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"La Dolce Vita aspired with

unprecedented ambition to make film

a core media of high modern art, and

the cultural conditions of its production

could not have been more auspicious for

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F I L M AS HISTORY

Fdlini's La Dolce Vita as a Historical Artifact

Z A C H Z I M M E R M A N N

, C

IN 1960, ITALY WAS A COUNTRY IN RAPID CULTURAL TRANSITION. NOWHERE WAS THIS CULTURAL

CURRENT, THIS EBB OF CONSERVATIVE ITALIAN VIRTUE AND FLOW OF FLASHY ITALIAN CONSUMER-ISM, MORE EVIDENT THAN IN ITALY'S AGE-OLD SEAT OF POWER: ROME. DURING THIS TIME, FAMED DIRECTOR FEDERICO FELLINI UNDERTOOK TO ENLIST THE ELEMENTS OF H I G H - M O D E R N I S M AND AUTEURISM IN THE CREATION OF A WORK OF ART THAT WOULD CAPTURE S O M E T H I N G OF THE NEW

CULTURE RISING IN ROME. THE RESULT WAS THE NOW CANONICAL FILM LA DOLCE VITA.

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o

I N T R O D U C T I O N

As Federico Fellini's infamous f i l m La Dolce Vita begins, a helicopter suspends a statue o f Christ as i t flies over the city o f Rome, The helicopter, a man-made marvel, passes an ancient R o m a n aqueduct as i t nears historic St. Peter's Basilica. W i t h this powerful visual, Fellini i m m e d i a t e l y alerts the viewer to the distinction between the old R o m e — the Rome o f ancient structures, m o n u m e n t s , and church-es—and the new, m o d e r n Rome. This opening alerts the audience that the h i m w i l l consider and reflect o n the n e w Rome. Fellini h i m s e l f acknowledged that, w h i l e i n t e n d i n g to make a very different type o f film after his previous film,

Nights of Cahiria, he came to "realize that the Rome he had

intended to depict had been replaced by another city, m o r e brash and cosmopolitan."1 Instead, Fellini made the

ca-nonical film, La Dolce Vita, o f equal value to film critics and historians alike. As an e m i n e n t w o r k o f its t i m e , the film and its reception elucidate the climate w h i c h pro-duced it; b u t the film also reacts against that climate i n ways w h i c h have become historically fascinating i n the de-cades since its release. Indeed, La Dolce Vita crystallized s o m e t h i n g o f Italy's understanding o f salvation i n i 9 6 0 , and remains, therefore, an invaluable artifact.

La Dolce Vita documents the tale o f gossip c o l u m n i s t

Mar-cello R u b i n i , and s o m e t h i n g o f that tale should be told here p r i o r to a discussion o f the film. H a v i n g left his drea-ry, provincial existence b e h i n d , Marcello wanders t h r o u g h an ultra-modern, ultra-sophisticated, ultra-decadent Rome. H e yearns to write seriously, b u t his inconsequential news-paper pieces b r i n g i n m o r e money, and he is too lazy to struggle against this c o n d i t i o n . Instead Marcello attaches h i m s e l f to a bored socialite whose search for thrills brings the pair into contact w i t h a n u m b e r o f fantastical charac-ters. The events that follow f o r m seven distinct episodes o f action that are loosely threaded together. T h r o u g h o u t all his adventures, Marcello's dreams, fantasies, and night-mares m i r r o r the h e d o n i s m o f his w a k i n g life. I t is these m o m e n t s o f unreality that unify the seven episodes into a coherent whole, c u l m i n a t i n g w i t h a shrug: w h i l e his life-style is shallow and ultimately pointless, there is n o t h i n g he can do to change i t , so he m i g h t as w e l l enjoy i t .

R E C E P T I O N AS A G A U G E OF C U L T U R A L C L I M A T E

U p o n its domestic release, the film i m m e d i a t e l y caused controversy. A segment o f the Italian p o p u l a t i o n was mor-ally outraged, resulting i n "protests o n the streets as w e l l as i n the papers."2 Conservative o p i n i o n leaders denounced

V

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the film as licentious and m o r a l l y depraved, labeling i t "the w o r k o f a C o m m u n i s t . "3 Soon after the V a t i c a n — w h i c h

originally accepted the film—retracted its approval and condemned La Dolce Vita, swiftly b r i n g i n g the clerics w h o had initially approved o f the film into accord w i t h official policy. The press assiduously documented these censures, captivating public consciousness and, ironically, t u r n i n g

"La Dolce Vita into a social and cultural event."4

Partly as a result o f the controversy, the film became an i m m e d i a t e box-office success i n Italy and internationally u p o n its release abroad.5 Italians l i n e d u p to see the film

u p o n its release. I t was a cultural sensation, ultimately grossing over 2 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 lira. Reflecting o n the de-cade i n film, The New York Times hailed La Dolce Vita as "one o f the m o s t widely seen and acclaimed European movies o f the 1960s."6 The public's clamor to see the film

was accompanied by ovations f r o m a m a j o r i t y o f p r o m i -nent critics i n Italy and the rest o f Europe. La Dolce Vita earned the Palme d'Or (Golden Palm) at the i 9 6 0 Cannes F i l m Festival. The New York Times reported that the festival ended " w i t h Italy's La Dolce Vita as the u n a n i m o u s choice for the Golden Palm first prize," its presentation being so overpowering that i t had "set the tone o f the whole festi-val."7

W h e n the film was released i n A m e r i c a the f o l l o w i n g year, the film again received praise f r o m critics w i t h some m i -n o r exceptio-ns, a m o -n g w h i c h was a -notable review i -n Time magazine: "For all its vitality, the film is decadent, an artis-tic failure,"8 and ""worst o f all, La Dolce Vita fails to attract

the moviegoer as m u c h as i t repulses h i m , fails to inspire his sympathies as w e l l as his disgust."9 Most critics,

t h o u g h , like Bosley Crowther, a w r i t e r for The New York

Times, concluded that the film "proved to deserve all the

hurrahs and the impressive honors i t has received."1 0 I n

his review, Crowther writes that the film is an "awesome picture, licentious i n content b u t m o r a l and vastly sophis-ticated i n its attitude and what i t says."1 1 La Dolce Vita was

n o m i n a t e d for four Academy Awards, i n c l u d i n g Best D i -r e c t o -r — w i n n i n g fo-r Best Costume Design: Black-and-W h i t e — a n d received a New York F i l m Critics Circle award for Best Foreign F i l m .

Fellini's film was received positively i n A m e r i c a due i n part to the intellectual climate into w h i c h i t was released. I n the 1950s and 1960s Fellini became, as Joseph M c B r i d e puts i t , the "director as superstar"1 2 for academics as w e l l

as the p u b l i c .1 3 Fellini achieved such superstardom

primar-ily because his w o r k as a director—epitomized i n La Dolce

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Uietato ai minori di T6 ami

LA DOLCE VITA B R O U G H T T H E A L L U R E O F I T A L I A N C U L T U R E T O C I N E M A S ACROSS T H E

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Vita - "dovetailed w i t h three m a j o r movements i n the arts

and i n film i n the 1950s and 1960s: h i g h m o d e r n i s m , the art film, and a u t e u r i s m . "1 4 H i g h m o d e r n i s m refers to the

a l i g n m e n t o f m o d e r n art w i t h h i g h (versus popular) cul-ture, m a r k i n g a clear d i s t i n c t i o n between innovative, ex-clusive " h i g h " art and art appearing i n pop culture, favor-i n g the former. A r t ffavor-ilm, especfavor-ially favor-i n A m e r favor-i c a n vernacular, refers to a film that presents itself as a piece o f h i g h art, w i t h such films generally being directed by an auteur, or a filmmaker whose films are p r i m a r i l y guided by his o w n creative vision. A l l three o f these movements were inter-related and all three were f u n d a m e n t a l to Fellini's interna-tional success w i t h La Dolce Vita.

La Dolce Vita encapsulates the h i g h m o d e r n m o v e m e n t i n

film, being an art film i n every sense o f the w o r d , espe-cially as i t was made u n d e r the direction o f the auteur. I n p r o d u c i n g La Dolce Vita, Fellini attempted above all else to craft the film into a piece o f h i g h art. H e drew o n m o d e r n -ist literature and experimented w i t h modes o f narrative: the film presents seven loosely connected episodes, resem-b l i n g a collection o f short stories that are only marginally b o u n d . Together, this m o d e r n i s t narrative technique, u n -conventional i n film at that t i m e , " c o n f i r m e d Fellini's rep-u t a t i o n w i t h i n h i g h m o d e r n i s t circles o f the t i m e "1 5 and led

critics to consider the film one o f the greatest art films ever produced. Fellini hoped that La Dolce Vita w o u l d become a cinematic p o e m , and most contemporary critics felt that he had done so. Moreover, Fellini's control over the direc-t i o n o f direc-the film was unprecedendirec-ted and is rare even direc-today. H e crafted each detail o f the film so that i t truly became his piece o f art. F i l m critic Peter Bonadello compared Fellini's

T H E F I L M ' S PORTRAYAL O F L O O S E S E X U A L I T Y R E S O N A T -/ I T H A M E R I C A N A U D I E N C E S I N T H E 1960s.

construction o f his films to "the art produced i n the workshop o f a Renaissance painter . . . virtually every d e t a i l costumes, makeup, l i g h t i n g , sets—of every film was m i -nutely sketched out by Fellini w i t h his famous felt-tip m a r k e r . "1 6 La Dolce Vita aspired w i t h unprecedented

ambi-t i o n ambi-to make film a core media o f h i g h m o d e r n arambi-t, and ambi-the cultural conditions o f its p r o d u c t i o n could not have been m o r e auspicious for such an a m b i t i o n . One begins to u n -derstand the critical acclaim.1 7

The cultural climate i n A m e r i c a also contributed substan-tially to the film's reception by the public, for i t enjoyed considerable box-office receipts o f over $19,500,000 i n America. This success is tied to the t i m i n g o f its release, w h i c h coincided w i t h a rise i n the A m e r i c a n people's inter-est i n international films. As film critic Frank Burke writes, there existed "widespread postwar A m e r i c a n movie inter-ests overseas"1 8 and Italian (and French) cinema

experi-enced considerable success i n A m e r i c a n markets. T h i s popular reception reflected t w o movements i n A m e r i c a n culture.

First, the reception o f La Dolce Vita—and Italian film i n general—represented a larger cultural fascination w i t h It-aly. D u r i n g the 1950s and 1960s, what A m e r i c a wore, what its citizens drove, and h o w they looked, was i n f l u -enced considerably by Italy's trendsetters, w h i c h i n c l u d e d fashion designers, film directors, and automakers. I f i t came f r o m Italy, and the designer's n a m e ended i n a vow-el, the A m e r i c a n public was b u y i n g i t . Even First Lady Jackie Kennedy, an i c o n o f America's style, was enamored w i t h Oleg Cassini designs. This fascination w i t h Italian culture coincided w i t h a peak i n A m e r i c a n interest i n film. I n this cultural climate, i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g that Fellini - the Italian director - and his masterwork La Dolce Vita experi-enced such popular and critical success i n America. Second, the reception o f the film occurred i n the m i d s t o f an evolving cultural and sexual revolution i n America. Not released i n A m e r i c a u n t i l 1961, the reception o f the film was preceded by three significant events i n A m e r i c a n cul-tural history: the issuing o f the Kinsey reports (1948 and 1953), the election o f President John Fitzgerald Kennedy (January i 9 6 0 ) and the development o f the p i l l (May i 9 6 0 ) . The Kinsey reports, t w o studies by A l f r e d Kinsey exploring male and female sexuality, challenged widely h e l d beliefs about h u m a n sexuality, i n c l u d i n g prevalent medical literature that posited that w o m e n were not sexual beings. M o r e t h a n any previous book, Kinsey's studies placed sex o n the national stage and inspired public

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course o n A m e r i c a n sexuality. These reports h a d b e g u n to t r a n s f o r m American's perceptions o f sexual behavior, b u t by i 9 6 0 w i t h the election o f the glamorous a n d sexy Ken-nedy family, Americans h a d an entirely n e w understand-i n g o f sex. U n l understand-i k e ever before, Amerunderstand-icans were remarkably open about and interested i n sex. This n e w perspective o n sex affected critics' perception o f t h e p r o m i s c u i t y i n La

Dolce Vita and drove the public to the theaters, w a n t i n g to

see its curiosity played out o n the b i g screen.

A large reason for this film's popular appeal was its sex appeal. International films h a d m o r e n u d i t y and were gen-erally m o r e risque t h a n A m e r i c a n films. La Dolce Vita d i d not disappoint. T h e so-called "orgy scene," the final scene o f the film excluding the epilogue o n t h e beach, i n w h i c h Marcello conducts the revelers, was w h o l l y unprecedented i n f i l m . Even The New York Times reviewer, w h o lavishly praised t h e film, noted that t h e film was " l i c e n t i o u s . "1 9

Roger Ebert postulated that t h e popular reception o f the film was due largely to this element o f the film: "We are afraid that, despite t h e almost extreme good taste w i t h w h i c h the movie was filmed, w e are afraid that m a n y o f the thousands w h o queued u p before the theatre h a d rather elementary m o t i v e s . "2 0

Moreover, the reception o f the film also coincided w i t h se-rious economic development i n America. Given the corre-sponding social effects o f that development o n 1950s America, the materialistic Rome that Fellini presented i n

La Dolce Vita was not entirely foreign to A m e r i c a n

movie-goers; A m e r i c a n audiences could relate to the film a n d its social commentary. By 1949 i n America, despite the con-t i n u i n g problems o f poscon-twar re-conversion, an economic expansion h a d b e g u n that w o u l d continue w i t h only b r i e f interruptions for almost twenty years. A m o n g the m o s t striking social developments o f the i m m e d i a t e postwar era was the r a p i d extension o f a middle-class lifestyle a n d out-look to a n expanding p o r t i o n o f the p o p u l a t i o n . As histo-r i a n A l a n Bhisto-rinkley histo-remahisto-rks, "At the centehisto-r o f middle-class culture i n the 1950s was a g r o w i n g absorption w i t h con-sumer goods."2 1 By i 9 6 0 A m e r i c a a n d Italy h a d

experi-enced an economic revolution, and portions o f b o t h popu-lations were concerned about t h e social effects o f t h e transition. These Americans viewed Fellini's social com-mentary as relevant a n d poignant; Bosley Crowther, a writ-er for The New York Times, captured this feeling i n h i s re-view o f the film: " O f all the intelligent filmmakers w h o have been t r y i n g i n recent years to give us a comprehen-sive picture o f the frantic civilization o f the present day, i t looks as i f Federico Fellini has come closest t o d o i n g i t i n

his great Italian f i l m , 'La Dolce Vita.'"22 Crowther even

sug-gests that the ills that Fellini portrays are applicable to "al-m o s t any h i g h l y civilized r e a l "al-m . " Crowther's c o "al-m "al-m e n t s , like those f r o m the previously m e n t i o n e d contemporary critics, reveal the political, social, a n d cultural climate i n w h i c h the film was produced.

LA DOLCE VITA AS A C U L T U R A L C R I T I Q U E

The telling nature o f La Dolce Vita's reception suggests its importance to history as a cultural artifact, b u t beyond d o c u m e n t i n g the climate o f the period, t h e film offers a commentary. A n d i n the years preceding the p r o d u c t i o n o f

La Dolce Vita, Italy experienced radical changes. D u r i n g

those years, Italy entered a n e w phase o f g r o w t h a n d change. As film critic Stephen Gundle writes, " N o longer the p r e d o m i n a n t l y agricultural and only primitively indus-trial country that h a d emerged f r o m t h e Second W o r l d War, [Italy] was rapidly developing into an i n d u s t r i a l soci-ety w i t h a profile o f its o w n . "2 3 I n the i m m e d i a t e post-war

period, Italy had experienced a devastating depression, b u t by the e n d o f t h e 1950s Italy's economic fortune h a d t u r n e d a r o u n d , i n part due to its n e w f o u n d allies a n d new-f o u n d resources. I n the 1950s, Italy became a m e m b e r o new-f the N A T O alliance—benefiting i m m e n s e l y f r o m the funds allocated by the Marshall P l a n — a n d a m e m b e r o f the Eu-ropean Economic C o m m u n i t y ( w h i c h later became t h e European U n i o n ) . A i d e d by these n e w allies a n d the dis-covery o f methane, w h i c h reinvigorated t h e Italian steel

"The film is undoubtedly a

reaction to the turbulence

facing an Italy in

transition, but the film also

constitutes a response to

calamities facing Fellini, in

transition himself/'

industry, Italy experienced an impressive economic revival and g r o w t h . Suddenly, i n the wake o f a serious depression, Italians experienced unprecedented prosperity. This eco-n o m i c developmeeco-nt, later eeco-ntitled the "Ecoeco-nomic Miracle,"

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insight into Italy's conception of—or rather struggle to contemporize—salvation.

The f i l m , therefore, is an invaluable artifact. A n assessm e n t o f the filassessm's reception provides the historian an u n -derstanding o f the social, political, cultural, and intellec-tual climate i n b o t h A m e r i c a and Italy i n i 9 6 0 . A n a l y z i n g the film itself allows the h i s t o r i a n to move beyond simple characterization and to apprehend s o m e t h i n g o f the feel and popular consciousness o f the t i m e . Hence, the histo-r i a n can gain an undehisto-rstanding o f the Italian people's search for m e a n i n g and salvation as their faith i n Christi-anity eroded. Just so was Fellini's a m b i t i o n consummated: not only is La Dolce Vita a masterful film, it is a master-piece o f art i n the t w e n t i e t h century.

E N D N O T E S

1. Gundle (133)

2. Gundle (136)

3. Gundle (136)

4. Gundle.(137)

5. Another factor contributing to the success of La Dolce Vita in Italy was the influence of Anita Ekberg; to Italian men, the beauty of a blonde woman is incomparable.

6. "Review Summary" New York Times, http://movies.nytimes. com/movie /27906/La- Dolce-Vita/overview

7. Crowther (30)

8. "Cinema: The Day of the Beast," Time Magazine, April 21, i96i,http://www.time.com/time/magazine/ article/0,9171,8953ii,oo.html?artId=8953ii?contType=article?ch n=us#ixzzoWZcRNkiD

9. Like most of the negative responses, the Time review misinterprets the film, failing to see the underlying currents of satire and sharp criticism, (e.g. "good deal of the picture is out-and-out sensationalism, smeared on with a heavy hand to attract the insects...the film is vulgar and naive.")

10. Crowther (30)

11. Ibid.

12. Burke (1)

13. In the cultural and theoretical climate of subsequent.decades, which that came to deny the autonomy of the individual (i.e. structuralism) "the concept of the modern artist-as-romantic hero was debunked and Fellini became viewed as an egoistic anachronism" (Burke 1). Though, Fellini had been a "a favorite among many academics in the 1960s, he became an outcast among film academics of the 1970s and 1980s" (Burke 2). The development of scholarship on Fellini is beyond the scope of this essay, but it is important to understand that development occurred - further demonstrating that La Dolce Vita was filmed in shifting ideological climate.

14. Burke (7)

15. Burke (98)

16. Bondanella (3)

17. The intellectual climate not only influenced the reception of the film, but also the production of the film - for, the intellectual climate not only influenced the critics but also Fellini himself and the patrons that financed his film. The narrative structure of the film is entirely modernist, evoking "comparisons to T.S. Eliot, James Joyce and other major modernist writers" (Burke 103). Fellini had, indeed, read such literature and hoped to mirror it in film. These modernist sympathies ensured that Fellini received the financial backing necessary to create the project. At the time of La Dolce Vita's production, American investment had become critical to Fellini's capability to make movies. And at the time, the Cold War was in full swing and Americans felt that the spread of liberalism "required not only money but the infusion of American ideology" (Burke 9). Accordingly, "American ideology enlisted high art and the cult of the artist as symbols of American individualism and freedom of thought" (Burke 9). Fellini, as an auteur and producer of high art, fit the bill, receiving significant financial support from American investors.

18. Burke (8)

19. Crowther (30)

20. Ebert (1961)

21. Brinkley (887)

22. Crowther, "La Dolce Vita: Fellini's Urbane Film Looks Askance at Life"(ii9) 23. Gundle (135) 24. Gundle (135) 25. Burke (8) 26. Gundle (135) 27. Gundle (137) 28. Gundle (135) 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Costello (35) 33. Murray (116) 34. Gundle (139) 35. Gundle (139) 36. Gundle (139)

37. "Cinema: The Day of the Beast," Time Magazine, April 21, i96i,http://www.time.com/time/magazine/

article/o,9171,895311,oo.html?artId=8953ii?contType=article?ch n=us#ixzzo WZcRNki D

38. Crowther,"La Dolce Vita: Fellini's Urbane Film Looks Askance at Life." (119)

39. As Fellini's style as a director changed with him. This film is a transitional piece between neo-realism and the aesthetic of his later work, the style that would later be termed Fellini-esque. The film, in many ways, is markedly not a neo-realist film: segments of the movie are filmed in a studio, the focus of the film is not upon the commonplace but upon the extraordinary and the wealthy, the films experimental narrative structure is a stark contrast from the mise-en-scene of neo-realist films. The film, though, retains the goals, i f not the methods of neo-realist cinema. Like the neo-realists, Fellini intends for his films to bring about the "transformation of consciousness" (Murray

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4).The neo-realists sought to bring it about by showing the negative consequences of the war. Fellini, instead, "sought to offer narrative models of transformation, rooted in the experience and imaginative growth of individual characters" (Murray 4). Likewise, in La Dolce Vita, Fellini does not yet embrace the dream sequences of his later films, not altering music, and simply presenting life as he sees it (although the life in focus is that of the wealthy not the impoverished). Like the neo-realist, he is simply directing the facts - even i f his focus is different than that of the neo-realists.

40. Whether Fellini would agree with this assessment is questionable. Concerning the autobiographical element in his works, Fellini himself has been (characteristically) inconsistent in his remarks on the subject. As Murray notes, "On the one hand, he has said: 'an artist can only be understood through his work what I have to say, I say in my work. My work can't be anything other than a testimony of what I am looking for. It is a mirror my searching.' On the other hand he has also said: 'I cannot remove myself from the content of my films. If I were to make a film about the life of a sole, it would end up being about me...there is autobiographical vain that is i n all my work'" (Murray 4).

41. Murray (8)

42. Murray (9)

43. Costello (36)

44. Admittedly, this allusion is not perfect. Fellini, unlike Marcello, migrated to Rome only after living i n Florence, where he was employed as a cartoonist for a number of years.

45. Murray (9) 46. Murray (6) 47. Costello (51) 48. Costello (53) 49. Costello (54) 50. Costello (69) 51. Costello (126) 52. Burke (86) 53. Costello (131) R E F E R E N C E S

Bondanella, Peter. The Films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press, 2002.

Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation: A Concise History of the

American People. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.

Burke, Frank. Fellini's Films, From Postwar to Postmodern. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996.

Burke, Frank. Federico Fellini: Variety Lights to La Dolce Vita. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1984.

Crowther, Bosley. "Fellini Film Lives Up to Foreign Hurrahs." The New York Times, 20 April 1961: p. 30.

Crowther, Bosley. "La Dolce Vita: Fellini's Urbane Film Looks Askance at Life." The New York Times, 23 April 1961: p. 119.

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Chandler, Charlotte. I , Fellini. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001.

"Cinema: The Day of the Beast." Time Magazine. 21 April 1961. <http: //www.time .com/time/magazine/article/o, 9171,8 9 5 311, o o. html?artld=8 9 5311 ?contType=article?chn=us#ixzzo WZcRNki D>. Costello, Donald P. Fellini's Road. Notre Dame, I N : University of Notre Dame Press, 1983.

Ebert, Roger. "La Dolce Vita." The Daily Illini. 4 October 1961. < h t t p : / / r o g e r e b e r t . s u n t i m e s . c o m / a p p s / p b c s . d l l / article?AID=/i96noo4/REVIEWS/5o8o90oi/io23>.

Gundle, Stephen. The Movies As History. Gloucestershire: Red-wood Books, 2000.

Ketcham, Charles B. Federico Fellini: The Search for a New

Mythol-ogy^ New York: Paulet Press, 1976.

Murray, Edward. Fellini the Artist. New York: Frederick Ungar Pub-lishing Co., Inc., 1976.

"Movies Abroad: Everymantis." Time Magazine. 5 October 1962. < h t t p : / / w w w . t i m e . c o m / t i m e / m a g a z i n e / a r t i -cle/0,9171,829205,oo.html?artId=829205?contType=article?chn =us>.

"Movies Abroad: The Winners at Cannes." Time Magazine. 30 May i 9 6 0 . <http://www.time.com/time/magazine/arti-cle/0,9171,939686, oo.html?artId=939686?contType=article?ch n=us#ixzzoWZdQie90>.

Rohdie, Sam. Fellini Lexicon. London: British Film Institute, 2002.

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