Kinekt tabanlı oyunun yabancı dil olarak ingilizce öğrenenlerin konuşma becerilerine etkisi ve bedensel kinestetik zeka, öğrenen motivasyonu ile öğrenen özerkliği bakımından incelenmesi

THE IMPACT OF KINECT-BASED GAME ON L2 SPEAKING SKILLS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON BODILY KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE,

LEARNER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER AUTONOMY

HASAN AKSOY

MASTER THESIS

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAM

GAZI UNIVERSITY

THE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

THE IMPACT OF KINECT-BASED GAME ON L2 SPEAKING SKILLS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON BODILY KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE,

LEARNER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER AUTONOMY

HASAN AKSOY

ADVISOR

KORKUT ULUÇ İŞİSAĞ

MASTER THESIS

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING PROGRAM

GAZI UNIVERSITY

THE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

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TELİF HAKKI ve TEZ FOTOKOPİ İZİN FORMU

Bu tezin tüm hakları saklıdır. Kaynak göstermek koşuluyla tezin teslim tarihinden itibaren (12) ay sonra tezden fotokopi çekilebilir.

YAZARIN Adı : Soyadı : Bölümü : İmza : Teslim tarihi : TEZİN Türkçe Adı :

KİNEKT TABANLI OYUNUN YABANCI DİL OLARAK İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRENENLERİN KONUŞMA BECERİLERİNE ETKİSİ VE BEDENSEL KİNESTETİK ZEKA, ÖĞRENEN MOTİVASYONU İLE ÖĞRENEN ÖZERKLİĞİ BAKIMINDAN İNCELENMESİ

İngilizce Adı :

THE IMPACT OF KINECT-BASED GAME ON L2 SPEAKING SKILLS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON BODILY KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE, LEARNER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER AUTONOMY

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ETİK İLKELERE UYGUNLUK BEYANI

Tez yazma sürecinde bilimsel ve etik ilkelere uyduğumu, yararlandığım tüm kaynakları kaynak gösterme ilkelerine uygun olarak kaynakçada belirttiğimi ve bu bölümler dışındaki tüm ifadelerin şahsıma ait olduğunu beyan ederim.

Yazar

Adı Soyadı: .Hasan AKSOY İmza: ………..

iii Jüri onay sayfası

……… tarafından hazırlanan “KİNEKT TABANLI OYUNUN YABANCI DİL OLARAK İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRENENLERİN KONUŞMA BECERİLERİNE ETKİSİ VE BEDENSEL KİNESTETİK ZEKA, ÖĞRENEN MOTİVASYONU İLE ÖĞRENEN ÖZERKLİĞİ BAKIMINDAN İNCELENMESİ” adlı tez çalışması aşağıdaki jüri tarafından oy birliği / oy çokluğu ile Gazi Üniversitesi ………... ……….. Anabilim Dalı’nda Yüksek Lisans / Doktora tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.

Danışman: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Başkan: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Üye: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Üye: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Üye: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Tez Savunma Tarihi: …../…../……….

Bu tezin ………Anabilim Dalı’nda Yüksek Lisans/ Doktora tezi olması için şartları yerine getirdiğini onaylıyorum.

Unvan Ad Soyad

Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Müdürü

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Assist. Prof. Dr. Korkut Uluç

İŞİSAĞ for his guidance, full support, endless understanding, and generous assistance.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dear wife, Ayşegül AKSOY. She was always with me in the days when I lost my hope.

It is an honor for me to express my gratitude to Mehmet YOLCU for his valuable advice, thus encouraging me to start this study.

I would like to present my gratitude to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Arif SARIÇOBAN and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Paşa Tevfik CEPHE, who are the members of the jury, for the guidance and invaluable advices for my thesis.

I would like to thank the cadets of Turkish Military Academy.

I would like to thank Turkish Military Land Forces for supporting me getting this degree with their all support.

Finally, I would like to express my deepest and endless gratitude to my dear mother, Gülseren AKSOY; father, Süleyman AKSOY; and sister, Ayşegül AKSOY during this hard process. They have always been there to support me.

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THE IMPACT OF KINECT-BASED GAME ON L2 SPEAKING

SKILLS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON BODILY KINESTHETIC

INTELLIGENCE, LEARNER MOTIVATION AND LEARNER

AUTONOMY

(Master Thesis)

AKSOY, Hasan

GAZİ UNIVERSITY

THE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

June, 2015

ABSTRACT

This research aims to study how Kinect Yoostar 2 game can be incorporated into English language teaching and what its impacts on developing speaking skills, learner autonomy, learner motivation and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are. This study consists of five chapters. The first chapter includes the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, significance of the study, assumptions and limitations. Then the second part covers literature review on speaking skill, accuracy and fluency, learner motivation, learner autonomy and bodily kinesthetic intelligence. The third chapter comprises of the methodology of the study covering research design, universe and sample, data collection and data analysis. The fourth section includes findings and interpretation of the results. The fifth chapter includes a summary of the study and pedagogical implications and suggestions. The study was conducted at a state university, Ankara, where English is lectured as a main course at different grades (from 1 to 4). A true experimental study was conducted in this study; and experimental (N=25) and control group (N=25) were employed. As for the quantitative design, in order to elicit information on students’ speaking skills, story retelling speaking test was used as pretest and posttest in the experimental and control groups. Then their scores were analyzed by Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon t test in order to detect whether there is a meaningful difference. Another quantitative aspect of this study is 5-Likert type scale which aims to get participants’ opinions toward Kinect-based gaming in terms of speaking skills, learner autonomy, learner motivation and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. As for the qualitative research design of this study, personal interviewing and essay are selected. Another qualitative design of this study is observation method. As for this thesis, a checklist was also formed by an experienced ELT (English Language Teaching) teacher and the researcher visited the experimental group three times so as to observe the experiment area. As a result, it was

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found that Kinect-based game improved the speaking skills of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners. In addition, the treatment gave positive results on learner motivation, learner autonomy and the use of bodily kinesthetic intelligence.

Science Code:

Key Words : Kinect-based gaming, speaking skill, game-based language teaching/learning Page Number :77 pages

viii

KİNEKT TABANLI OYUNUN YABANCI DİL OLARAK İNGİLİZCE

ÖĞRENENLERİN KONUŞMA BECERİLERİNE ETKİSİ VE

BEDENSEL KİNESTETİK ZEKA, ÖĞRENEN MOTİVASYONU İLE

ÖĞRENEN ÖZERKLİĞİ BAKIMINDAN İNCELENMESİ

(Yüksek Lisans Tezi)

AKSOY, Hasan

GAZİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ

EĞİTİM BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ

Haziran, 2015

ÖZ

Bu çalışma, Kinect Yoostar 2 oyunun İngilizce Dil Öğretimine nasıl adapte edilebileceğini ve bunun, konuşma becerilerinin geliştirilmesi, öğrenen özerkliği, öğrenen motivasyonu ve bedensel kinestetik zekâ bakımından ne gibi sonuçları olabileceğini araştırmaktadır. Bu çalışma 5 bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölüm, çalışmanın arka planı, problem durumu, çalışmanın amacı, çalışmanın önemi, varsayımlar ve çalışmanın sınırlılıklarından oluşmaktadır. İkinci bölüm, kanuşma becerisi, doğruluk ve akıcılık, öğrenen motivasyonu, öğrenen özerkliği ve bedensel kinestetik zeka üzerine alan taramasını içerir. Üçüncü bölüm ise araştırmanın deseni, evren ve örneklemi, veri toplama ve işleme araçlarından oluşan araştırmanın metodunu içerir. Dördüncü bölüm bulgular ve sonuçların yorumlanmasından oluşur. Beşinci bölüm ise araştırmanın özeti, pedagojik çıkarımlar ve önerilerden oluşur.Bu çalışma, 1’den 4’e kadar olan sınıflarında İngilizce’nin ana ders olarak okutulduğu Ankara’daki bir devlet üniversitesinde yapılmıştır. Gerçek deneysel desen kullanılmış olup; deney (25) ve kontrol grubu (25) kullanılmıştır. Nicel yöntem olarak, öğrencilerin konuşma becerileri hakkında bilgi toplamak için, hikaye geri anlatma konuşma testi, öntest ve sontest olarak deney ve kontrol gruplarında kullanılmıştır. Sonuçlar arasında anlamlı bir fark olup olmadığını saptamak için Mann-Whitney U ve Wilcoxon t testleri uygulanmıştır. Bir diğer nicel araştırma yöntemi ise öğrencilerin Kinekt tabanlı oyun sisteminin konuşma becerisi, öğrenen motivasyonu, öğrenen özerkliği ve bedensel kinestetik zeka üzerine etkisini baz alan düşüncelerini ölçen beşli likert ölçeğidir Nicel araştırma yöntemi olarak, görüşme ve deneme yazma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca, araştırmacı gözlem yöntemini de kullanmıştır. Tecrübeli bir alan öğretmeni tarafından hazırlanmış gözlem kontrol listesi ile araştırmacı 3 kez deney grubunu ziyaret edip gözlemlemiştir. Sonuç olarak, Kinekt tabanlı oyunun, yabancı dil olarak İngilizce öğrenenlerin konuşma becerilerini geliştirdiği görülmüştür. Ayrıca, kinekt tabanlı oyunun öğrenen motivasyonu, öğrenen özerkliği ve bedensel kinestetik zekânın kullanımı üzerine pozitif bir etkisi olduğu saptanmıştır.

ix Bilim Kodu:

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kinekt tabanlı oyun, konuşma becerisi, oyun tabanlı dil öğrenimi Sayfa Sayısı :77 sayfa

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1. Introduction ... 1

1.2. Background of the Study ... 1

1.3. Statement of the Problem ... 3

1.4. Purpose of the Study ... 4

1.5. Significance of the Study ... 5

1.6. Assumptions ... 6

1.7. Limitations ... 6

1.8. Definitions of Terms ... 6

LITERATURE REVIEW ... 7

2.1.1. Speaking as a skill ... 7

2.1.2. Some Factors for Speaking ... 7

2.1.3. Difficulties of Speaking ... 8

2.1.4. Speech Production and Processing ... 9

2.1.5. Communicative Competence in Speaking ... 9

2.1.5.1. Grammatical Competence ... 10

2.1.5.2. Discourse Competence ... 10

2.1.5.3. Sociolinguistic Competence ... 10

2.1.5.4. Strategic Competence ... 11

2.1.6. Accuracy vs. Fluency ... 11

2.1.7.Methodology of Speaking Activities ... 11

2.1.8. Role play as a speaking activity ... 12

2.1.8.1. Positive Ideas on Role Play ... 12

2.1.8.2. Studies on Role Play Activities ... 13

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2.1.9.1. Linguistic Intelligence ... 14

2.1.9.2. Logical Mathematical Intelligence ... 14

2.1.9.3. Musical Intelligence ... 15

2.1.9.4. Interpersonal Intelligence ... 15

2.1.9.5. Intrapersonal Intelligence... 15

2.1.9.6. Visual-Spatial Intelligence ... 16

2.1.9.7. Existentialist Intelligence ... 16

2.1.9.8. Mental-search light Intelligence ... 16

2.9.9. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ... 16

2.1.10. MI Theory and Technology Integration ... 17

2.1.11. Studies on MI Theory ... 17

2.1.12. Games in Education ... 18

2.1.12.1. Games and Language Learning ... 19

2.1.12.2. Game-enhanced and game-based instruction ... 20

2.1.13.Kinect ... 22

2.1.13.1. Kinesthetic Pedagogy ... 24

2.1.13.2. Kinect Yoostar 2 as a game ... 24

2.2. Learner Motivation ... 25

2.3. Learner Autonomy ... 27

METHODOLOGY ... 29

3.1. Introduction ... 29

3.2. Research Design ... 29

3.2.1. Quantitative Research Design ... 31

3.2.2. Qualitative Research Design ... 32

3.3. Universe and Sample ... 33

3.3.1. Demography ... 33

3.3.2 Experimental and Control Groups ... 34

3.3.3. Interview ... 35

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3.4.1. Instruments ... 35

3.4.1.3. AMB (Learner Autonomy, Learner Motivation, Bodily-Kinesthetic

Intelligence) ... 36

3.4.2. Procedure and Treatment ... 37

3.5. Data Analysis ... 40

FINDINGS AND RESULTS ... 43

4.1. Pilot Studies ... 43

4.1.1. Pilot Study on AMB Scale ... 43

4.1.2. Pilot Study for Lesson Plan ... 43

4.1.3. Pilot Study on Interviews ... 44

4.2. Findings of Experimental Design ... 44

4.2.1. The Comparison of Pretests of the Experimental and Control

Groups ... 44

4.2.2. The Comparison of Pretest and Posttest of the Control Group

... 45

4.2.3. The Comparison of Pretest and Posttest Scores of the

Experimental Group ... 46

4.2.4. Comparison of Posttest Scores of the Experimental and Control

Groups ... 46

4.2.5. Reliability between the Raters ... 47

4.3. AMB Scale Results ... 47

4.4. Interview Results as Qualitative Data ... 54

4.4.1. Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence ... 55

4.4.2. Learner Motivation ... 57

4.4.3. Learner Autonomy ... 58

4.4.4. Speaking Skills ... 59

4.5. Other Qualitative Results: Essays and Observation ... 61

4.5.1. Course Expectation Essay ... 61

4.5.2. Observation ... 61

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4.6.1. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question 1-

Does Kinect-based game make any improvement in English speaking

skills of the experimental group compared to the control group? .... 62

4.6.2. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question 1a-

In which parts of speaking skills did Kinect help students to improve

in the experimental group? ... 65

4.6.3. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question

1b-Does the Role Play feature of Kinect-based game lead to any

positive/negative change in speaking skill of the experimental group?

... 66

4.6.4. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question

2-How effective is a Kinect-based game in making use of bodily

kinesthetic intelligence regarding gestures and body language? ... 68

4.6.5. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question 3-

Is there any positive relation between role play-acting out activities

by Kinect-based game and bodily kinesthetic intelligence? ... 70

4.6.6. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question 4-

Does a Kinect-based game motivates students in fostering speaking

skills? ... 71

4.6.7. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question 5-

Which type of motivation does a Kinect-based game provide with

students in the experimental group? ... 72

4.6.8. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question

6-Is a Kinect-based game effective at decreasing stress while speaking?

... 73

4.6.9. Interpretation of Findings in Relation to Research Question 7-

In which ways does a Kinect-based game help students assess and

monitor their speaking level on their own? ... 74

CONCLUSION ... 78

5.1. Introduction ... 78

5.1.1 Summary of the Study ... 78

5.1.2. Suggestions for Practitioners... 80

xiv

REFERENCES ... 81

APPENDICES ... 96

Appendix A. Interview ... 96

Appendix B. AMB Scale ... 97

Appendix C. Observation Checklist ... 98

Appendix D. Course Expectation Survey ... 99

Appendix E. Speaking Skill Measurement Rubric ... 100

Appendix F. Story Retelling Speaking Pretest ... 101

Appendix G. Story Retelling Speaking Posttest ... 102

Appendix H. Request Information Forms for AMB Scale and Interview

... 103

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TABLES

Table 1. A Framework for Examining Research and Practice in Digital

Games………...21

Table 2. Final Grades of the Groups on Previous Year………...34

Table 3. List of Statistical Techniques in the experimental research....41

Table 4. Pilot Scale Statistics on

Reliability...43

Table 5. The Pretests of Experimental and Control

Groups……….44

Table 6. Mean and Standard Deviation Of Pretest and Posttest Scores of

the Control Group………...45

Table 7. Mean and Standard Deviation Of Pretest and Posttest Scores of

the Control Group……….45

Table 8. Wilcoxon Test on Experimental Group’s Pretest and

Posttest...46

Table 9. Mann-Whitney U Test on Posttests of Experimental and Control

Groups………47

Table 10. Factor Analysis and Reliability on AMB Scale...47

Table 11. Frequencies and Percentages on AMB Scale……….50

Table 12. Final Grades of the Groups on Previous Year………..64

Table 13. Pretests of Experimental and Control Groups………..64

Table 14. Mean and Standard Deviation Of Pretest and Posttest Scores of

the Control Group………...65

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SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

ELT

English Language Teaching

AMB

Autonomy Motivation and Bodily Kinesthetic

Intelligence

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INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction

This research aims to study whether a Kinect-based game leads to an improvement in the speaking skills; and how a Kinect-based game influences bodily kinesthetic intelligence, learner motivation and learner autonomy in the experimental group. In this context, this chapter features the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study and the significance of the study. Besides, assumptions, limitations and definitions of some terms are also discussed.

1.2. Background of the Study

There is a huge amount of literature on the impact of games in education (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001; Van Eck, 2006). Games can be sometimes an enjoy box for students in the classroom (Oblinger, 2006). Frasca (2001) defined a videogame as any form of computer-based entertainment. Considering games in the context of education, we face some familiar terms. The most common is that games are accepted as motivational tools when they are used. Malone and Lepper (1987) asserted that games foster motivation in students. In addition to that, Kirriemuir and McFarlane (2004) maintained that strategic thinking and communication are fostered with the help of games. Regarding games’ influence on learning, Oblinger (2006) set a framework for some characteristics of games, such as: social effect, research effect, problem-solving effect, transfer effect and experiential effect. Considering the first effect, games provide gamers with being close with other people in the real world. Besides, with creating real life situation as a scenario, it can be said that games help learners to strengthen the ability of problem solving. On the other hand, games are very popular in the field of language teaching (deHaan, 2005b; Rosas et al., 2003). The term of motivation is again a leading factor in incorporating games into language teaching. According to the study of Anyaegbu, Ting and Li (2012), the level of motivation and

2

engagement in students was at high level when they were learning English via a serious game ‘Mingoville’. According the results of their study, game-enhanced English learning fortified the level of motivation in Chinese learners of English. In another study by Thorne (2008), it was unraveled that the level of enjoyment for language learning was fostered in students through the game.

Differentiated into two subcategories by Reinhardt and Sykes (2012), games are called with particular names according to their origins. While a specific and purposefully designed educational game is called as game-based learning, game-enhanced learning aims to use a vernacular, which means commercially available, game in language teaching. Played on the various platforms, games can be adapted into classroom atmosphere. One of these platforms is Microsoft Xbox 260 and its unique camera: Kinect. Kinect is explained as “a motion sensor, implemented by Microsoft for the Kinect 360 video game console (Kandroudi & Bratitsis, 2012, p. 2). The key factor behind Kinect technology is to recognize the human gesture and voice via a special camera. Many of the scholars maintained that Kinect can be an amazing tool for education, especially in language learning (Oliver, Kang, Wünsche, & MacDonald, 2012). Hsu (2011) asserted that it has the capacity to boost the student motivation and create an enjoyable atmosphere. Among the studies conducted on Kinect, the study by Kuo, Hsu, Fang and Chen (2013) demonstrated that Kinect leads a meaningful difference on vocabulary acquisition in the experimental group rather than control group.

This study is an attempt to seek out whether a Kinect-based game leads to an improvement in the speaking skills, which is the one way of the study. Another way of this study is to learn how a Kinect-based game influences bodily kinesthetic intelligence, learner motivation and learner autonomy in the experimental group.

It was asserted by Gardner (1983, 1999) that people use their bodily kinesthetic intelligence while they are doing physical activities. Nguyen (2000) supported him by defining bodily kinesthetic intelligence as “the abilities to master the motions of bodies and manipulate objects with finesse” (p. 5). This intelligence, which is likely to be seen in people who dance or play any musical instrument, can be adapted into language teaching. Students can use this intelligence while learning language. Regarding this point, İşisağ (2008) used an inventory including 10 statements on each intelligence of Gardner, including bodily kinesthetic intelligence, on English learners. As a result, it was concluded

3

that every student has 8 types of intelligences at certain degrees; and no two students possess the same intelligence. Besides, bodily kinesthetic intelligence can be incorporated into language teaching through the technology. Regarding the integration of technology, McCoog (2007) asserted that bodily kinesthetic intelligence can be enhanced by technology integration. At this point, the researcher argued that Kinect mentioned above is likely to enhance bodily kinesthetic intelligence if it is incorporated into English language teaching.

It is no doubt that motivation bears an essential meaning for education, especially language learning. Described by Gardner (1985) as “the extent to which the individual works and strives to learn the language because of to do so” (p. 10), motivation is one of the key elements in language learning. Having a thick bond with technology, motivation is asserted to increase in students when it is presented with technology (Abdous, Camarena & Facer, 2009). According to Warschauer’s study (1996), all participants demonstrated positive attitudes toward learning with technology. Considering all these facts, this study attempts to seek out that a Kinect-based game can fortify the level of learner motivation in an English language class.

Knowing how to monitor and control their own learning is an essential skill for students. It is no doubt that this skill enables learners to manage their learning effectively. Regarding this, Holec (1981) defined learner autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s learning” (p. 3). Dickinson (1987) also added that learner autonomy is “the situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all of the decisions concerned with his learning” (p. 15). A Kinect-based game, including features of encouraging learner to be more aware of his/her own language learning, is likely to have a positive relationship with learner autonomy. Hence, this study seeks out the students’ opinions on the impact of a Kinect-based game about learner autonomy.

1.3. Statement of the Problem

Technology has covered every corner of human life and it still continues its bombardment with a new advancement every day. Thanks to its adaptability, most of the practitioners can adapt it into their fields. Especially, the field of education is lucky to benefit from such a rich source. However, sometimes the integration of such beneficial technologies into classroom does not sell well because of several problems. Kinect can be considered in this

4

category. Though it holds lots of promises for language learning, it is now widely known by the practitioners or teachers. Another problem is that there is lack of a Kinect game particularly produced for English language learning. So, practitioner may have difficulties in adapting a Kinect-based game into curriculum.

The other problem is concerned with the style of teaching speaking skills. Although course books cover lots of speaking activities, they may be not motivating and encouraging for students. In the place where course books are inadequate, Kinect console provides more than enjoy for students. Considering the effect of videogame on language learning (deHaan, 2005b; Peterson, 2011, Voulgari, 2011), it is the researcher’s argument that a Kinect-based game has a huge positive impact on language learning. Moreover, there is a lack in the literature in using Kinect console in language teaching or learning. In this context, the researcher assumes that this study helps a lot the ones who are interested in this area.

1.4. Purpose of the Study

The primary purposes of this study are to (1) design a Kinect-based game lecture so as to (2) seek out whether it has a positive contribution to improving students’ speaking skills. In order to find out a meaningful significance, the researcher used a quantitative experimental design. In addition, it is the researcher’s aim to (3) unravel Kinect-based game’s impacts on bodily kinesthetic intelligence, learner motivation and learner autonomy. The researcher drew data for this via qualitative methods such as interview, scale and observing.

Regarding that, the researcher evaluated data in the light of the questions below. The research questions of this study are as follows:

1) Does Kinect-based game make any improvement in English speaking skills of the experimental group compared to the control group?

a) In which parts of speaking skills did Kinect help students to improve in the experimental group?

b) Does the Role Play feature of Kinect-based game lead to any positive/negative change in speaking skill of the experimental group?

2) How effective is a Kinect-based game in making use of bodily kinesthetic intelligence regarding gestures and body language?

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3) Is there any positive relation between role play-acting out activities by Kinect-based game and bodily kinesthetic intelligence?

4) Does a Kinect-based game motivate students in fostering speaking skills? 5) What kind of motivations does a Kinect-based game provide?

6) Is a Kinect-based game effective at decreasing stress while speaking?

7) In which ways does a Kinect-based game help students assess and monitor their speaking level on their own?

1.5. Significance of the Study

Today’s generation of youth are very familiar with technology and actively use it in every stage of their lives. As Prensky (2001) coined the term “digital natives”, they are the sons and the girls of digital world. It is no doubt that such digital and technological advances come into the classroom. What has to do is to adapt such a change, and keep yourself ready for these advances. Among these advances, Kinect consoles stormed all grounds of video gaming and attracted many fans in a short time. Adapted into classroom settings, Kinect has been used effectively in several areas: math education (Ayala, Mendívil, Salinas & Rios, 2013), vocabulary acquisition (Kuo, Hsu, Fang & Chen, 2013) and spatial ability (Tsai & Yen, 2013). However, there is a huge lack of literature in proving effectiveness of Kinect in fostering speaking skills in language learning.

In this respect, this study bears an importance on filling the gap in the literature about the relation between Kinect technologies and speaking skills. With owning voice and gesture recognition ability, the findings of this study prove how effecivel tool Kinect can be in language learning area. Furthermore, this study tries to give insights for language educators and practitioners on further studies. Especially, the ability to recognize the voice commands, Kinect-based games can be incorporated into different stages of language learning. Then, the ability to recognize the body movements and gestures may attract educators on English for Specific Purposes. The findings of this study may guide them on these special areas.

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1.6. Assumptions

The first assumption of the study is that most of the participants are able to understand the level of English of the qualitative tools that the researcher used in order to gather data. Apart from that they have been exposed to a huge amount of input for years, they are 3rd graders, so senior to understand the level of English in the instruments. The second assumption is that most of the participants gave accurate and sincere answers to the qualitative tools like AMB (Autonomy-Motivation-Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence) Scale and interview.

1.7. Limitations

The limitations of the study can be listed as follows:

1-The quantitative data via AMB Scale was gathered from 25 students at the B2 level, which is determined by the Oxford Online Placement Test (OPT) scores which have been administered at the end of the year.

2-The time of gathering data is one semester (15 weeks).

1.8. Definitions of Terms

Kinect: is “a motion sensor, implemented by Microsoft for the Kinect 360 video game console (Kandroudi&Bratitsis, 2012, p. 2).

Motivation: is “a psychological process that causes arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary and goal oriented actions” (Mitchell, 1982, p. 81).

Autonomy: refers to “the ability to take charge of one’s learning” (Holec, 1981, p. 3) Accuracy: is “the correct use of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation” (Gower, Philips & Walters, 2006, p. 99).

Fluency: Gower et al. defined it as “the ability to keep going when speaking” (p. 100). Role play as a speaking activity: According to Harmer (2001), role play activities can be planned to stress on enhancing general fluency and speaking for specific purposes

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LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.1. Speaking as a skill

In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature on describing speaking skills in language teaching. According to Chaney and Burk (1998), speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols in a variety of contexts.” (p. 25). McDonough and Shaw (1996) explained speaking as “overall competence in the spoken language, not the oral production of written language” (p. 151). Speaking is accounted for one of the four skills in language teaching. Even Bailey and Savage (1994) maintained that the most difficult one of the four skills is the competence in speaking. Harmer (1991) asserted that reading and listening are labelled as receptive skills because of the ability of receiving correctly the message; speaking then is accounted for productive one since the speaker has to produce a message to communicate. As Widdowson (1998) suggested, there is a counterbalance between listening and speaking skills. To produce utterances, speaker has to listen what to be said and respond in a very limited time. McDonough and Shaw (1996) stressed that when a student is supposed to use language actively, it is normally understood to not only use L2 functions and grammar, but also negotiate meaning. These L2 functions and grammar compromise the structural part of language like stress and intonation, which require some motor-perceptive skills (Bygate, 1987). Along with structural part including grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, meaning is necessary for creating meaningful utterances, such as knowing what/how to use language in context. In order to understand better, speaking involves several components as follows: stress, intonation, rhythm, pronunciation, reduced forms, the use of slangs and idioms (Bygate, 1987).

2.1.2. Some Factors for Speaking

Some factors for speaking are worth discussing. First, motivational concerns were discussed by Harmer (1991) pointing out that there are extrinsic and intrinsic motivations

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to promote the learner to speak. While extrinsic motivation can be mastering that language or being successful in speaking class, intrinsic motivation is determined by student willingness. To increase students’ motivation to speak in class, Ur (1991) recommended some strategies like topic selection. It can be a very powerful effect if they encounter an interesting topic in speaking activities, thus motivating them to be willing to speak. Subsequent significant concern on motivating students to speak is the task authenticity. In this context, Rivers and Temperley (1978) categorize activities as getting and skill-using. While the first one is more controlled, the second one aims to create a unique interaction.

2.1.3. Difficulties of Speaking

For L2 leaners, speaking may be the most difficult skill to be competent at. As Kormos (2006) discussed, the speaker may not have a chance like a writer, because s/he has a very limited time to respond. Time factor is the first obstacle for learners. As Bygate (1987) pointed out, L2 speaker needs to answer in a specific time span to the other speaker. To speak in a certain time becomes a problem for him/her. Therefore, s/he may be left under pressure during the production of speech. According to Richards (2008), the learner has to make what to be said ready in his/her head. S/he plans and organizes the things; then shapes his/her message before articulating a complete sentence. In addition to time, memory is another constraint for uttering words. The learner has to remember what to be said to him/her and then respond. Therefore, memory plays a significant role in not having difficulty in speaking (Munro & Derving, 1998). Moreover, Harmer (2001) asserted that language processing requires remembering the required words for speech call back from memory and put them in accurate order syntactically to convey a meaningful message. Furthermore, reciprocity is another difficulty for the speaker because s/he needs to manipulate his/her speech depending on the situation and the person. S/he first needs to listen to the other person and then answers according to the situation. S/he has to also shape his/her words depending on the social status of the other speaker (Hedge, 2000). In addition, Scrivener (2005) argued that students may feel difficulty in processing their passive knowledge to speak freely. Thus, they may fear seeming foolish and get embarrassed to speak.

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Another aspect of feeling difficulty in speaking is concerned with speaking tasks. Nunan (1991) maintained that task difficulty is one reason on why learners struggle to speak in activities.

Brown (1994) classified 8 characteristics of spoken language’s difficulties, as follows: clustering, redundancy, reduced forms, performance variable, colloquial language, rate of delivery, stress, rhythm, intonation and psychological problems. In Esin’s dissertation (2012), some arguments are stated on why L2 speakers are unwilling to speak in class. She concluded that some students do not have anything to say on a particular topic. Then, most students stated that they are afraid of the dominant user in the class. Another big portion of the students claimed that they are worrying about making mistakes.

2.1.4. Speech Production and Processing

According to Levelt (1999), there are 4 phases to produce oral speech. In the first phase, conceptualization, the speaker conceptualizes; s/he puts words in an order in the phase of formulation. While s/he says the words in phase of articulation, s/he then monitors and checks his/her speech in phase of self-monitoring. Moreover, there are two popular models on speech production: the spreading activation theory by Dell (1986) and the modular model by Levelt, Roelofs and Meyer (1999). In spreading activation theory, speech is processed among interactive and interconnected units. On the other hand, there are several modules to produce speech in modular theory. Both speech production models have some four levels of knowledge: semantic, syntactic, morphological and phonological levels. Until now, how speech production occurs was discussed. From now on, the details on communicative competence will be explained in the next section.

2.1.5. Communicative Competence in Speaking

Coined first by Chomsky (1965), competence has some various meanings. However, he puts emphasis only on grammatical or linguistic competence. To differentiate between linguistic competence and communicative competence, Savignon (1972) argued that linguistic competence stands for knowledge about a language while communicative competence means to know how to use it effectively like a native speaker (Canale, 1983). Hymes (1972) asserted that interaction should have some components affecting speaking

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effectiveness. In addition to having knowledge of speaking, person should also know what ways to start interaction with others. Thus, he improved the definition by saying communicative competence refers to not only grammatical aspects of speaking but also contextual and sociolinguistic meaning. Briefly, communicative competence means the knowledge of how the language is used. Afterwards, depending on Hymes’s view on communicative competence, Canale and Swain (1980) brought a more detailed profile for communicative competence adding those: grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence. Rather than Canale and Swain (1980), Bachman and Palmer (1996) made a further contribution to the definition of communicative competence, adding textual and pragmatic knowledge, thus making it more comprehensive and detailed. Here, Canale and Swain’s four competences will be presented.

2.1.5.1. Grammatical Competence

Atik (2006) pointed out that the speaker with grammatical competence can understand the structures of language without hesitation. Grammatical competence give some gaining to the speaker: s/he can get how sentences are stressed and how the sounds are grouped.. It mainly focuses on some skills that we require to understand the meaning of utterances (Canale, 1983).

2.1.5.2. Discourse Competence

In order to continue conversation in a formal or informal way, discourse competence provides learners with managing turn-taking. Discourse competence concentrates on integrating grammatical forms and meaning to achieve spoken or written texts (Widdowson, 1978).

2.1.5.3. Sociolinguistic Competence

Learners of a language should be ready to speak under different social circumstances. They are able to understand how to respond toward some speech acts like compliments and apologies. Briefly, sociolinguistic competence provides learner how to speak in these social situations (Holmes, 1978).

11 2.1.5.4. Strategic Competence

It can be briefly explained by Berns (1990) that strategic competence is significant to compensate for some inabilities in conversation or to increase the effectiveness of speaking. Until now, types of communicative competence have been covered. In the next section, accuracy and fluency will be discussed.

2.1.6. Accuracy vs. Fluency

Gower, Philips and Walters (2006) describe accuracy as “the correct use of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation” (p. 99). Further, Scrivener (2005) explained accuracy as speaking without significant error. He pointed out that it is normal for a teacher to make correction on accuracy activities. Like him, Gower et al. (2006) maintained that the teacher aims to concentrate on correct use of language in the accuracy activities. As for feedback, the teacher gives support on how to correct mistakes on accurate language use.

On the other hand, fluency is described by Gower et al. (2006) as “the ability to keep going when speaking” (p. 100). Scrivener (2005) suggested not making correction in fluency activities. Gower et al. (2006) recommended giving feedback after the fluency activity. One of the difficult parts in learning L2 is acquiring oral fluency (Derwing, Rossiter, Munro & Thomson, 2004). According to Hartman and Stork (1972), a fluent speaker can use language structure correctly; the units and patterns automatically while focusing on content rather than form. Moreover, Richards and Rodgers (1986) maintained that fluency is the element which gives the nature of language- speaking like natives. Then, Schneider (1997) thought that concentrating on fluency makes the learner more communicative.

2.1.7.Methodology of Speaking Activities

There are various kinds of teaching speaking. They are mainly conducted as techniques or methods in class. Regarding these techniques, Littlewood (1981) divides his methodology into 2 different parts: pre-cognitive and communicative activities. While the learner is supposed to focus on linguistic aspects of speaking like grammar, pronunciation in pre-communicative activities, s/he is required to convey meanings and manipulate his/her

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language to the given situation. On the other hand, Hedge’s methodology defined 4 factors in organizing the speaking activity: contextualized practice, personalizing language, building awareness of social use of language and building competence.

2.1.8. Role play as a speaking activity

According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), role means the parts learners are supposed to play in learning tasks. From Livinstone’s (1983) perspective, role play is used to enable students practice their target language and provide them with a real life situation they may face in life. Role play is used to refer to all sorts of activities where learners imagine themselves in a situation outside the classroom (Ur, 1996). Role play is defined by Tatayama (1998) as an activity used by some methods, which requires some cognitive demands for learners. According to Harmer (2001), role play activities can be planned to stress on enhancing general fluency and speaking for specific purposes. Considering its benefit for learners, Chen-jun (2006) asserted that role play supports learners with giving opportunity to experience real life tasks.

Livingstone (1983) discussed that language educators can confuse role play and play acting. However, there is a difference between them. He claimed that students play the roles which are close to real life in role play activities, students just act out according to a script taken from a book or any source. That is, language memorization is the concern in playing act while students have controlled roles and also freedom to improvise in role play activities (Holden, 1981). According to Holden (1981), drama has much broader meaning when compared to simulation and role play. However, in drama there is a fixed memorization of text while playing. Second, simulation activities give learner a problem, which is close to real life (Reynolds, 1979). Again simulation includes role play but it cannot be said role plays are simulations. According to the definitions above, drama contains simulation and role play; and role plays are included in simulation activities.

2.1.8.1. Positive Ideas on Role Play

Harmer (2001) put forward 3 major advantages for role play. First, role plays are fun and motivating for learners. Then they expose learners more wide range of language than the other activities. Also, they make hesitant learners freer in their speaking while decreasing

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the stress. Moreover, role play activities prepare students for the unexpected situation they may experience in life. In this respect, Ladouse (1987) pointed out the significance of role play declaring that sometimes the learner requires to use specific language in different situations. So, role play helps learner to achieve this. In addition, Dent-Young (1977) argued that role play activities are useful for decreasing the self-consciousness of student in speaking. Then, they are priceless activities for learners to improve their communicative competence via interaction (Clark & McDonough, 1982). Moreover, Stern (1980) asserted that role plays are amazing activities to foster motivation and encourage students to take risks. From a psychological perspective, Pi-chong Su (1990) claimed that role play activities can decrease the level of anxiety; because learners are sure that they have a solid thing to say; so there is no worry what to say. According to Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis (1981), when the affective filter is high, this makes it difficult for learner to learn language. In order to improve the effectiveness of the level of acquisition, the teacher should decrease the affective filter, providing meaningful and stimulating activities. Thus, role play bears an important role to provide meaningful and real life conditions. Pi-chong Su also suggested that in role play activities, students concentrate mostly on their own learning; they can also learn from other speakers, thus adding a value of self-teaching and self-correcting.

Role play activities are categorized by Livingstone (1983) as beginner, intermediate and advanced role play activities. Based on his classification, beginner role plays are more structured than intermediate role plays. Unlike the beginner one, the intermediate role plays contains more freedom to improvise and create new ideas. Advanced role plays are in the form of discussion and debate type. In a normal context, role- play activities have a more controlled way because the teacher gives a profile of who, what when before student perform. However, Harmer (2001) suggested that role plays are more effective when they are open-ended.

2.1.8.2. Studies on Role Play Activities

In the study using an observational descriptive research design, Hull (1986) studied to what extent role play activities foster communicative competence. 34 university students who were enrolled in university English courses with elementary and intermediate levels were participated in the study. As concluded, role play activities help students to make

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meaningful interactions. Then, it was also observed that role play activities had a significant impact on fortifying strategic competence while showing little effect on sociolinguistic competence. In exploring the role play activities with an experimental design, Platt and Brooks (1994) concluded that the group (experimental) with role play activities tasks performed much better in oral performance than the other group. On the other hand, Najizade (1996) concluded from the study that role play has a significant impact on EFL learning because of enabling the students to experience real life task. After discussing the issues related to role play, multiple intelligence theory, especially bodily kinesthetic intelligence will be discussed in the next section.

2.1.9. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

Multiple Intelligences (MI) Theory builds its concerns on cognitive sciences interested in how people use their mental processes such as memory attention, perception and language to get knowledge (Gardner, 1983, 1999, 2004; Schultz, 2004). Gardner (1983) maintained that students need to benefit from multiple intelligences to promote academic success. While proposing MI theory, he criticized contemporary assessment of intelligences which was only based on linguistic and logical mathematical ability. Therefore, he became an opponent of conducting a single score like Binet’s Scale (1905). In addition Gardner (1983) asserted that human intelligences cannot be based on a single intelligence. That is, it has several parts like verbal-linguistics, logical mathematical, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, visual-spatial, existentialist, mental-search light and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

2.1.9.1. Linguistic Intelligence

According to Gardner (1983), linguistic intelligence is to understand spoken and written language. Gardner (1983) believes that the capacity of a person to learn a new language is determined with the level of his or her linguistic intelligence.

2.1.9.2. Logical Mathematical Intelligence

Based on Gardner’s explorations, whether a person understands a mathematical formula is a manifest of logical and mathematical intelligence. To produce a logical solution for a

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problem and assess the scientific questions, one has to have this intelligence. In addition, Gardner (1983) criticized the preparation of the tests teacher make accordingly linguistic and mathematic intelligence because students have to be concentrated only on these abilities.

2.1.9.3. Musical Intelligence

Musical Intelligence refers to the ability of understanding music (Gardner, 1983). With the help of this intelligence, people are able to create and compose music. Also, it was asserted that linguistic and musical intelligence are interrelated, especially rhythm in lyrics and songs. Loewy’s study (2004). showed that in order to differentiate and understand phonetic aspects of language, students can benefit from their musical intelligence

2.1.9.4. Interpersonal Intelligence

This intelligence concerns the ability to communicate with others effectively and understand feelings and emotions. Those with high interpersonal intelligence can affect other people and help them to be motivated (Snider, 2001). Gardner (1983) added that people use interpersonal intelligence to relate to other people. Gardner (1999) also asserted that student with high interpersonal intelligence can work effectively as a group.

2.1.9.5. Intrapersonal Intelligence

Intrapersonal intelligence differentiates from interpersonal one because the former concerns self-motivation and self-assessment. People use this intelligence to understand himself/herself. Gardner (1999) asserted that students can enhance their intrinsic motivation and academic success via intrapersonal intelligence. Also, they can look deeper into their levels and assess their processes. In addition, Haggerty (1995) maintained that intrapersonal intelligence enables students to set a working model for their desires, goals and problems. This makes them more understandable toward themselves.

16 2.1.9.6. Visual-Spatial Intelligence

The ability to visualize objects from different dimension in mind is manifested as visual-spatial intelligence (Gardner, 1983). Visual visual-spatial intelligence helps language learners anticipate how language system works as units (Christion, 2004). Christion (2004) also argued that visual spatial intelligence can be a beneficial tool for understanding some sentence structures if teachers use vocabulary tables to teach vowels, consonants, word roots and pronunciation. According to Pike’s (1971) tagmemic approach, students visualize the language units in their mind to understand its complex structures. Using this approach, Pike (1971) asserted that teachers should enable students to get the features of language.

2.1.9.7. Existentialist Intelligence

According to Gardner (1999) existentialist intelligence is a manifestation to reflect on inner thought and anticipate supernatural beings in order to understand life mysteries.

2.1.9.8. Mental-search light Intelligence

Thorough the rapid development of technology, MI theory renewed itself and new types of intelligences emerged. In this scope, Gardner (2004) explained that students can make use of mental-search light intelligence while searching for resources, scanning on net for information. In order to produce meaningful dialogs, teachers can encourage students to incorporate technology into scanning and analyzing knowledge (Gardner, 2004).

2.9.9. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

According to Gardner (1983, 1999) to do physical activities, people make use of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Nguyen also (2000) claimed that bodily-bodily-kinesthetic intelligence “addresses the abilities to master the motions of bodies and manipulate objects with finesse” (p. 5). In addition, Snider (2001) explained bodily-kinesthetic intelligence as “ the ability to use the body to express ideas and feelings and solve problems. To coordinate body with mental abilities, people need to improve kinesthetic intelligence. Also, students can integrate kinesthetic intelligence into language learning. Especially, in doing some language activities students need to use kinesthetic intelligence. Snider (2001) claimed in

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that bodily-kinesthetic intelligence uses a strong memory which makes it an unforgotten skill. This intelligence must be strong in people interested in dancing, sports, playing musical instruments. Moreover, Gardner (1999) maintained that in order to coordinate body movements, people benefit from their bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. In some ways, people use this ıntelligence in order to learn a language. Language learners can use this intelligence to acquire language skills like speaking, listening, writing and reading (Madkour, 2009).

2.1.10. MI Theory and Technology Integration

With rapid developments in technology, it is inevitable to integrate technology into MI theory. In this context, McKenzie (2005) argued that students can benefit from multiple intelligences via computerized systems to overcome their linguistic problem. McCoog (2007) asserted that teachers can integrate technological items into language learning and support a multiple intelligence-based curriculum. Likewise, Dickey (2005) and McCoog (2007) maintained bodily-kinesthetic intelligence can be fortified by integrating technology into curriculum. McCoog (2007) recommended teachers to implement an instructional model into classroom for students.

2.1.11. Studies on MI Theory

In one study by Strahan (1996), the relation between multiple intelligence and success in the standardized tests was studied. It was observed that there is positive correlation between multiple intelligence and success. According to Green’s study in 1999, it was concluded from a sample of teachers that MI theory is efficacious on fostering motivation and achievement. Moreover, Naffziger, Steele and Gardner (1998) studied MI theory concentrating on engaging students in learning and found that MI theory makes students to feel responsible for how they learn. Viens and Kallenbach (2000) conducted an action research which tried to probe the effect of MI theory in adult English language classroom. As a result of the study in which 20 students and 9 teachers were enrolled, improved self-esteem, motivation and enthusiasm were observed. Also, interview field notes and videos were used as tools. As special curriculum with MI theory had been conducted in the study. In İşisağ’s study (2008), it was focused on student’s inclination of using multiple

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intelligences in foreign language teaching. An inventory including 10 statements of each intelligence was asked to the first and fourth year students enrolling in English Language Teaching programme at Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. As a result, it was concluded that every student has 8 types of intelligences at certain degrees; and no two students possess the same intelligence.

2.1.12. Games in Education

Games may turn into an effective learning tool in education field (Oblinger, 2006). Labelled as fun and joyful tool, videogames have a definition by Frasca (2001): He defined videogames as any forms of computer-based entertainment software. Then they are labelled as motivation and fun by some researchers (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001; Van Eck, 2006).

Videogames or games are widely used as learning and teaching tools. Some researches gave positive results on learning by game. According to Malone and Lepper (1987), games lead to an increase in the motivation of students. Then, Kirriemuir and McFarlane (2004) thought that games prompt improvement of strategic thinking and communication. Considering games as effective and immersive learning environments, Van Eck (2006) argued that they require the player to make frequent and important decisions and clear goals.

Games have some characteristics about learning. According to Oblinger (2006), some features of games are as follows:

 Social effect  Research impact  Problem-solving effect  Transfer effect

 Experiential effect

As having a social feature, games enable us to be close with other people in real world. Shaffer, Squire, Halverson and Gee (2005) assert that videogames enable learners to find a different identity they cannot have in real world. In this principle, they supply a virtual version of real world for us. Moreover, considering the problem-solving ability,

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videogames are beneficial for cognitive development. According to Van Eck (2006), people encounter conflicts in game, called cognitive disequilibrium. The author struggles to solve this imbalance which strengthens his or her problem solving ability.

Inkpen et al. (1995) and Higgins (2000) thought that games have positive factors in improving higher order thinking and problem solving skills. On a summit of The Federations of American Scientists (2006), some attributes of games were put forward: motivation and scaffolding among them. Moreover, it was asserted that games can be used to improve these areas, as follows: higher order thinking, practical skills, complex and multicomponent decision-making, practicing rarely used skill and team building.

2.1.12.1. Games and Language Learning

In some aspects, videogames can be beneficial for language learning. For instance, Rosas et al. (2003) proved that videogames are efficient in developing reading and spelling skills. deHaan (2005b) asserted that videogames enable students to be exposed to the target language with rich graphics and audio-visual content. It was concluded from the game based literature that many studies demonstrated that students get motivated when games are integrated into L2 curriculum. Among some experimental studies, Anyaegbu, Ting and Li (2012) argued that the level of motivation and engagement in students was at high when they were learning English via a serious game ‘Mingoville’. According to the results of their study, game-enhanced English learning fortified the level of motivation in Chinese English learners. Besides motivational factors, learner-centered characteristics of games enabled students to increase interaction and self-confidence as well as decreasing the anxiety. (Peterson, 2011; Voulgari, 2011). Moreover, it was observed that students are more inclined to speak in target language in game-based L2 curriculum. In another study, exploring whether proficiency in language and vocabulary is fortified by game-based curriculum, by Rankin, Gold and Gooch (2006), it was observed that students’ vocabulary knowledge increased as 40 % while students manifested a certain amount of increase in self-confidence and motivation. Moreover, Thorne (2008) conducted a case study exploring interaction between a Russian and an American student playing online game on net. Thorne (2008) summed up that the level of enjoyment was fostered in students’ language learning while playing online games.

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In one study by Peterson (2010), it was reported that L2 gaming triggers the use of the target language. Peterson (2010) also asserted that active use of target language in L2 gaming encourages L2 learner to acquire the language since s/he needs to get this active use of target language to accomplish a task in the game. Moreover, Godwin-Jones (2014) argues that there may be some obstacles in integrating games into language teaching. Godwin-Jones (2014) classified them as selection of games and the way of integrating game into curriculum. In addition, some problems may occur like difficulty in vocabulary of games in integration of off-the shelf games, which are created for only entertainment purposes (Godwin-Jones, 2014). Then the teacher cannot decide on which linguistics aspects of language or vocabulary choice in the game, thus damaging the main aim of lesson. On the other hand, educational games may provide low level of authenticity and layout whereas possessing evidently abundant language curricula inside it, which makes the learner get bored in a short time (Bellotti, Kapralos, Lee, Moreno-Ger & Berta, 2013). In these circumstances, the learner starts to think game as just a task or an assignment in L2 learning, thus leading a decrease in affective factors.

In another study, Chik (2014) explored the relation between L2 gaming and learning practices in class. As a result of the study which applied focus group discussion, gaming sessions and stimulated recall, Chinese L2 gamers reported learner autonomy is fostered through L2 gaming. Chik (2014) structured the study on Benson’s (2011) framework, which describes the standarts of L2 game learning.

1. Location: It refers to the place or environment where the learning occurs.

2. Formality: It stands for whether the game or virtual task is a part of an instruction. 3. Pedagogy: It is concerned with whether an assessment is conducted in the learning task. 4. Locus of control: It refers to whether the task is self-driven or teacher helps the learner,

what roles teacher is in learning (Benson & Reinders, 2011). 2.1.12.2. Game-enhanced and game-based instruction

Reinhardt and Sykes (2012) developed a framework for explaining game-mediated language teaching. According to their framework, game-mediated-teaching is branched into game-based language instruction and game-enhanced instruction. While a specific and purposefully designed educational game is used in the first one, game-enhanced learning

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aims to use a vernacular game, which means commercially available. The table below explains best game-based and game enhanced instructions.

Table 1. A Framework for Examining Research and Practice in Digital Games Characteristics L2 Teaching Questions L2 Teaching Questions

Game-enhanced

Use of vernacular, off-the- shelf games designed for entertainment purposes.,

How does game mediated L2 learning occur in the wild?

How can vernacular games be pedagogically-mediated for L2 learning and teaching?

Game-based Use of educational or learning purposed games

How does a specific game design afford particular L2 learner behaviors

How can game-based environments be designed to incorporate L2 pedagogical uses?

Adopted from Reinhardt & Sykes (2012, p. 33)

Game-based instruction basically aims to implement specifically designed educational game into L2 grounds. Reinhardt and Sykes (2012) explained a game-based instruction as “the use of games and game-inclusive synthetic immersive environments that are designed intentionally for L2 learning and pedagogy (p. 39). In this context, game-based L2 language pedagogy deals with the design of these games. It is a manifestation of “the analysis of the pedagogical implementation of a particular L2 language pedagogy-purposed game (Reinhardt & Sykes, 2012, p. 41). Game-based language pedagogy offers some advantages rather than game-enhanced counterpart. First, the teacher can manipulate and select the game content according to curriculum standards, determine some linguistics aspects inside the game. Afterwards, game-based pedagogy enables researcher to collect game data and analyze it on some aspects. Then, teacher can get fast feedback after conducting game-based instruction, thus enabling change some parts of instruction if necessary (Reinhardt & Sykes, 2012).

Reinhardt and Sykes (2012) explained game-enhanced research as discovering the effect of using vernacular games in L2 learning and teaching and assessing its implications. These vernacular games can be categorized into some types like adventure, action, role play and simulation. Reinhardt and Sykes (2012) assumed that using vernacular games brings some challenges on education ground; since they are peculiar to daily life, sometimes it may be difficult to adapt them into educational contexts. Then, its structure may not fit into the institution assessment system.