ARCHDESIGN '21
VIII. INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
ARCHDESIGN '21
VIII. INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
A R CH D ES IG N '2 1/ V III . IN TE R N AT IO N A L A R CH IT EC TU R A L D ES IG N CO N FE R EN CE P R O CE ED IN G S Architecture has renewed itself in terms of structural, aesthetical, and
functional aspects that correspond to the needs of every age. The speed of change has never been faster in human history and design has never been
more integral to our lives. Architectural design does not only shape our daily lives and responds to the needs anymore, it also plays an important
role in economical welfare, psychological well-being, and ecological balance. Recently architecture has been linked to a new agenda of marketing and image building. It is discovering neuroscience,
marketing and image building. It is discovering neuroscience, Artificial Intelligence, robotic constructions, biomimetics and Virtual reality. Ecology
has become a paramount parameter of all design decisions. The psychological effects of spaces have grown into a decisive element. History
of architecture has been reconsidered from critical points of view. Theory and creativity have become more prominent for designers. Contemporary
world offers new opportunities and challenges for architecture while new frontiers in architecture are waiting to be discovered.
frontiers in architecture are waiting to be discovered.
ARCHDESIGN Conference Proceedings is providing a platform for scholars and architects to rethink our understanding of design in an
interdisciplinary and refreshing way.
ARCHDESIGN ’21
VIII. INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
ARCHDESIGN ’21 / VIII. INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
ISBN: 978-625-7034-07-4
Özgür Öztürk DAKAM YAYINLARI March 2021, Istanbul, Turkey.
www.dakam.org
Firuzağa Mah. Boğazkesen Cad., No:76/8, 34425, Beyoğlu, İstanbul
Cover Design: D/GD (DAKAM Graphic Design)
Print: Metin Copy Plus, Mollafenari Mah., Türkocağı Cad. 3/1, Mahmutpaşa/Istanbul, Turkey
Conference Coordination: DAKAM (Eastern Mediterranean Academic Research Center)
DAKAM’S
ARCHDESIGN ’21
VIII. INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
CONTENTS
ARCHITECTURAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR LIFE ENVIRONMENT: SPENT COFFEE GROUND REUSE, A NOVEL WAY TO INTEND ARCHITECTURAL AND ENGINEERING PRODUCTS?
MANFREDI SAELI, TIZIANA CAMPISI ... 8
SYMBOLS IN RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE; EXAMPLE OF KÖŞKLÜÇİFTLİK AREA IN NICOSIA
EZGİ ÖZYİĞİT, RAFOONEH M. SANİ ... 25
REBUILDING THE KNOWLEDGE WITH LOCAL MATERIALS AND/OR SKILLS
HANDE ASAR ... 39
ATMOSPHERIC PERCEPTION IN DIGITAL SPACE
SERKAN CAN HATIPOĞLU, LEYLA YEKDANE TOKMAN ... 54
RELIEF - SPACES: TRANS – POSITIONS OF DISPLAY IN FRAGMENTS, MONUMENTS, AND ENVIRONMENTS
SEZIN SARICA ... 66
THE ADVENTURE OF AN IMPORTED BUILDING MATERIAL IN TURKEY CELOTEX:
TECHNICAL PROPERTIES, USAGE AND IMPORTERS
BİLGE EKİN İNAN, ESRA KARACA ... 84
ANALYSIS OF TRANSFORMATION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STUDIO EDUCATION IN COVID-19 PANDEMIC PROCESS IN TURKEY
BURÇİN KUTSAL, EBRU PEKDAŞ ... 109
FIRST YEAR ARCHITECTURAL READINGS: WHAT DO THEY READ, WHO DO THEY READ?
ŞÖLEN KÖSEOĞLU ... 121
PEDAGOGICAL POTENTIAL OF VIDEOGAMES IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION
VINCENT HUI, TATIANA ESTRINA, LENA MA, ALVIN HUANG ... 136
HOUSEHOLD GOODS IN THE PERSPECTIVE OF ADVERTISEMENTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY ISTANBUL
HATİCE GÖKÇEN ÖZKAYA, DERYA DÜZGÜN ... 152
PLACEMAKING IN URBAN SPACE THROUGH PUBLIC ART PRACTICES
ECE GÜLEÇ, GÖKÇEÇİÇEK SAVAŞIR………167
SUSTAINABILITY CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF SUSTAINABLE SOCIAL HOUSING
SÁNCHEZ PLATAS LILIANA ENEIDA, HERRERA MARTÍNEZ RAÚL, VELARDE GALVÁN
ALEJANDRA, CRUZ MARTINEZ VÍCTOR MANUEL, SÁNCHEZ LUQUEÑO JESÚS. ... 181
A PARALLAX: (EXPANSION OF) EXHIBITION SPACE AS A DISCURSIVE ACT
SEZİN SARICA ... 190
CATEGORIES OF URBAN ANALYSIS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN EDUCATION
EMRE ALTÜRK ... 203
BURDUR DEPREM YAPI COOPERATIVE HOUSING
PELIN ÖNAL ... 219
INTERMITTENT GROUNDS
ONUR ÖZKAYA ... 220
DEVELOPMENT MODEL FOR URBAN ENVIRONMENTS OF THE INNER-CITY: THE CASE OF AL-BAHA, SAUDI ARABIA
ABDULAZIZ ALZAHRANI ... 221
ARCHITECTURAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR LIFE ENVIRONMENT: SPENT COFFEE GROUND REUSE, A NOVEL WAY TO INTEND
ARCHITECTURAL AND ENGINEERING PRODUCTS?
MANFREDI SAELI, TIZIANA CAMPISI
Department of Architecture, University of Palermo, Italy
Corresponding author: manfredi.saeli@unipa.it (Manfredi Saeli)
Abstract
Green architecture is the novel trend in construction that considers innovative materials and solutions to architectural design and engineering build. Then the use of advanced organic materials and renewable energy resources are the new path followed by “bio-designers”. In this context, particularly important are the novel economic and social criteria, often related to ethical issues, whose aim is generating a low environmental impact. In fact, bio-architectural construction contemplates the reuse of industrial bio-wastes to manufacture novel green materials with enhanced performances. The main approach behind a green building is that the whole construction life cycle must be eco-sustainable and environmentally friendly from the beginning to the end of the building process.
Spent coffee grounds are an extremely widespread waste product generated from the coffee industry and consumption. Nowadays, their disposal represents an increasing environmental concern as many studies have revealed some coffee grounds toxicity also due to the organic character. With an increasing coffee production for the next years, there is an imperative need to balance this production with a proper utilisation and industrial application of coffee by-products for sustainable products development.
This paper reports the potential ways to reuse spent coffee waste for the production of novel construction and building materials as well as architectural products, in the context of circular economy. Construction, in general, is recognised as one of the most polluting and energy consuming industries worldwide, especially in the countries of the third world where the demand for new structures and infrastructure is compelling. This paper presents a literary review of the state of the art of the reuse of spent coffee ground incorporated in novel materials and products. Advantages and drawbacks have been investigated, along with the manufacturing procedures and the novel products characterisation to understand how this solid waste may be valorised and reused.
Environmental pollution, food waste and the need for a sustainable approach
Environmental pollution generally refers to any alteration caused by humans to the physical and biological environment. It is easily comprehensible that among these alterations we must consider those that involve damages to man itself and, in a subordinate way, also to any element of the natural world [1]. The problem of environmental pollution has always accompanied the human activities. It is only with the industrial revolution, and the consequent socio-economic phenomenon of consumerism, that pollution became a global problem, due to the increasing activity of the large industries and the consumption of larger and larger quantities of coal and other fossil fuels [2, 3]. Nowadays, the problem of exploitation of the natural non-renewable resources and the associated environmental pollution, as a consequence of human activity, is considered among the most serious that humanity has to face and solve in the shortest term possible, in order to avert catastrophic effects. However, some of these catastrophes, and irremediable environmental modifications, are under the eyes of everybody.
In reality, the question is amazingly difficult to resolve, since it includes various aspects, all linked to each other: the pollution of water, air and soil, the fast and imminent depletion of natural resources, especially the non-renewable ones, the loss of biodiversity, the reduction of ozone in the atmosphere, the alteration of the nitrogen cycle, the climate changes and the global warming with the subsequent melting of the glaciers. And these are just some of the aspects that are increasingly putting the planet at risk, with probable and imminent irreversible consequences [4]. In order to solve and tackle the problem, the most industrialized countries have tried in the recent decades to find solutions, or at least to limit the consequences. This is why since 1997, with the Kyoto Protocol, the world powers have been trying to enter into international agreements with the aim of safeguarding the planet. However, if the European countries have tried to comply with the terms of the agreements on emissions, many other nations such as India and China, for instance, in the period 1990-2012 have increased emissions respectively by 200% and 290%, acting at the exact opposite and limiting, de facto, the efforts made by others countries [5]. The EU, in 2010, decided to implement Europe 2020: a ten-year strategy based on a vision of smart, sustainable and inclusive growth [6]. One of the latest steps taken in this direction is the "2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development", an action program intended for people, the planet and prosperity, signed in September 2015 by the governments of the 193 UN member countries, with a series of objectives for Sustainable Development to be achieved by 2030 [7].
Unfortunately, in recent decades the global industrialization has taken on a worrying trend also with regard to the use, and consequent exhaustion, of raw materials present in the subsoil. One of the simplest means used to sensitise humanity to this issue is the institution of “Earth Overshoot Day”: the day of the year when humanity will have exhausted all the natural resources that the Earth is capable of regenerating in the same year. For instance, in 2020, despite the SARS-COVID 19 pandemic and the consequent generalized lock-down in many areas of the planet for long periods, on 22 August we ran out of all the resources produce by the Earth for that year. This means that for the remaining 4 months and 8 days, everything humans have consumed globally, we have "stolen" from the Earth reserves [8].
Figure 1. Earth Overshoot Day (left) and ideal number of Earth we would need with some Countries’
lifestyle.
Consumerism has led to a general overproduction of products, with a consequent exponential increase in waste and scrap present in landfills. Just for example, in Italy alone, between 2006 and 2010, 32 million tons of municipal waste were produced annually [9]. Fortunately, a decreasing trend in the most recent years is reported, at least in the European countries and, more generally, in the developed countries. But the gap with the undeveloped states is still large. In fact, high-income countries are able to recycle about 31% of the produced waste; conversely, low-income countries manage to recycle only the 4%, while more than 90% of waste ends up in landfills or is burned [9].
Another global issue of primary importance to take into consideration, as the cause of disparity in the world and environmental pollution, is the waste of food, with the consequent production of food waste.
This waste occurs throughout the whole production chain: from cultivation to transport, from industrial processing to storage, from packaging to sale. For each food product not consumed, energy, water, labour and the virgin land exploitation are wasted [10]. Waste production occurs in both developed and under-developed countries. However, in the former the volumes of wasted food are in the downstream of the food chain, since it often depends on consumer behaviour, the lack of communication in the supply chain and the too restrictive standards that retail consumption imposes.
Exactly the opposite happens in the latter, where waste tends to manifest itself upstream of the production chain. This is mainly caused by the practical difficulties in procurement, by the obsolete technologies used for collection, by the lack of infrastructure suitable for transport and storage.
Globally, food waste is balanced between upstream and downstream of the supply chain. In fact, the volumes of waste concerning production, post-collection transport and storage, represent 54% of the total waste; the remaining 46% includes the rejects referring to processing and consumption. It is also estimated that, in general, about 40% of the food on the planet is destined to become waste [11]. In the EU alone, nearly 90 million tons of food every year is wasted, which is almost 180 kg per person [5].
Figure 2. Global food waste per geographic area (left) and food typology (right).
It is now certain that the phenomenon of pollution is taking on the role of an increasingly dangerous problem for human life. For this reason, in the last decades more and more use has been made of sustainability as a development model capable of changing the fate of the planet.
Waste reuse and recycle: search for novel sustainable materials, products and processes The circular approach applied to the economy is a fundamental tool intended for safeguarding the planet. Its application in the various industrial sectors is, indeed, central to satisfy the targets imposed by the EU (VII General Action Program of the Union on the environment until 2020). The procedure of waste reuse and recycling is of primary importance in the perspective of the circular economy, as it allows to obtain new raw and secondary materials useful for the manufacture of innovative materials and products with applications in many industrial sectors. In fact, to date, in the European Union about 500 kg of urban wastes are produced yearly per capita and only just over a third of such waste is properly recycled. The production of municipal waste, however, is constantly decreasing.
Theoretically, different is the proper meaning associated to the terms “reuse” and “recycle”. The first one implies the use of remainings that have not yet become waste. Reuse aims at relocating and reinventing products that are still reusable. On the contrary, recycling is the transformation of wastes into new resources or goods, through more or less complex industrial processes. To work, the separate waste collection system needs to be rigorous, shared and efficient. Finding new approaches to reduce and recycle waste, using value-added applications, is essential in order to optimise technological innovation and efficiency in the industrial sector, also to meet the needs of a growing population.
Of all the waste produced in the global industrial sector, organic waste plays a leading role. Although the most finds final reliance in landfills, scientific research in recent times has focused its attention on the potential and novel uses that waste can offer. One of the most traded products in the world, and which consequently produces large quantities of organic waste, is coffee [12].
Coffee: composition, production process, quantities and waste
Coffea is a very common plant, distributed in the tropical climate, belonging to the Rubiaceae family, which includes several species of shrubs, some of which are used for the production of coffee. The fruits of this plant are berries which contain the seeds known - to most - as coffee beans. The most common and marketed species, as they produce beans with a very intense aroma and rich in caffeine, are Arabica and Robusta, which share the market with 75 % and 25 % respectively [12].
The coffee berry, called drupe, in addition to the seed is composed of various by-products that must be discarded in order to obtain the bean useful for the drink, as shown in figure 3. In fact, along the coffee production chain, the seed must be divided from all the other components of the drupe: the peel (exocarp or husk) and the pulp (mesocarp) are among the first waste produced and represent respectively 29 % and 12 % of the dry weight of the coffee bean. The parchment (endocarp), the film or integument (silver skin or chaff) and the mucilage are instead discarded during the subsequent stages of processing and represent about 9 % of the total weight of the fruit. Therefore, considering the weights relating to such waste, the coffee bean is about 50 % of the total weight of the fruit [12].
Figure 3. Coffee drupe (left) and a schematic composition (right): the seed (bean) and the various by-products, which will be discarded during the production process.
Coffee production includes various activities ranging from field cultivation to the production of coffee as a finished product. In general, it is possible to divide the production chain into two macro-phases:
the first one includes cultivation, harvesting and post-harvesting by the plantations owners; then the green coffee bean is sent to the industries that transform it in a variety of products (mainly toasted or powdered). When the berries are ripe they are harvested. Harvesting can be done either by hand or with the aid of machinery. Often the choice derives from the economic conditions of the producing country [14]. The first useful step in the transformation process from berry to bean is the subdivision between low-density fruits, which are too ripe and therefore are discarded, and high-density fruits, which instead have a high quality. To carry out this division berries are washed and subsequently sieved, to eliminate any substances adhering to the fruit [13]. The various stages of cultivation, harvesting of berries, washing, drying and pulping, therefore, fall within the supply chain, which allow to obtain coffee beans that meet the market standards [13]. The processing and transformation of coffee, which aims to extract the seeds from the previously harvested berries of the plant, can follow three different processing methods: dry, semi-wet and wet. In the first case, the berries are dried under
the sun or in a dryer. Once dry, using a dehulling machine, the by-products are eliminated, obtaining only the grain. Finally, to permanently eliminate the peel and pulp, grains are passed through a sieve [16]. Following the wet processing, after harvesting, the fruits of the coffee plant are subjected to the pulping process: through a strong water flow, the pulp and skin are initially destroyed, freeing the beans. Subsequently, to eliminate also the mucilage and the parchment, they are deposited in tanks for a few days, so that these by-products start to decompose. After being washed again, the fruits are dried in dryers and, finally, pitted and peeled. In this case, the coffee is defined as washed. During the subsequent roasting phases, the beans are subjected to heating phases: initially at 180 °C and, subsequently, at temperatures between 200 °C and 300 °C. Through these heating, the roasted beans vary in size, colour, taste and aroma. The expansion of the grains also involves the breaking of the silver skin, the most difficult layer to remove. Finally, through jets of cold water or air, the beans are cleaned of the last residues and cooled down to ambient temperature [15].
Figure 4. Artisanal roasting process and beans modifications.
Coffee is one of the most produced and traded products in the world. According to the International Coffee Organization, in 2019 only the coffee production was about 10230 tons (about 45048 tons of 60 kg bags) with a market value that, in recent years, has exceeded 30 million dollars annually. The main producers that export coffee all over the world are the tropical countries located in Asia or South America. The first ever, is Brazil with 59000 tons of 60 kg bags of coffee; the second is Vietnam with over 29000 tons of 60 kg bags. The third exporter country, with 14000 tons of 60 kg bags of coffee, is Colombia. Conversely, the main consumers are the countries with high living standards, principally Europe and North America, where coffee can’t be cultivated due to lack of climate and land. Just to have an idea, between October 2019 and September 2020, Europe imported 45048 tons of 60 kg bags, the United States 27430 thousand 60 kg bags. The histograms in figure 5 highlight the production and consumption of coffee in the main regions of the planet.
Regarding the coffee consumption per capita, on the planet an individual averagely consumes of 4.5 kg of coffee per year. Clearly, however, according to the different nations, the data changes significantly.
For example, Finland has a per capita consumption of nearly 12 kg per year, Norway 9.9 kg, Iceland 9 kg, Sweden and Denmark around 8 kg, Italy around 6 kg, Portugal is the lower consumer with around 2.5 kg per capita. Overall, it is estimated that the cups drunk in one year in Europe are 6 billion [18].
Moving overseas, per capita coffee consumption is on average high in Canada with 6.5 kg, in USA around 4 kg and in Brazil around 5.6 kg [17].
Figure 5. Main coffee producers (left) and consumers (right) worldwide.
The reported data clearly show how much coffee is present in our daily life and imply, as a direct consequence, the production of high quantities of by-products and waste. In fact, approximately 0.5 tons of coffee pulp accumulate per ton of coffee produced. Furthermore, in addition to the waste that are released during the different processing stages, the enormous amount of spent coffee grounds must be considered: the result of filtering for the preparation of one of the most popular beverages in the world. Every year, it is estimated that 6 million tons of exhausted coffee grounds (figure 6, left) are produced, a waste that hides important potential and which could prove to be a valuable resource in the field of industrial innovation.
Figure 6. Exhausted coffee grounds (left); Composition of spent coffee ground, dry basis (right).
Considering the enormous quantities of coffee produced and the subsequent quantity of waste accumulated both along the entire supply chain and following the production of the beverage, in recent years scientific research has focused on the possible reuse of the coffee waste and by-products. Until
the last decade, combustion was the only alternative to disposal leading to a pollutant emissions increase [21]. It is also disposed of in landfills implementing a harmful practice with zero efficiency and against the circular economy instructions [19]. However, as an organic product, coffee has some harmful components to the environment. For this reason, it is essential to search for new methods able to reduce its environmental impact and make it a precious resource [20]. Recently, however, coffee waste has been studied to be transformed into a raw material, highlighting its potential and reducing disposal emissions and costs [21]. From the reported data, it appears evident that SCG is the most produced waste. Its composition reveals the great potential in many industrial sectors reuse. The specific composition depends on several factors ranging from the ripeness of the bean to the type of preparation used to produce the drink. In general, however, the main components are sugars (50% in dry mass, mainly cellulose and hemicellulose) and oils (15% of the dry mass) (figure 6, right). Smaller quantities of caffeine, ash, minerals and phenolic compounds are also observed [20]. In addition, SCG is a potential source of energy.
Scientific research has recently focused on efficient ways to reuse SCG, by extracting energy or valuable compounds, in order to reduce useless landfill disposal. Whether it is extracting sugars and oils to produce renewable biofuels, isolating phenolic and antioxidant residues for use as food supplements or combining them with other substances to create new materials, the prospects for recycling and reuse are very broad [20].
Reuse of SCG in the construction sector: ecological bricks with clay and used coffee grounds An example of novel eco-sustainable construction material, using organic industrial waste as constituents, are the bricks produced using clay and SCG [22]. The study, conducted by RILEM, used SCGs deriving from various catering businesses, demonstrating the ease of procurement of such waste.
The mixing between clay and SCG was carried out in dry state, formulating samples with different percentages (5%, 11% and 17% by mass) of SCG. Subsequently, the samples were made using a hydraulic press. After the moulding phase, a drying process was started with the aid of 10 chambers with different atmospheres and, finally, a final firing phase was carried out at 950 °C. Following these processes, the produced specimens were analysed. Linear shrinkage showed a constant reduction whose trend is influenced by the constant amount of water added to the batches. Furthermore, the plasticity trend showed an increasing linear trend as the percentage of additive in the sample increases.
As for the bulk density (figure 7, top left) it is observed a linear decreasing trend as the percentage of additive increases, obtaining values of 1700 kg/m3 for the first batch and reaching values of 1400 kg/m3 for the highest SCG presence. Consistently with similar studies, this happens because the added additive is removed during the ceramic firing process, leaving pores that also affect other properties of the samples. Resistance to compression (figure 7, top right) showed an almost linear decreasing trend as the presence of additive in the sample increases. The reduction in density caused by the high presence of the additive leads to an increase in porosity, which in turn reduces the compressive strength. In fact, it can be seen from the graph that the sample without additive has a compressive strength of 38 N/mm2, reaching values of 14 N/mm2 with the sample containing 17% of additive. It is important to underline, however, that even the lowest values obtained are acceptable with reference to the ASTM and European code. The water absorption (figure 7, bottom left) showed a non-linear trend, but presents a minimum for the values close to 4% of additive, and then assumes an increasing trend, until reaching 24% of water absorption in the case of a sample consisting of 17 % additive.
Finally, the trend of thermal conductivity (figure 7, bottom right) showed the highest value of 0.73 W/mK for the first sample, with a sudden reduction in conductivity for the sample with 17% of additive, which reached values close to 0.36 W/mK. Results clearly showed that the produced bricks could improve the thermal insulation of a building by more than 50%. The results are very promising, as they
testify the possibility of replacing traditional bricks with eco-sustainable ones. However, it should also be stated that, basing on the performed tests, the best results do not refer to a unique lot, thus implying that the choice of the sample is dictated by the type of different uses.
Figure 7. Bulk density (top left), compressive strength (top right), water absorption (bottom left), thermal conductivity (bottom right).
Sound absorbing panels for the reduction of acoustic noise
Scientific research has also focused on the development of sound-absorbing panels, produced reusing organic materials as filling. In particular, a group from the Yonsei University in Seoul (Korea) produced sound-absorbing panel reusing SCG to be employed into a bar [23]. In addition to the coffee waste, urea resin, an adhesive material traditionally used for wood plywood panels, was used as a glue. SCG was dryed at a temperature of 105 °C for 24 hours. Subsequently, the dried coffee powder grains were divided into three different batches, based on the grains’ granulometry. Defining Ds as the particle size, the subdivision based on the grain size was: Ds <300 μm; 300 μm <Ds <600 μm; Ds> 600 μm. The batches were then mixed with the urea resin and a 25% ammonium chloride solution, then pressed and heated to 140 °C for 15 minutes and finally extracted from the moulds. Overall, 12 samples with a diameter of 45 mm and a depth of 50 mm were produced, considering both the different ranges relating to the size of the coffee powder grains (adding also a quarter of reference), and the three different densities of the particles, equal to 0.4 g/cm3, 0.5 g/cm3 and 0.6 g/cm3. Using the ODEON software, it was possible to simulate, knowing the characteristics of the panel, the real performance of the produced panels inside a room, being able to obtain results relating to the sound absorption coefficient, the reverberation time and the sound pressure level.
It was noticed that the sound absorption coefficient reached on higher values as the frequency increases. As shown in the figure 8, the values are comparable to traditional porous panels. The porosity that the coffee powder gives and the composition of the panel have thus made it possible to generate a very effective product for absorbing the sound energy produced inside the room.
Figure 8. Acoustic absorption coefficient on samples based on particle size: a) reference; (b) 300 μm> Ds; c) 600 μm> Ds> 300 μm; (d) 600 μm <Ds. (Ds: particle size)
On the other hand, in relation to the reverberation time, the obtained values are very close to the optimal ones for a room of this type. In fact, from the graphs in figure 9, which show the frequency as the reverberation time varies, it can be noticed that the results are practically superimposable with those of case (a), that is the reference case. In particular, in the case of reverberation times of maximum coverage relative to 100% of CWSA, at 500 Hz, values of just over 0.6 seconds are found, a result perfectly in line with the optimal value proposed in relation to this volume of space equal to 0.65 seconds.
Figure 9. Bar reverberation time based on the increase of the CWSA area (0.4 g / cm3) on the
ceiling: (a) reference; (b) 300 μm> Ds; c) 600 μm> Ds> 300 μm; (d) 600 μm <Ds [38]
Finally, similar results can also be found by analysing the sound pressure level, highlighted in figure 10, always relating to the different combinations of the case studies. In fact, it can be noted that a reduction in the sound pressure level of 7 dB is manifested by increasing the coverage of the ceiling of the room with CWSA.
These results testify once again how it is possible to reuse self-produced waste in certain activities in a sustainable way, improving the comfort of users who use the service through a reduction in noise and obtaining results comparable to traditional porous acoustic panels available on the market.
Making a choice of this type, in addition to constituting an advantage in terms of sustainability, would also guarantee savings in economic terms, since the coffee grounds could be directly supplied by the room for which the sound-absorbing panel is intended.
Figure 10. Sound pressure level based on the increase in CWSA coverage [38]
Bio-composite reusing SCG
From a circular point of view, scientific research has spent, in recent years, a lot of energy in order to obtain bio-composites that have good mechanical properties, that are light and cheap and that do not burden the environmental impact. The study conducted by Jonas Huether et al. [24] aimed at producing different composites consisting of carbon fibre fabric scraps, reusing exhausted coffee grounds as filler. SCG were pre-treated in order to obtain two different types of filling: SCGA (coming out automatically from the coffee machine) and SCGF (obtained from a further grinding phase after it comes out of the machine). Both types were subjected to drying in a vacuum chamber for 5 h at a temperature of 105 °C. Figure 11 shows the 6 different types of composite.
Figure 11. Carbon fibre production waste (top left); chopped glass fibers (top right); chalk powder (centre left); dried used coffee grounds (centre right); produced specimens (bottom).
Figure 12. Graphs showing the tensile strength (left); the stiffness (centre); the ratios stiffness/density.
Several mechanical tests were performed on the produced tables revealing interesting results. Figure 12 left shows the results of the tensile test and on the centre the stiffness of the samples. It can be observed that the best result is, in both cases, that relating to the first column (glass fibres and gypsum), with slightly lower values for the specimens made with coffee grounds. However, interesting is the ratios obtained by dividing the stiffness values by the density of the composites, in order to obtain a specific size. As the graph in figure 12 right shows, in fact, the specimen filled with SCGF is, albeit slightly, better than the specimens filled with gypsum. This result derives from the lighter weight of the coffee grounds compared to traditional filling. In fact, from the analysis of the properties of the fillers used, the coffee grounds showed values close to 1.30 g/cm3 (with precision ρSCGA = 1.31 g/cm3 and ρSCGF = 1.29 g/cm3) while the density of the traditional filler reaches values greater than double.
Possible applications in other industrial sectors
The presented studies show how the attention on the possible reuse of the coffee waste, potentially so precious, is varied. In fact, various re-uses of SCG also in other industrial sectors can be hypothesized.
For example, studies have focused the attention on the conversion of SCG into organic briquettes for heating, comparing them to other biomass sources such as olive pomace or horse dung. The results obtained showed an interesting good potential in terms of heating, lower than fossil fuels but higher than wood. Other studies have focused on the development of adsorbent materials to remove dyes, pesticides, contaminants and heavy metals. The release of heavy metals into the environment is a real concern for humanity and the environment. The current legislation on environmental protection and the present known environmental concerns guide scientific research on the study of new techniques to remove heavy metals from water, in order to avoid direct or indirect ingestion by humans. Returning to the construction field, on the other hand, in addition to the already examined applications, the research is taking different paths. For instance, SCG have been used as a chemical base for the preparation of bio-based polyurethane foams [25]. Finally, among the most innovative applications of the reuse of SCG, is certainly the the possibility of converting cellulose into glucose, allowing the waste to constitute in the future not only a food source for ruminants, but also for the production of bread, biscuits and snacks [26].
Conclusions
Worldwide, the issue of sustainability should be pursued through the experimentation and application of biomaterials and components specifically designed and tested with the aim of producing new products, on an industrial scale, that can improve the quality of human life and the way of living the buildings.
A deep knowledge of the problems related to the various biomaterials and components, intended for design and architecture, are fundamental in order to understand the problems inherent the production, implementation and the related construction methodologies, with particular reference to the sustainability of the intervention, the compatibility of the new biomaterials with the components of the traditional or more advanced building organism, as well as the expected performance and the improvement of the construction quality. Furthermore, particular attention must be paid to the methods of implementation as well as to the evaluation of the qualitative and economic aspects of the architectural and executive project which can evaluate the results obtainable with optimum reliability based on the criteria for choosing the various solutions.
This paper has focused its attention on the possible and potential reuse of a highly produced waste that derives from the coffee industry. Coffee is one of the most appreciated beverages worldwide, especially in the developed countries and thousands of tons are consumed every day, leading to an enormous amount of wastes. A new life is here suggested in the perspective of Circular Economy and in the implementation of sustainability in the construction sector.
Acknowledgements
Manfredi Saeli would like to acknowledge the project PON “Research and Innovation 2014-2020”
section 2 “AIM: Attraction and International Mobility” with D.D. 407 of 27/02/2018 co-financed by the European Social Fund – CUP B74I19000650001 – id project AIM 1890405-3, area: “Technologies for the Environments of Life”, S.C. 08/C1, S.S.D. ICAR/10.
The project Smart Rehabilitation 3.0, Innovating Professional Skills for Existing Building Sector (2019- 1-ES01-KA203-065657) co-funded by the Erasmus + Programme of the European Union is also acknowledged.
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SYMBOLS IN RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE;
EXAMPLE OF KÖŞKLÜÇİFTLİK AREA IN NICOSIA
EZGİ ÖZYİĞİT, RAFOONEH M. SANİ
Ezgi Özyiğit, PhD Student, Eastern Mediterranean University, Department of Architecture
Rafooneh M. Sani, Faculty Member, Eastern Mediterranean University, Department of Architecture
Abstract
Architecture is not only designing in physical dimension, but it is a combination of expression of beliefs, thoughts, feelings and preferences in built form. It is a way of communication within itself and with its surroundings. This communication has been underlying within the meanings and users sense these meanings either consciously or unconsciously, by experiencing the existing construction. The reading of the meanings can only happen by the absence or presence of the symbols. Since each sign is used to have a specific meaning, besides the subjective thoughts of each person; some of them symbolizes a class status in a society. In daily life, there are lots of signs to analyse these status symbols, according to famous sociologists. However, what kind of element or symbol represent status symbols in architecture? In this article, it is aimed to analyse status symbols in terms of architectural elements of a building. For this aim, Köşklüciftlik area, in Nicosia was chosen to be studied, as it has an important place for residential architecture during the British period in Cyprus. Content analysis method was used for analysing, what kind of architectural elements were used to determine the class status within the society.
Keywords: Culture, Status Symbols, Building Components, Residential Architecture, North Cyprus
1. Introduction
Each sign or form symbolizes something and gives messages to someone. There are some symbols to define the status of the person, in terms of socio-economic, socio-politics and socio-cultural. By these symbols, one’s position is understood in daily life, such as prestige, wealth, power and authority (Blumberg, 1971). These status symbols can be classified as one’s behaviours, gestures, speech, body movements, as well as one’s materials that are used in daily life (Goffman, 1951). One of the main status symbols is stated as architecture. Besides the jewellery, yachts, jets, etc., architecture is a permanent symbol that has always been used for reflecting the owner’s lifestyle, in terms of physical, political, cultural, economic and social terms and also, for impressing others (Falk, 2017). In architecture itself, there are also different components that specify the status. Some materials are more desirable than the others and sometimes, some architectural trends are in fashion to state the status. Also, for residential buildings, status can be defined by the organization of space, materials and objects that are used.
As Umberto Eco mentions, house is the most personal space. It is created with cultural and individual memories and symbols (as cited in Dastjerdi, 2014). As, French philosopher, Bachelard describes the house, “”the house shelters daydreaming, the house protects the dreamer, the house allows one to dream in peace”“ (as cited in Leach, 1977), home is one of the main cores of the sense of belongingness. Thus, designing a house is different than designing other places. It requires a strong connection with the users and their perceptions. Cyprus’s architecture has its roots from different eras and kingdoms which ruled the island over centuries. So that, there may be different architectural status symbols in each time period. Due to high valued privacy of family and women in the Ottoman period, residential architecture had been started to be cared a lot (N/A). This makes the Ottoman and onwards periods, very important in the terms of residential architecture in Cyprus.
Although there are some researches about the status symbols in architecture, it is still very difficult to define these symbols. As Erving Goffman says, these symbols should complete each other and create a whole package, for representing a status (Goffman, 1951). Especially, in terms of Cyprus’s residential buildings, there are very few documentations. Thus, there is a gap in literature for finding out the symbols of status in architectural elements, such as space organization, building materials, interior design, etc. in Cyprus residential architecture. This study aims to fill the gap by analysing the residential architecture in the British period, which is the closest historical period of the island. This study focuses on one of the most well-known residential area in Nicosia, which is Köşklüçiftlik. This area is chosen due to its locational status, where even its name comes from. Köşk means ‘mansion’ and çiftlik means ‘ranch’ in Turkish, so it has its name from the mansions with ranches which had been located in. At the end of this research, it is aimed to observe the status symbols and their usages on the façade designs in this area in British period residential architecture, as well as understanding their meanings.
Despite there is an ongoing discussion between different scholars that if architecture should provide a meaning, besides providing a place to its users; architecture has been experienced by the combination of physical and mental use. It is a meeting point of individual and cultural backgrounds, where traditions, thoughts, beliefs, feelings and culture are combined together. As Romaldo Guirgola says;”“It is the peculiar task of architecture to reach meaning; the human habitat is pivoted around meanings not objects”” (Hershberger, 1970). This architectural language is a non-verbal system so that it is difficult to determine and describe its messages. Each element represents something which may vary from person to person. Its meaning may change based on different cultural and individual backgrounds.
This study is limited to make research on;
status symbols, which is not covering all symbolic manifestations residential architecture, but not public functions
Köşklüçüftlik area in northern part of Cyprus British period in the island
Facades of the buildings
It is aimed to research for each socio-economic and socio-cultural classes of the society. This study aims to clarify the status symbols in residential architecture of Köşklüçiftlik area. At the end of this research, it is aimed to define the status symbols and their usages in the façade designs of residential architecture during the British period, as well as understanding their meanings.
2. Methodology
This communication system which is between people and people, people and things and things and things; is studied by several important scholars to decode its messages. One of these important scholars is Hershberger. He developed a model for the semiotic analysis which is formed with stages of meaning.
Hershberger’ behavioural and mentalistic models can be explained as the outcome is the result of responses to the representations of individual and cultural products which can be seen as external stimulus objects. The final reaction includes this sensory information and the meaning is created by the representative data. After these, the representation starts in the mind. Based on these responses, the content of the representational object changes its meaning.
According to Rapaport, study of the architectural language depends on the users’ perceptions, where the meaning is decoded and understood. Also, he thinks that meanings are derived from social interaction and the way of interaction and the learnt meanings are all product of a given culture, where the culture is seen very important to shape the traditions and perceptions, as well as the symbols.
On the other hand, case study method is used a lot. Case study includes literature survey and experience survey which should be limited. It is kind of sample study and is based on analysis of these samples. There are different variations like practice oriented or not and it can be formed on mixing
BEHAVIOURAL
Meaning
So rmSm Rmsm Rp
MENTALISTIC Meaning
Stimulus object
Percepts Concepts Ideas
Representational
Human response Reponsive
Affect Evaluation Prescription
Objective Subjective
different research methods, named as triangulation. Explicative case study is based on one unit of analysis and few variables, where reductive has basis on many units of analysis and few variables.
Besides the famous theoreticians, the most common methodology for studying semiotics is the content analysis method. It starts with analysing literature with the related topic and developing it. It can be classified as qualitative method and includes selecting key themes and categories from the data collected. It can be said that its technique is compressing texts’ contents and analyse them based on specific codes and rules.
The methods for reasoning are divided as inductive, deductive and abduction. Inductive starts with generalization from specific observations and get conclusions and it includes a rule as an operative which is probably similar in similar cases. It consists of theory which involves set of concepts.
Deductive is similar to an experiment because of formulating a hypothesis. It starts with hypothesis and examines its possibilities to reach it. In this case, conclusions must be true so that pivotal cases are chosen. The third one, abduction which is kind of in-between point of induction and deduction, where this is positing a case may be. Abduction gets its roots from Peirce’s logic, in terms of first getting the results and then explaining them with interpretation of findings.
These content analysis and case study methods often includes observation. Observation is classified as a separate research method and it has different types such as non-participant or participant, un- structured research or structured surveys, direct or indirect approach, combination of close and open- ended questionnaire, and so on.
Based on these findings, in this article content analysis method is used. Since the research includes the past periods of the island, main research methods are considered to be documentary and observative.
Abduction method of reasoning is used, as well.
3. Literature Review
3.1 Status Symbols in Architecture
As Ernst says; ““meaning-making is an animal instinct””, people use their surroundings as objects which remind them something traditional, cultural, individual or universal (as cited in (Hattenhauer, 1984).
Although the communication with architecture is experienced in physical dimensions, it is felt as psychologically. Architecture creates its own language by touching the conscious and unconscious minds of the users. The non-verbal language of architecture consists of its building materials, their forms, light, colours, sizes, etc. (Haldane, 1999). These elements help to work up a space into a place by communicating within each other and with the users, as a whole. Users perceive, understand and interpret these building elements unconsciously and explain the meaning of their feelings, based on the elements. These complemental elements create a concept together and make the place understandable, so that they become signs and symbols of the designed context (Preziosi, N/A).
The environment is built perceptually based on the relationships between objects and objects, objects and users and users and users. This relationship between object and subject are still being searched to be defined in lots of departments of research, such as psychology, linguistics, philosophy and architecture. According to Scottish philosopher John Haldane, it is ““…structure of mind and experience and understanding”” (Haldane, 1999). Sign is stated as ““staging of a culturally-specific relationship between what signifies and what is signified””, where they create a non-verbal language together and give users an understanding of how to behave within the context (Preziosi, N/A). Designers use these signs and symbols, based on their knowledge about the users but still, based on their personal backgrounds. However, users perceive those signs, again, based on their own individual backgrounds.
This bonding creates a bridge between architecture and cultures of the users or designers (Haldane,
1999). Culture is highly important to shape the way of thinking and perceiving, as it is one of the key points for shaping the lifestyles. Thus, it is subconsciously a factor to shape the meanings of the components (Collins, 2017). In order to define the relationship, sign and symbols are needed to be understood well, so that Semiotics is used. Semiotics can be stated as the study of connection of architectural language and human perception together. With the help of these symbols, thus meanings and attachments, people can create an abstract norm for the buildings, where it can be named as place identity or sense of place (Dastjerdi, 2014). Since place attachment is mainly about the built environment, the signs and symbols have an important place in architecture. Cities, buildings, neighbourhoods, houses gain their characters with the help of these cultural and individual symbols (Oktay, 2002). After the World War II, there have been huge inequalities in people’s incomes and wealth. These inequalities of money, land, power and authority have become the reasons of creating different social classes (N/A). Social class is a group of individuals with similar positions in daily life.
These similar positions are formed by wealth, materialism, power, prestige and authority to be in charge. The stages of social class are defined as Upper Class (Elite), Upper Middle, Lower Middle, Working Class and Poor (N/A). These social classes are also called status, where Max Weber, a German sociologist, defines it as ““subjective dimension of class, degree of social honour, respect and prestige by fellows”” (Blumberg, 1971). According to sociologist Erving Goffman, Canadian-American sociologist who also has an important role in modern American sociology, the common lifestyle includes daily life behaviours, materials, gestures, vocabulary, style, etc. as well as materialistic components, such as buildings, automobiles, etc. (Goffman, 1951). These components are used to direct the perceptions of others and classify one’s status, in daily life. Due to inequalities of social status, the differences between social classes lie under general behaviours and materialistic objects. These differences are often materialistic items, such as buildings, objects and places but can also be etiquette, gestures, vocabulary and body movements (Goffman, 1951). Since these reflect the position of status; they are called status symbols. Symbols of class status are able to direct the perceptions and evoke certain messages. First of all, they are used to indicate to which class status, one belongs to. According to the status that is defined, people try to determine which class others belong to and how to behave to each other. In other words, people accept or reject each other into a conversation, based on their social status (Goffman, 1951).Not each symbol is classified as a status symbol. There are two main components for a symbol to be a status symbol; being socially desirable and scarce. An object that is highly desirable but available for everyone is not classified as a status symbol. It must be produced or found in very small amounts, in order to symbolize a class. In the way of thinking economically, if it is found in low quantity and highly wanted; its price increases. Thus, it will become available only for upper classes (Blumberg, 1971). However, with the ‘Ohrbach’s effect’ which is the increased amount of mass-produced copies of originally expensive objects; it is very easy to mislead a status, nowadays. Based on this, Erving Goffman believes that this misleading can be understood by analysing the whole package of symbols.
If a person belongs to a high class of status, then there should be lots of components supporting it.
Symbol of class status is not just materialistic objects but also, gestures, movements, cultural values, etc. A class can be perceived as if it is fraudulent or not, with additional values of a person (Goffman, 1951).Although, the status symbols in architecture vary with time and culture, there are some definite objects for it. Class status components in architecture generally includes architectural trend of the time, size of the building, view, decoration, textures, lightings, privacy and supporting tools (Kallio, Kallio &
Blomberg, 2015).According to Blumberg, one of the most important remaining status symbols is housing, as well as jewellery, yachts, private jets, etc. These are far beyond of economic capabilities so that they only serve to top classes of the structure (Blumberg, 1971). Goffman also agrees with Blumberg and gives the example of housing, in other words architecture, as a permanent status symbol (Goffman, 1951). Architecture has always been a costly act, as it requires special talents, funds and technology and also, luxurious, sophisticated feeling, it creates. Thus, everywhere in the world,
architecture has been considered as a symbol of social class, in terms of its materials, area, style, etc.
““In the case of housing, giving meaning becomes important because of emotional, personal and symbolic connotation of house and primacy of these aspects in shaping its form as well as the important psycho- social consequences of house”” says Rapoport, in his book called The Meaning in the Built Environment (Rapoport, 1982). From the previous ages, architecture is used both to reflect its owners’ lifestyle and to influence others. People have used architecture as a tool for self-representation, as physical, social, political, cultural, religious and economical (Falk, 2017). In spite of subjective interpretations from each person; architecture can be classified as the most non-subjective decoding messages of the symbolic system. Furthermore, architecture has been used to show their power, regarding to social, economic and political notions, by nations, cities, groups and individuals, because of its effect of defining relationships within (Raja, 2013). Buildings, especially houses are used as physical representations of their owner’s lifestyle and background, such as origin, socio-economic status and even religion, ethnic heritage, etc. A house can be defined as a notion as “material or physical expression of society’s cultural and social variables and values and represent personal and psychological functions connected with concept of design and use of space” (Hoskara, Cavusoglu, Ongul, 2009).According to Viollet-de-Duc; “”architecture, most obvious form of art and probably most sophisticated abstract art of space”” (Collins, 2017). The supporting elements of status symbols in this art form, architecture, are generally square meters, landscaping, view, forms and the use of colours, numbers, shapes, textures, lights and shadows and privacy (Kallio, Kallio & Blomberg, 2015). Also, façade design, area of compound and number of sides of house which are surrounded by compound space, location, number of rooms and bathrooms and garden layout are classified as the status symbols in residential architecture (Gowans, Collins, Scruton & Ackerman, 2009) (Crocker, 2015).Since Köşkliçiftlik, itself as an area, is a very important for British period residential architecture; the location is chosen as the main focus of this study. In this research, the outdoor symbols which define the status are selected. These symbols are location of the residential buildings and their façade designs.
According to these, selected buildings are analysed for defining the status symbols in British period.
3.2 Residential Architecture in North Cyprus
Since all social interactions take place in built environment, architecture has an important role.
Architecture can play an illustrative role by representing meaning through built environment. As Hershberger says; ““meaning is the necessary part of what makes a building architecture”” (Hershberger, 1970). Meaning is the need to fill the gap which is coming from mind to the action. The way to understand these meanings, symbols are used. With the help of these symbols, spaces are transferred into places. Since human nature needs belongingness and attachment, these symbols are very important because meaning is transmitted with interpretation to the signs.
According to Hershberger, elements don’t have meanings, unless user gives them a meaning.
““In the case of housing, giving meaning becomes important because of emotional, personal and symbolic connotation of house and primacy of these aspects in shaping its form as well as the important psycho- social consequences of house”” says Rapoport (Rapoport, 1982). House is a symbol of lower level of consciousness and need of self-representation. House is a basic material expression of meanings and it functions as a social act where it transmits non-verbal language. It is a place to give the user allowance to be true self in terms of behaviour and design. Also, expressing self through house is an attitude toward object identified with the relationship of individuals and society. It is where the individual’s memories and imagination meets. Home is where we find ourselves.
The status symbols direct perceptions and evoke messages to others in terms of accepting or rejecting each other. Symbols of class status should be both socially desirable and scarce. They must be found in
small amounts to symbolize a specific status. They are aimed to direct the judgement of people.
According to Blumberg and Goffman, architecture has been a permanent status symbol and used in this perception, over centuries, due to requiring talent, effort and money.
Moreover, they add that with or without intend, people use their houses as a device to reflect their personality, culture and lifestyle. In order to achieve this, they use certain symbols in the architecture of their houses (Dastjerdi, 2014). In terms of status symbols in architecture; square meters, landscaping, space organization, view, forms, use of colours, shapes, textures, light and privacy can be counted. In addition, arches from Latin (as used in palaces before), carved stones and decorated ceilings are classified as status symbols in houses.
Cyprus is the third largest and third most populated island in the Mediterranean Sea. Its location point is kind of the centre of connection of various countries, as it is located at the south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, north of Egypt and southeast of Greece. The island is also in the middle of Europe and the Middle-East. From the very old times, the island was served to lots of different kingdoms. It started with Helens, between times 325 and 358 BC. Then, in date order; Romans from 58BC to 330AD, Byzantines from 330 to 1191, Richard the Lion Heart from 1191 to 119 AD, Lusignan - Frankish from 1192 until 1489, then Venetians from 1489 to 1571 and in 1571, until Ottomans conquered the island.
The last period, before the current situation, is the British period which was started in 1878 and ended in 1960; when the Republic of Cyprus was founded (Hoskara, Cavusoglu, Ongul, 2009).
““Cities are where cultures mature”” says Mirna Krpo (Krpo, 2015). With all of these republics and rulers throughout the history of the island; Cyprus has a very wide and unique culture. Each period incorporated in to the traditions and lifestyles of local people. Based on each kingdoms’ priorities, cities, streets and houses have been adapted and changed (Pulhan & Numan, 2006). Thus, a new way of culture has been created.
In 1878, when the British came in to the charge of the island, Ottoman period ended. During the eighty two years, Cyprus was a colony of the Great Britain. At first, British did not change much in terms of architecture and lifestyle, in order to break the nature of the island. In this period, in the construction sites, there were Ottoman, English, Greek, Armenian, Turkish people. The construction materials of the period can be summarized as stone, mud brick, reinforced concrete or mixed together (Oze, 2011). The British preserved the main axis, roads and squares in the urban scale (N/A). The main transformation has started in 1920s and continued until 1950s. Between 1945 and 1960, infrastructure and legislation were produced for urbanization (Phokaides, 2011). After 1950s, Cyprus experienced tough days because of the 1963 and 1974 events so that daily life was not stable. Between 1920s and 1950s, the Great Britain was experiencing the plenty of historical buildings, so that new Arts and Crafts Movement formed. According to this movement, especially young designers started using natural materials and organic lines in their designs (Kolat, 2011). After this period, British style has moved into modernism.
This movement had its reflections in Cyprus, as well. In spite of not having an exact style in the colony, it can be said that natural materials, such as yellow lime stones and red tiles on roofs were the main symbols of the British architectural style (Pantelides, 2013). On the other hand, wide terraces, fireplaces and high chimneys, flower beds and low garden walls or fences can be classified as important symbols of the style (Bagiskan, 2014) (Given, 2005).
4. Field Study
In order to answer the research questions; 5 different cases were analysed with the content analysis method in the Köşklüciftlik area of northern Nicosia. Since there has been a lot of development in the area, in terms of construction of the new buildings over the past decades, the cases were chosen
according to their construction materials which are the yellow lime stones and the red Limassol type clay tiles roofs. The analysed cases are listed below;
Case #1
Figure 1: Vasıf family house – Western Facade (Taken by author) Figure 2: Vasıf family house – Northern Facade (Taken by author)
Figure 3: Vasıf family house – Southern Facade (Taken by author)
Case #2
Figure 4: Case No.2 Western Facade (Taken by author) Figure 5: Case No.2 Northern Facade (Taken by author)
Case #3
Figure 6: Case no.3 Eastern Facade (Taken by author) Figure 7: Case no.3 Northern Facade (Taken by author)
Case #4
Figure 8: Case no.4 Eastern Facade (Taken by author)
Figure 9: Case no.4 Southern Facade (Taken by author)
Figure 10: Case no.4 Western Facade (Taken by author)
