot. Ottoman Theater both with the full repertoire and decor in Western standarts was RSHQHGLQ%H\D]×WZKHUHPRVWO\7XUNLVK0XVOLP3HRSOHOLYHGLQ LQ WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ RI *OO $JRS RQO\ RQ WKH FRQGLWLRQ WKDW WKH performances would be in Turkish. Thus, the theater did not represent the “degenerative” life of Beyoglu anymore. It became a part of the peaceful traditional life of commons.
The intelligentsia who showed effort to develop Ottoman Theater, adapted the theater works in accordance with the culture of people rather than to translate them verbatim. By doing this they wanted people to recept the performances. In transition of the spirit of Tanzi-mat; in closing up each other the two parts of city (Istanbul and Pera) culturally which had different speed of development or in creating a united city culture; by teaching the urban values, dissemination of urban culture; in attempting to new synthesis of culture and civilisa-tion, Ottoman Theater gained a center role as a decor of civilisation.
Although westernisation was a trend between the people12 in this period, it only occured as adopting the material life of Western Cul-ture. However adopting only the material culture of West was not enough to be Western, because the material culture in West had been FRPSOHWHG DQG PDGH ZLWK DUW SKLORVRSK\ DQG WKRXJKW $QG )XQFWLRQLQJ WKH :HVWHUQ FXOWXUH LQ 2WWRPDQ VRFLHW\ ZDV VROHO\ possible if its art and thought are experienced practically by people. In this manner, theater once more had a center role. For Ahmet Mithat Efendi, one of the leading intellectuals of the period, the concept of “civil/civilized” meant searching more happy and comfortable living 12 As a matter of fact westernisation process was not only effected in elite strata but
conditions for the individuals. However this happiness was not only for the material wealth but also was due to the moral and cultural val-ues. Thus, three elements, technical, cultural and ethical were the UHTXLUHPHQWV IRU D KDSS\ VRFLHW\ 2ND\ $KPHW 0LWKDW Efendi explained the importance of theater in a society where the lit-eracy rate was around ten percent: “Now if we really try to educate people who do not know how to write and read, we can be succesful ZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKHDWHUµ>$KPHW0LWKDW0HQID ,VWDQEXO 66-68, from Findley, 1999: 8]. Theater was an activity required by each FRXQWU\ $QG WKHDWHUKDGWKHQHFHVVDU\HOHPHQWVRIFXOWXUH and morality in being civilized.
As the cultural basis of the process of civilisation, Ottoman Theat-er did not only teach people how to watch a theatTheat-er pTheat-erformance but also prepared them to modern everyday life. Watching a representa-tion in a western theater required other behaviors and attitudes unlike the traditional life. As an entertainment form of “civilized” world, Western theater was different from the traditional forms of entertain-ment such as Karagöz14 and Ortaoyunu. Watching a performance in a hall with a capacity of 500-60015 now required an order; to have fun should have been controlled and proper to civilized man.
As it is mentioned above, theater was not only a modern entertain-ment form but also a kind of a training tool. When some representa-tions were performed in Soulillier Cambazhanesi (the place where acro-batics shows were performed) before the establishment of Ottoman Theater, the entertainment and having fun was philosophized with an Theater declared as a school of civilisation by the theater actors in an issue of 'L\RMHQ.
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14 For the political and critical character of KaragözVHH6HUGDUg]WUNKaragöz Co-Opted: 7XUNLVK6KDGRZ7KHDWUHRIWKH(DUO\5HSXEOLF ² $VLDQ7KHDWHU-RXUQDO 9ROXPH1XPEHU)DOOSS $QGFRQVLGHULQJKaragöz as one of the H[SUHVVLRQ IRUP LQ SXEOLF VSKHUHV VHH 6HUGDU g]WUN 2VPDQO× úPSDUDWRUOXùX·QGD .DPXVDO$ODQ×Q'LQDPLNOHULúHWLüLP*D]LhQLYHUVLWHVLúOHWLüLP)DNOWHVL<D\×Q× 95-125 (2005)
15 Bosco Theater were a building with the 500-600 people capacity (Ceride-i Havadis, ,VVXH ,,&HPD]L\HODKLU²$XJXVWIURP6HYHQJLO
announcement in the newspaper and it was also implied that theater was the leisure activity of modern man. Accordingly, a person works eight hours in a day, eats something in four hours and deals with spe-cial tasks, communes, listens to music about four hours and sleeps the rest of time. Working permanently was unnatural, the best theater was Soulillier Theater $QG :LWKWKLVDQQRXQFHPHQWWKHWLPH was defined quite different from the the time of east and traditional life of Istanbul. The time was classified and theater was mentioned as the leisure activity of modern and civilized man. Thus, when the people of Istanbul followed the performances in theater and made it the part of their everyday life, they deserved to be defined as city dwellers. The modern city dweller always wishes to derive maximum benefit from KLVKHU OHLVXUH WLPH VR KHVKH SODQV WKH WLPH $GRUQR Everyday life is firstly fragmented and then re-arranged and each of these fractions (business, private life, family life and leisure time) and the organization of entertainment are operated in a “rational way”. Organizing the everyday life of the city, time is used in a controlled way and organize in a rigorous way (Lefebvre, 1996: 64).
However being a city-dweller means not only editing and organ-izing the time and knowing how to use the leisure time but also show-ing the behavior expected from a civilized man. Beshow-ing in a theater requires knowing the specific manners. Ahmet Mithat Efendi believed that knowing Europe made it possible to know the manners of civilised ZRUOG 2ND\ +HQFH WKH SHRSOH RI 2WWRPDQ (PSHURU were accustomed to traditional forms of entertainment that did not require any rules, it was not expected from them to show the manners of watching a western theater performances. Their behaviors were spontaneous and uncontrolled and consequently “rude” and “barbar-ic”. Austrian Franz von Werner once saw a performance in Ottoman Theater said about the audiences that:
Entering the narrow theater box, dense smoke is seen. The “fesler” (kind of traditional hand) in parterre is just like the flower post lined up next to each other. A white and green turban from a person from Ulema breaks this monotony once in a while. Two Armenian women smoke like men in the other theater box. This time Armenian women throw the cigarettes
and drink orange juices. The curtain opens because of a whistling sound. 6RPHVRXQGVKHDUGIURPWKHSDUWHUUHPHDQVWKH\HQMR\WKHSHUIRUPDQ ces. The sounds of gunfires make a great applause at the end of the play; from the parterre some “bismillah” sound is heard. Murat Efendi (the nickname of Franz von Werner) and a cencorship officer is worried about the behaviors of public. Even thought public do not understand a lot of scenes, they applaud. In this regard the Ottoman audiences are unique, because they don’t know what the boredom means” (Murat Efendi 7UNLVFKH 6NL]]HQ 9ROXPH /HLS]LJ IURP$QG 86).
However the expected behavior from civilized man is:
(...) as a result of socio-development self-control, the most important character of the civilized man is being banned from the things he love, like or hate without being awarHµ (OLDV
The thing occuring previously as an active and mostly “agressive pleasure transformed into a “controlled and passive taste, an eye taste”. In 18th century the Civilite of La Salle says:
Children touch everything they like. This bad habit must be corrected and they should learn nothing but to look. They should not touch ever-thing they like” (EliDV
The expected behavior from a civilized man is not to touch but to watch with eyes, not to talk but to be quite, not to be active but to be passive and all these behaviors is tried to be thought to the public with the help of the announcements published in newspaper. The expected behavior from the public was being quite and showing comity who are accustomed to the culture of an interactive watching in their tradi-tional entertainment forms.
In the civilising process, the European manners entered Istanbul not only with the announcements but also with the help of the quali-ties and the content of the performances in theaters. For instance, 6KDNHVSHDUH·VWUDJHGLHVKDGDIXQFWLRQRIUHIOHFWLQJ´WKHLGHDOVRIWKH absolutist tradition of the palace”. Accordingly, all the elements such as “the importance of good behavior”, “bridling the individual emo-tions by mind”, “the vital requirements for each person from Palace”, “measured behaviors and to avoid any rude behavior”, “the original
symptoms of a specific time period in the way of civilisation” revealed itself in classical tragedy (Elias, 2005: 89). The vast majority of theater works that was translated or adapted were the rituals of civilisation which carried the codes of aristocratic life passed carefully from gene-UDWLRQ WR JHQHUDWLRQ $OWKRXJK WKH WUDJHGLHV RI 6KDNHVSHDUH KDG D universal character in terms of the typology of personality, they had a function in carring the aristocratic tradition. Thus, the audiences of Ottoman Theater16LQZKLFKWKHWUDJHGLHVRI6KDNHVSHDUH·VUHSHUWRLUH was frequently encountered, inevitably encountered with the tradition and the moral values of West.
,Q ´0HFOLVL9DOD\×$KNkP·×$GOL\HµSUHSDUHGDUHJXODWLRQ IRUWKHIRUPHU2WWRPDQ7KHDWHUZKHUHZDVQHDU´7DWO×NX\Xµ7KHIRUWK SDUWRIWKLVUHJXODWLRQDQGWKHVHFWLRQVRIZHUHUHODWHGWR the audiences. According to this regulation, if the audiences entered the theater hall with weapons, staffs or umbrella or drunk, or smoked in the places specially allocated for non-smoke, or brought the children and were not responsible with his/her behavior or whistled to the actors, made noise or showed any behavior against the manners, they would be sent away from the theater. Between the performances, hav-ing fun at theater was among the prohibitons. The fifth section of the regulation was related with the persons who would conduct these prohibitions. There were security-related sections in the monopoly ZKLFKZHUHJLYHQWR*OO$JRSLQ $QG (YHQLIWKH rules were obeyed which were all about to ensure an order in theater halls or these rules became the reflex in everyday life of public, a regu-lar and civilized urban environment could be created. Considering in this perspective, theater served as a “laboratory” where these kind of rules and prohibitons were experienced for the first time.
16 There were samples of French literature in the repertoire of Ottoman Theater. In DGGLWLRQ WR WKDW WKHUH ZHUH 0ROLHUH 9LFWRU +XJR $OH[DQGHU 'XPDV 6FKLOOHU 6KDNHVSHDUH WKH SOD\V RI *ROGRQL FRPHGLHV PHORGUDPDV GUDPDV YDXGHYLOOH musical theater and as well as a lot of domestic plays. (And, 1999: 15) For more information Metin And, “Üç Önemli Belge ve Güllü Agop Tiyatrosu’nun Oyun 'DùDUF×ù×µ, Devlet Tiyatrosu (January 1966).
Metin And says that Ottoman Theater become an useful practicing area for people of Tanzimat reaching the level of the contemporary West. It seems like a laboratory. (And, 1999: 2
The press who gave great support in making the theater develop and consequently in reaching the European values to the public, criti-cised the inappropriate behaviors of the audiences during the perfor-mance. For instance, falling down of an actrist from the stage because of an orange thrown by an audience or the whistled among the perfor-mances in Ottoman Theater became criticising subjects for the press. No one wanted to sit in the middle of theater boxes, because the one who sat on the upper floor shedded water to a person who sat on downstairs. French Theater’s example should have followed (Hadika, QG RI 1RYHPEHU ,VVXH IURP $QG $QRWKHU sample for the critique of press was an article published in Basiret newspaper’s 1264th number titled “Isn’t it shame?”. In this article, the laughing of public in a pathetic moment of the Besa play was criticised. The magazine called Kasa brought an openess of this type of behaviors. Accordingly, although a theater was seen as a place of “culture”, in IDFW SHRSOH ZHQW WKHUH RQO\ IRU ´IXQµ .DVD 1XPEHU SS IURP$QG
The manner of watching a performance in theater corresponds to the etiquette of being a civilized city dweller. The audience who can control him/herself in emotional way become not only a great audi-ence but also fullfill the required behavior.
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7KHHIIHFWVRI)UHQFKDQG,QGXVWULDO5HYROXWLRQZDVREVHUYHGLQ all the leading European cities. However, the effects of rapid changes did not lead to similar conclusion in all social strata. As cited above, the people, who will drive the wheels of the new system, are required to be civilised and act in accordance with the criteria of civilisation. Thus, theater, previously being one of tools of indicating the distinc-tion between classes, becomes the most effective medium in joining the people in the process of civilisation in European cities where the literacy rate is low. In Istanbul, theater not only integrates two diffe-rent regions in cultural sense but also become a leading socio-cultural experience in integrated urban culture. Involving the vast majority of people, it also helps a new/modern city-dweller to come into
exist-ence. Considering in this context, Ottoman Theater has been an effec-tive tool in ending the duality in social life, making a connection between commons and elite and extracting the concepts of civilisation or westernisation process from the “degenerative” picture of Pera; and finally it becomes a primary figure of modern city culture in 19th cen-tury’s Istanbul.
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/RXJK-RKQ Paris Theatre Audinces in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. London: Oxford University Press.
Okay, Orhan (1991). %DW×0HGHQL\HWL.DUü×V×QGD$KPHG0LWKDW(IHQGLúVWDQEXO 0LOOL(ùLWLP%DV×PHYL g]WUN6HUGDU ´.DUDJ|]&R2SWHG 7XUNLVK6KDGRZ7KHDWUHRIWKH (DUO\5HSXEOLF ² µ$VLDQ7KHDWHU-RXUQDO g]WUN6HUGDU ´2VPDQO×úPSDUDWRUOXùX·QGD.DPXVDO$ODQ×Q Dinamikleri.” úOHWLüLP 21: 95-125 5LFKDUGV-HIIUH\ HG 6LU+HQU\,UYLQJ7KHDWUH&XOWXUHDQG6RFLHW\² (VVD\V$GGUHVVHVDQG/HFWXUHV5\EXUQ3XEOLVKLQJ 6HQQHWW5LFKDUG .DPXVDOúQVDQ×Qd|NüdHY6HUSLO'XUDNYH $EGXOODK<×OPD]úVWDQEXO $\U×QW×<D\×QODU× 6FKRUVNH&DUO( )LQGH6LHFOH9LHQQD3ROLWLFVDQG&XOWXUHV1HZ<RUN Vintage Books. 6FKRUVNH&DUO( 7KLQNLQJ:LWK+LVWRU\²([SORUDWLRQVLQWKH3DVVDJHWR
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