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USING THINK-ALOUD PROTOCOLS
A THESIS PRESENTED BY GONCA UNSALAN
TO
THE INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
JS-.o/tc-a ¿iasa/ai-y-iarafwdan L-^ i’.ajmisUrt BILKENT UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT
Title: A Case Study of Translation Strategies Among Three
Turkish Students Using Think-Aloud Protocols
Author: Gonca Unsalan
Thesis Chairperson: Ms. Bena Gul Peker, Bilkent University, MA TEFL Program
Thesis Committee Members: Dr. Susan D. Bosher, Bilkent University, MA TEFL Program
Prof. Theodore S. Rodgers, Bilkent University, MA TEFL Program
This study examined the cognitive processes and
translation strategies of three Turkish students who were good
translators using think-aloud protocols. In think-aloud
procedure, subjects verbalize their thoughts during the solution
of a task. The reason for using think-aloud protocols in this
study was to bring out the unconscious (cognitive) processes of translation, as well as determine the translation strategies of
the subjects. The subjects were chosen from among translation
students at the upper-intermediate level of language proficiency
who volunteered for the study. Immediately after the protocols
the researcher interviewed the subjects. Both the protocols and the interviews were audio-recorded and these recordings were
transcribed verbatim and translated into English. In order to
analyze the collected data from the think-aloud protocols, the researcher developed a taxonomy based on the translation
strategies of the three subjects. The researcher developed
another taxonomy to analyze the interviews based on the research questions and comments made by the subjects during the think-
subjects used the same translation strategies, how these strategies were implemented varied among them.
Another finding of this study was that the use and choice of translation strategies were related to the experience and
training of the translator. M, the most experienced translator,
used global strategies related to the whole text, whereas FI and F2, the less experienced translators, used strategies which
stayed close to the surface features of the text. M also showed the greatest variety in his choice of translation strategies. Subjects' choice of translation strategies also effected the
quality of the translation. M's translation was evaluated as
the best translation of the three. Moreover, interviews with
the subjects revealed that the three translators felt strongly about the benefits of translation on their second language
proficiency. They also revealed their preferences in terms of
texts to be translated, and whether they preferred working individually or in groups, preferences which should be taken into consideration when developing appropriate pedagogy for translation courses for professionals as well as for foreign language learners.
BILKENT UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES MA THESIS EXAMINATION RESULT FORM
August 31, 1996
The examining committee appointed by the
Institute of Economics and Social Sciences for the thesis examination of the MA TEFL student
Gonca Unsalan
has read the thesis of the student. The committee has decided that the thesis
of the student is satisfactory.
Thesis Title
Thesis Advisor
Committee Members:
A case study of translation strategies among three Turkish students using think-aloud protocols
Dr. Susan D. Bosher
Bilkent University, MA TEFL Program
Ms. Bena Gul Peker
Bilkent University, MA TEFL Program
Prof. Theodore S. Rodgers Bilkent University, MA TEFL Program
We certify that we have read this thesis and that in our combined opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts.
Susan D. Bosher (Advisor)
Approved for the
Institute of Economics and Social Sciences
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
advisor Dr. Susan D. Bosher, for her support and motivating attitudes throughout the work, without whom this thesis would have never become a reality.
I would like to thank to Ms. Bena Gul Peker and Prof.
Theodore S. Rodgers for their supportive assistance to my research.
I owe special thanks to my grandmother, mother, father and sister for their patience in my hard days and their warm hearted support throughout this year.
I am also deeply indebted to my fiancee. Gem Saydan for his invaluable support through his understanding and patience during this year.
j am especially grateful to Emine Cakir, Eigen Sat, Merih Tevs, Seda Korukçu and Murat Pancaroglu, my special
friends who encouraged me and made my life easier this year. I also wish to thank to my classmates for their
cooperation and collaboration throughout this year.
Finally, I would like to thank the participants in my study.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ... X
LIST OF FIGURES ... xi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ... 1
Background of the Study ... 1
Statement of the Problem ... 4
Purpose of the Study ... 5
Research Questions ... 6
Definition of Key Terms ... 7
Significance of the Study ... 7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8
Language Learning Strategies ... 8
The Rise, Fall and Revival of Translation in Foreign Language Classrooms ... 10
The Rise and Fall of Translation in Foreign Language Classrooms ... 10
The Revival of Translation in Foreign Language Classrooms ... 14
Verbal Reports ... 18
Types of Verbal Reports ... 20
Think-Aloud Protocols ... 22
Use of Think-Aloud Protocols in Translation Studies ... 23 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ... 29 Subjects... 31 Subject One ... 34 Subject Two ... 35 Subject Three ... 35 Materials ... 36 Procedures ... 36 Data Analysis ... 38
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF THE STUDY ... 41
Data Analysis Procedures ... 41
Sample Analysis of Think-Aloud Protocol ... 49
Results of Think-Aloud Protocols ... 51
Summary of Protocol Analysis ... 65
Analysis of Interviews ... 66
Results of Interview Analysis ... 70
Summary of Interview Analysis ... 78
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION ... 79
Summary of the Study ... 7 9 Discussion of the Results and Conclusion .... 79
Limitations of the Study ... 88
Implications for Future Research ... 89
I X
REFERENCES ... 93
APPENDICES ... 96
Appendix A: Consent Letter ... 96
Appendix B: Interview Questions ... 97
Appendix C: Translation Text ... 98
Appendix D: Codification Scheme for the Translation Strategies ... 100
Appendix E: Samples of Coded Transcriptions of Think-Aloud Protocol (English Version) ... 102
Appendix F: Samples of Coded Transcriptions of Think-Aloud Protocol (Turkish Version) ... 105
Appendix G: Sample of Colleague's Analysis of a Transcription .... 108
Appendix H: Evaluation Criteria for Translations ... 109
1 A Sample of the Pre-Translation Category... 51
2 The Use of Pre-Translation Strategies ... 53
3 The Use of Vocabulary Strategies ... 55
4 The Use of Dictionary Strategies ... 57
5 The Use of While Translating Strategies ... 59
6 The Use of Grammatical Structure Strategies ... 63
7 The Use of Translation Strategies Related with Culture... 64
X I
FIGURES
1 Translation Process ... 2
2 Translation Strategies Taxonomy ... 42
3 Translation Strategies
and their Explanations ... 43-46
4 A Sample from M's Think-Aloud Protocol ... 50
5 A Coded Sample from M's
Think-Aloud Protocol ... 50
6 Cognitive Processes of Three
Good Translators ... 52
7 Categories for the Interview Analysis ... 66
For many years, there has been debate over the use of
translation in foreign language classrooms. The popular
perception and academic reaction against translation originated from the influence of the Grammar Translation Method, which has become the stereotype of the use of
translation in language teaching (Cook, 1996). Because of
the limited and idiosyncratic uses of translation in the Grammar Translation Method, translation was rejected and its role in foreign language learning was ignored.
Lately the role of translation in language learning has been reappraised:
The extremism of its earlier rejection is being recognized, and the use of translation is being
\
readmitted, not only as a matter of expediency (in that translation is often the quickest and most efficient way to explain the meaning of a new word), but also a
theoretically justified activity aiding acquisition. (Cook, 1995, p. 1)
Thus translation as an exercise for learning a foreign language has gained importance and also taken the attention
of researchers. The interest is in the cognitive processes
taking place during translation, because the relationship between foreign language learning and translation can perhaps
be explained by these cognitive processes that are shared between the two (Krings, 1986).
A definition of 'translation' and a presentation of a simple model of the 'translation process' will help clarify
what is meant by cognitive processes. According to Bell
(1991) translation is "the replacement of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a
second language" (p. 20). The following model of the
translation process explains how this process occurs.
Figure 1 . 'Translation Process' (from Translation and
translating: Theory and practice by R. T. Bell, 1991, New York: Longman)
The model shows the transformation of a source language text into a target language text by means of processes which take place within memory:
semantic representation and
(b) the synthesis of that semantic representation into a second language specific text (the target language text)
(Bell, 1991, p. 20).
In this study "cognitive process" refers to the
unconscious processes that every human being uses during the
translation of a text: analysis, semantic representation,
and synthesis. These unconscious, cognitive processes form
the basis for individual, conscious processes. These
conscious processes are referred to as "translation
strategies" in this study, for they are personal and differ
from one person to another. All human beings employ the
analysis, semantic representation and synthesis components of Bell's model, but reach their results using different paths
or "translation strategies". For example, every translator
starts translation with reading, but one reads the whole passage, whereas the other reads only one sentence or one
paragraph of the text. Here reading can be defined as a
cognitive process and the other operations can be defined as translation strategies since they differ from one person to
another. These individual differences can be seen in
empirical studies of the translation process: "Language
students and perhaps trainee translators work at the word level; experienced translators work at the clause, and
sentence, paragraph or text level" (Krings, 1987, Lorscher, 1991, 1993, Tirkkonen-Condit, 1991, Toury, 1986, all cited in Malmkjaer, 1996, p. 1).
The question that concerns most researchers is how to gain insight into the cognitive processes and identify the translation strategies involved in the translation process. In order to understand the underlying cognitive processes, researchers look for observations on thinking that allow the tracing of intermediate steps of the thought processes
(Ericsson & Simon, 1993). Subjects' verbal reports on their
thinking during translation would appear to be a major source of information about their cognitive processes and
translation strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1987). One kind of
subject verbal reporting is the think-aloud technique. This
study is carried out through 'think-aloud' protocols. Think-
aloud protocols is the most appropriate technique to use for this study (of the various types of verbal reports: talk- aloud, think-aloud, and recall protocols which will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2) because they consist of moment-by-moment descriptions given by the individual of his/her thoughts and behaviors during the performance
(Gerloff, 1987) .
Statement of the Problem
According to informal interviews held recently by the researcher with translation course instructors at several universities in Turkey, translation instructors are not aware
translation courses are carried out using syllabi which are not based on a psychological understanding of translation or a pedagogical approach which would make use of such
knowledge. The institutions and instructors are concerned
with what to teach rather than how to teach. Furthermore,
translation course activities are not based on students' needs and different student translation strategies that students may use or should learn to use in the classroom.
Purpose of the Study
The aim of this study was first to determine the universal cognitive processes and individual translation
strategies involved in the translation process. The study
followed how three Turkish students who are good at
translation use translation strategies in order to establish the relationship between foreign language learning and
translation. The study also aimed to show how these three
students use different translation strategies to complete a translation task.
Apparently, there is little background information available in the field of translation or ELT on how to teach
a translation course. This study was also directed towards
supplying background information on the cognitive processes and translation strategies involved in translation, a
translation courses for both professional translators and
foreign language learners. This study was also intended to
prepare a basis for further research on translation, the
results of which could inform curriculum development for both professional translation courses and foreign language
classrooms where translation can be used as an exercise to improve foreign language proficiency.
Research Questions
This study attempted to answer the following research questions:
1. What cognitive processes do successful translators engage in when they translate a text from one language to another?
2. What translation strategies do successful translators use during the translation process?
3. Are there individual differences in choice of translation strategies and if so, what are they?
4. To what extent are translation strategies related to the quality of the final product?
5. Is there a relationship between translation
strategies and foreign language learning? If so, what is the
nature of that relationship? And what are the implications for the foreign language classroom?
judgments performed initially in order to reach some result. Cognitive processes are universal^ not individual.
Translation strategies : Conscious organization of the
single steps in which the translation task as a whole is carried out. Translation strategies are individual.
Significance of the Study
Determining learners' translation strategies may enable translation instructors to know better what and how to teach, in order to help learners to develop their translation
competence; and it may increase foreign language teachers' understanding of the role that translation may play in
foreign language learning. This study may also provide
important information necessary at the administrative level for establishing a translation curriculum and course syllabi which address not only what to teach, but more importantly how to teach translation strategies.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This study examines the cognitive processes and translation strategies of three Turkish students who are
good translators using think-aloud protocols. As
background for this research, I will review language learning strategies, various perspectives on the role of translation in foreign language classrooms, think-aloud protocols, and studies about translation that were carried out using think-aloud protocols that are relevant to my research.
Language Learning Strategies
The research on learning strategies emerged from the concern for identifying the characteristics of "good and effective language learners" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990
p. 10). When the language learning strategies became the
focus in foreign and second language learning studies, researchers tried to define learning strategies and their
relation to cognitive skills. O'Malley and Chamot defines
learning strategies as "the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or
retain new information" (p. 1). One type of learning
strategy included in Oxford's (1986, cited in O'Malley & Chamot, 1990) language learning coding scheme is
translation, which he defines as reliance on LI. When
learners have problems, they can translate, in other words, they revert to their mother tongue.
"affect the learner's motivational or affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes,
or integrates new knowledge" (p. 43). Thus strategies may
have an affective basis as well as a cognitive basis, and may influence the learning of simple tasks, such as
vocabulary learning, or complex tasks, such language
comprehension or language production. Tarone (1981, cited
in O'Malley & Chamot, 1990) notes, learning strategies are attempts to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic
competence in the target language. According to Tarone
there are two types of learning strategies used to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence: production and
communication strategies. Production strategies are used
to accomplish communication goals, they reflect an interest in using the language system efficiently and clearly.
Communication strategies are an adaptation to the failure
to realize a language production goal. Both production and
communication strategies serve an important role in negotiating meaning between individuals (Tarone, 1981,
cited in O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Thus translation can be
counted as a learning strategy as Tudor () claims that translation is a process of conveying messages across linguistic and cultural barriers
10
The Rise, Fall and Revival of Translation in Foreign Language Classrooms
In this section the position of rranslation in foreign language learning and teaching in the past and
present is discussed. This discussion is organized under
two headings related to the transformation of the position of translation in foreign language learning.
The Rise and Fall of Translation in Foreign Language Classrooms
Translation is defined as a crafr consisting of the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement from
one language to another (Newmark, 1986). Despite the
popular assumption that translation plays a major and necessary role in foreign language teaching and learning, twentieth century theories of language teaching and
learning have ignored its role or vilified it. From the
turn of the century almost all influential theoretical works on language teaching have assumed without argument that a new language should be taught without reference to the students' first language (Cook, 1996).
Though the reasons for the rejection of translation are complex, both the popular perception and academic reaction against translation emerged from reaction to the Grammar Translation Method (hereafter GTM) (Cook, 1996). The GTM views language learning as memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and operate the morphology and
syntax of the foreign language (Richards & Rodgers, 1989). "The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language" (Stern, 1983,
cited in Richards & Rodgers, 1989, p. 3). In GTM no
systematic attention is paid to speaking and listening
(Richards & Rodgers, 1989). In a GT syllabus, the grammar
of the second language is presented in units. In each unit
there is a list of new vocabulary items presented together with translation equivalents and structural rules are
explained in the first language. Nearly all the lesson is
devoted to translation, both into and out of the second
language. Students practice only the vocabulary and
grammar points presented in the current and earlier units (Cook, 1996/ Richards & Rodgers, 1989).
In the mid-nineteenth century, GTM spread rapidly and is still used to some extent today (Howatt, 1984, cited in
Cook, 1996). Cook claims that under GTM's influence
written translation exercises became the central feature of
language syllabi. In addition, second language competence
was measured by the accuracy of the lexical and grammatical equivalence attained in translation.
At the turn of the century the 'Reform Movement' criticized GTM for ignoring the spoken language, for
encouraging false notions of equivalence, and for focusing on isolated sentences rather than connected texts (Howatt,
12
GTM have cited the demotivating effect of the difficulty of translating from LI to L2, negative effects of the LI on foreign language learning, the strength of LI interference, and detrimental effects on the acquisition of native-like
processing skill and speed (Stern, 1992). These criticisms
led to the downgrading of translation from foreign language classrooms.
In the twentieth century, the theoretical rejection of translation also fit well with demographic and economic changes in the United States which created motivation for
learning English in new types of classes. From the
nineteenth century onwards, immigration into the U.S. led to a demand for utilitarian courses focusing upon the rapid development of a functional command of the language.
Language schools in English-speaking countries catered to classes of visitors and immigrants from mixed linguistic backgrounds which made translation impossible (Cook, 1996).
Cook (1996) also mentions that further opposition to translation in language teaching has been fueled by some of the theories of SLA which in turn derive from theories of children's LI acquisition, in which translation plays no
role. Among major theories of First Language Acquisition
(hereafter FLA) have been behaviorism, which sees language acquisition as a process of habit formation, Chomskian nativism, which views a disposition to acquire language as a genetic endowment, and functionalism, which sees language
acquisition as the result of a need to convey meaning. These theories have had a vicarious influence on teaching practices, which led to the general demise in translation in foreign language classrooms.
A final influence on the fall of translation was the paradigm shift in foreign language teaching from a focus on
form to a focus on meaning. For example, Krashen (1982)
and Prabhu (1987) declared that students' attention should be focused on meaning in communication rather than on form, as this will stimulate the subconscious acquisition of
the language system. Translation, which involves a
conscious knowledge of two language systems and the
deliberate deployment of both, in the search for the m.ost appropriate form in the target language text, is not among the activities associated with a communicative orientarion to meaning (Cook, 1996).
Duff (1989) summarizes teachers' attitudes toward translation, which also contributed to its fall:
1. It is text-bound, and confined to only two skills-reading and writing.
2. It is not suitable for classroom work because the students must do the writing on their own.
3. It is associated with 'different language', with literary or scientific texts, and is not suited to the general needs of the language learner.
14
4. Use of the mother tongue is required, and this is not desirable.
5. Finally, it is considered boring-both to do, and to correct, (p. 5)
The Revival of Translation in Foreign Language Classrooms As Duff (1989) indicated, for the past two decades or more translation has been generally out of favor with the
foreign language teaching community. Even today
translation is largely ignored as a valid activity for
language practice and improvement. According to Duff
(1989), the main reason for this is that translation
practice gradually became fossilized. It became less and
less associated with the excitement of new discoveries, and more and more with the tedium of book learning, and a
structural focus in second language acquisition.
However, Duff is not satisfied with the underuse of translation in foreign language classrooms because of its
fossilization. He claims (1989) that translation should
play a major role in foreign language classrooms as an exercise to improve proficiency in the foreign language. In support of using translation in foreign language classrooms. Duff (1989) states five major reasons:
(a) influence of the mother tongue - translation
involves contrast, and this enables the learner to explore the strengths and weaknesses of both languages (LI and L2) and understand the influence of one language on the other.
(b) naturalness of the activity - translation is
going on everywhere all the time in the real world: in
offices, banks, factories, shops and airports, so it should
be studied inside the classroom. Because of its
naturalness translation is a more necessary activity than many of the more fashionable activities today, such as reports, speeches, dialogs, editing or improvisation of language learners.
(c) the skills aspect - language competence is a two-way system such that learners need to be able to
communicate both into and from the foreign language. Textbooks mostly emphasize competence in the foreign language, and little emphasis is given on how to
communicate back into the mother tongue. Translation is a suitable activity to practice this skill.
(d) the reality of language - the aim of most foreign language courses is to increase the students' power
and range of expression. These goals are exactly what
translation accomplishes. Furthermore, the proper material
of translation is authentic, not made-up language.
Translation need not to be confined to literature because all language is relevant to translation, all styles and registers of both spoken and written language.
(e) usefulness - as a language learning activity translation has many merits and these can be listed as follows:
16
1. There is rarely a right answer in translation; furthermore translation need not be done
exclusively in the written mode. Students can work in
groups and thus the materials to be translated can serve both for reading and discussion.
2. Translation develops three qualities: accuracy, clarity and flexibility which are essential to all language learning. Translation trains the learner to search (flexibility) for the most appropriate words
(accuracy) to convey what is meant (clarity) and this allows learners to contribute their own thoughts to a discussion.
3. The teacher can select materials to show particular aspects of language or structures with which
students are having difficulty. When students work through
these difficulties, they are able to realize the link between language (grammar) and usage.
Like Duff, Newmark (1986) also argues that the ability to translate should be one of the main aims of a
foreign language learner. Some research studies have
indicated that translation is a practical exercise at the beginning and intermediate levels (Newmark, 1986), but especially valuable at the advanced levels, since students can improve in their knowledge of the foreign language through translation (Catford, 1981, cited in Krings, 1986).
Translation is seen as an exercise to master a foreign language (Parks, 1982) and a way to ensure
understanding when extensive explanation is not possible (Newmark, 1986) in foreign language classrooms. At the same time according to Newmark (1991), "at advanced or final stage of language teaching, translation is recognized as the 'fifth skill' and the most important social skill since it promotes communication and understanding between
strangers" (p. 61).
Tudor (1987, cited in Duff, 1989) also claims that translation, as the process of conveying messages across linguistic and cultural barriers, is an eminently
communicative activity, one whose use should well be
considered in a wider range of teaching situations than may currently be the case.
Newmark (1988) claims that translation as a technique for learning foreign languages is a two-edged instrument: it has the special purpose of demonstrating the learners' knowledge of the foreign language, either as a form of control, or to exercise their intelligence in order to
develop their competence. This special purpose of
translation, exercising the learners' intelligence to develop their competence, is its strong point in foreign language classes, which should be distinguished from its normal use in transferring meaning and conveying messages.
18
Consistent with the current re-evaluation of the role of translation in the foreign language classroom, research about translation has shifted from complex descriptions of linguistic systems, the quality of translations and correct language use, to the process underlying the production.
This change is due to the increasing importance of
investigations in human information processing (Wilensky, 1981, cited in Hölscher & Mohle, 1987).
Verbal Reports
After a long period of studying human performance and abilities, researchers are now looking into the
intermediate steps of thought processes. Subjects' verbal
reports of their thinking are a major source of information about detailed steps of thought processes (Faerch & Kasper,
1987). In a verbal report process subjects tell the
researcher what they are doing while performing a demanded task (Hölscher & Mohle, 1987).
In the course of recent history subject verbal reports have been used for different fields of research. In an earlier period, psychologists made extensive use of
verbal reports (Ericsson & Simon, 1993). However,
throughout the history of psychology the methodological status of verbal reports has been the subject of fierce controversy (Grotjahn, 1987), especially between
behaviorists and cognitivists, because the behaviorists'
data and they reacted against direct observations of
consciousness (Ericsson & Simon, 1993). Due to this
controversy this technique fell into disrepute during the era of behaviorism, but was revived in the 1970s as a major source of data for cognitive research (Ericsson & Simon, 1993) .
A similar controversy is currently taking place in linguistics and SLA research, where verbal reports have
recently received increased attention. The principal
argument put forward against verbal report observations has been that they are not objective in that they do not
provide intersubjectivly replicable results (Grotjahn, 1987) .
Cohen (1987) in his paper "Using Verbal Reports in Research on Language Learning" disagrees with these
objections to verbal reports. He discusses their potential
especially in contrast to classroom observation of
learners' behavior, and the ways the advantages of verbal reports can be maximized:
1. It is difficult to obtain accurate insights about learners' conscious thought processes through conventional observations of teacher-centered classroom sessions.
2. Classroom observations can record the physical movements of the students, but cannot easily capture what they are thinking, how they are thinking or how they feel.
20
3. Classroom observations regarding language learning behavior are generally limited to students who speak up. Such observations tell us nothing about those who remain quiet, and not a great deal about those who speak up.
4. Rubin (1981, cited in Cohen, 1987) suggests that it is possible to make observations of students' learning strategies, but that the approach is tedious and not so productive in most classrooms, because teachers tend to focus on product rather than on process and because
opportunities have to be created to verify the observer's interpretations of learner strategies.
Because of these limitations on direct observational techniques a new focus in research on learner strategies
has developed: verbal reports or the collection of
learners' reports of their own insights about the strategies they use.
Types of Verbal Reports
There are three main types of verbal report
observations (Ericsson & Simon, 1984), also referred to as verbal report observations:
1. Performance observations (e.g., reaction time and
accuracy of the response): Observations that bear on the
total performance of a task. The reaction time, which is the duration measured from the presentation of the problem to the production of the answer, consists of the sum of the duration of individual processing steps.
2. Process observations (e.g., think-aloud, in which subjects convert the heeded information into a verbalized form to vocalize it; and talk-aloud, in which the subject
simply vocalizes silent speech); Subject gives information
about the individual processing steps, such as spontaneous verbalizations and eye-movement sequences during the
solution of the task.
3. Post-process observations (e.g., recall
protocols): Collecting data after a task is completed, such as memory of thought processes during the task, memory of presented information, and recollections of the strategies used.
Verbal reporting has been a popular technique in a
number of second language acquisition studies. Brown
(1983, cited in Seliger & Shohamy, 1989) collected verbal reports in order to define how experts formulate written
texts. Mann (1983, cited in Seliger & Shohamy, 1989) used
verbal reports as his data collection technique to identify problems in L2 and learners' problem-solving strategies. Olshavsky (1977, cited in Seliger & Shohamy, 1989) examined reading strategies by obtaining verbal reports from
readers. There have been a number of studies on
translation which have used verbal reports, some of which are briefly described in the end of this chapter.
2 2
Think-Aloud Protocols
Think-aloud protocols are the type of verbal report used most frequently in studies that explore the cognitive
processes in foreign language learning. They are also the
type of verbal report used most often in translation
studies. Examples of such applications can be found in:
Hölscher and Mohle, 1987, "Cognitive Plans in Translation"; Gerloff 1987, "Identifying the Unit of Analysis in
Translation"; Krings, 1986, "The Use of Introspective Data
in Translation". The think-aloud procedure is the most
appropriate for a translation study because "a think-aloud protocol is a moment-by-moment description which an
individual gives of his/her own thoughts and behaviors during the performance of a task" (Gerloff, 1987, p. 137).
The think-aloud procedure should provide optimal information about the thought sequence with minimal
interference. Ericsson and Simon (1984) have developed a
methodology to elicit "think-aloud" which has been successfully used by many investigators with additional changes and is easily adaptable to the demands of different
tasks. Their methodology for eliciting such behavior in
subjects consists of three steps:
(a) instructions: Before starting the protocol, the
subjects are asked by the researchers to verbalize
everything that passes through their heads. These
a procedure that is presumed to be already familiar to the subj ects.
(b) warm-up: In many think-aloud experiments, the subjects are given initial warm-up problems in order to familiarize them with the think-aloud procedure and
accustom them to the use of a tape recorder and microphone. Similarly, Ericsson and Simon (1984) recommend that
subjects be asked to solve a series of standardized
problems while thinking-aloud. On the basis of the think-
aloud reports of these problems, the researcher can assess v/hether the subjects verbalize in a manner consistent with
the instructions. If not, the subjects can be re
instructed and given additional warm-up problems. (c) reminders: In the think-aloud procedure the researchers are usually present during the experiment to monitor the verbalizations by reminding the subjects to
speak when they lapse into silence. These reminders are
given after
15-second to one-minute pauses and they are generally standarized, such as "Keep talking" or "What are you thinking about?".
Use of Think-Aloud Protocols in Translation Studies
In her study called "Identifying the Unit of Analysis in Translation: Some Uses of Think-Aloud Protocol Data" Gerloff (1987) presents some of the results of a pilot study which explored the use of think-aloud protocols for
24
identifying and analyzing the cognitive processes of translation and tried to develop a coding system which would help the researcher examine the differences in text processing operations of professional translators,
bilingual speakers and second language learners. There
were six participants in her study: five English students studying French at college, and a competent bilingual speaker of French whose native language was also English. All the participants were instructed to think-aloud while
translating. The protocols of the translation process were
tape-recorded and later transcribed verbatim. In order to
provide some indication of the quality of translation, each participant's translation was ranked relative to the others
in the study. The overall degree of accuracy and
completeness of the translation were the criteria for
ranking. For the coding of the data, two complementary
coding systems were developed, one based on observations of the participants' unit of analysis, and the other based on the problem-solving strategies and behaviors used during the translation.
The results of this study show that the participants had a strong preference in working with sentence
constituent units at the phrase and clause levels, as well
as using several levels of analysis at the same time. The
other finding of the study, was that clearly identifiable differences between good and poor translators as well as
less competent speakers and learners may exist, based on the size of units dealt with, editing styles and
characteristic patterns of movement through the text during
the translation. The results of the study according to
Gerloff (1987) '"move us toward a better theoretical
understanding of translation, as it provides information which might well be given practicable application in the fields of language learning and translator training"
(p. 153). Gerloff also points out the importance of verbal
reports in translation research as they provide a good methodological start toward the identification of rather elusive issues in language and translation research.
In another study on translation discussed in
"Cognitive Plans in Translation", which was carried out through think-aloud protocols, Hölscher and Mohle (1987), aimed to apply the categories of "The Cognitive Model of Planning", worked out by Barbara and Frederick Hayes-Roth
(1979, cited in Hölscher & Mohle, 1987), to an analysis of
the translation planning process. According to this model,
planning is neither completely hierarchical nor chaotic but
a multi-directional process. The Hayes-Roth and Hayes-Roth
model of cognitive planning (1979, cited in Hölscher &
Mohle, 1987) consists of five planes: the plan plane, the
plan-abstractions plane, the knowledge base plane, the
executive plane and the meta-plan plane. In this study
to the translation process. Each plane investigates the decisions that participants were engaged in while
translating. For example, the plan plane records all the
decisions which were directly involved in the planning of the text to be produced (e.g., translating word by word) and the meta-plan plane consists of decisions about how a planning problem was approached by the planner (e.g., understanding of the task, dictionary use or retrieval of words by means of repeated reading of the context).
In order to apply this model to translation Hölscher and Mohle (1987) selected seven intermediate-level students of French who were instructed to think-aloud while
translating a text from French (L2) to German (LI). The
transcriptions were analyzed according to the model modified from the Hayes-Roth and Hayes-Roth model (1979,
cited in Hölscher & Mohle, 1987). After analyzing the data
Hölscher and Mohle declared that the think-aloud procedure had revealed a considerable difference in the subjects' degree of language command which could not have been inferred alone from the LI sentences written by the
subjects. The analysis showed that differentiated
processes can be observed as well as inferred by means of
thinking aloud. Thus, the researchers managed to gain
insights into normally unobservable processing and the proficiency level of learners according to the modified planes of cognitive planning based on the Hayes-Roth and
Hayes-Roth model. Holscher and Mohle claimed that these insights could not have been obtained by analyzing task results and ignoring underlying processes.
The aim of another research study on translation by Krings (1986) was an inquiry into the structure of
translation processes in order to develop a psycho-
linguistic model of translation in advanced learners. This
study was conducted using think-aloud protocols because Krings felt the think-aloud technique provides more process information than retrospection techniques and is therefore more suitable for investigating the cognitive processes
involved in translation. The subjects of the study were
eight native speakers of German who were studying to become French teachers and they were at their last year at Bochum
University. Four of the subjects translated a German text
(LI) into French (L2) and the other four translated a
French (L2) text into German (LI). In order to analyze the
data obtained through think-aloud protocols^ Krings
developed categories of a total of 117 items based on the concepts of translation problem-solving and translation
strategy. In his study Krings (1986) declared that think-
aloud protocols permit valuable insights into:
(a) the cognitive organization of the learner's linguistic knowledge of the mother tongue;
(b) the cognitive organization of the learner's linguistic knowledge of the foreign language;
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(c) differences between (a) and (b); and
(d) differences in the cognitive organization of the linguistic knowledge of different foreign languages
(p. 175).
The results of this study showed that it was possible to develop a tentative psycho-linguistic model of translation in advanced learners which could effect second language learning, as well.
Recently translation has come to be considered as the fifth skill -as important as the other four skills- by researchers in foreign language learning, but the
relationship between foreign language learning and
translation can not be fully explained or understood until there is at least some knowledge of the cognitive processes and translation strategies that occur in the heads of
learners while translating (Krings, 1986). Think-aloud
protocols are a rich source of data, providing information about the actual cognitive processes which people go
through when producing a translation. Translation
strategies, as individualized cognitive processes, can be explored through think-aloud protocols, too, and can provide a good methodological start for constructing curriculum and syllabi for translation courses.
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The aim of this study was to determine the cognitive processes and translation strategies of good translators and the relationship between translation strategies and foreign
language learning. The study was conducted through a case
study of three Turkish students in two different departments at Bilkent University: the Department of English and
Translation Studies, and the Faculty of Translation and
Interpretation. These three students were chosen because
they were identified as good translators by their translation
instructors. The data were gathered through think-aloud
protocols.
This study was conducted via a case study approach, since case studies have some possible advantages in SLA
research. Some of the advantages according to Adelman (1980,
cited in Cohen & Manion, 1990) are as follows:
1) Case study data is 'strong' in reality; in contrast,
other research data is often 'weak in reality'. This
strength in reality is because case studies are down to earth and attention-holding, in harmony with the reader's own
experience, and thus provide a natural basis for
generalisation. Since the results of case studies represent
real situations better, case studies provide a strong basis for future research.
30
2) Case studies recognise the complexity and
'embeddedness' of social truths. Since they carefully attend
to social situations, case studies can represent something of the discrepancies or conflicts between the view points held
by the participants. The best case studies are capable of
offering some support to alternative interpretations.
3) Case studies are a step to action. They begin in a
world of action and contribute to it. Their insights may be
directly interpreted and put to use for staff or individual
self-development, within-institutional feedback, formative
evaluation and in educational policy-making.
4) Case studies allow the readers to judge the implications of a study for themselves.
Another purpose of this study was to supply background information on the cognitive processes and translation
strategies involved in translation, which would inform course syllabi regarding what and how to teach translation.
Conducting this study through a case study approach seemed more meaningful and appropriate than other research methods because case studies are down to earth and attention-holding,
and thus more accessible for teachers. The results of such
studies allow readers to interpret and judge for themselves, and put them to use directly, for example for self
development as translation teachers or curriculum developers
in the area of translation. Since making generalisations
a model for further research, the results of which could be generalised with more subjects who were randomly selected.
In order to examine the cognitive processes and the translation strategies of the subjects, think-aloud protocols
were used. Of several types of verbal reports, think-aloud
is one in which subjects verbalise their thoughts during the
solution of a task. By this means, one can get a sequence of
general and specific thoughts related to accomplishing the
task. Think-alouds are currently thought to be one of the
best methods for examining the cognitive processes of
subjects. Think-aloud protocols are also called process
observations (Faerch & Kasper, 1987). The reason for using
think-aloud protocols in this study was to bring out the invisible, unconscious (cognitive) processes of translation and determine the translation strategies of the students. In order to improve the reliability of the think-aloud
protocols, the subjects were interviewed right after the protocols were given to clarify what had been reported during the protocols.
Subjects
The participants of this study were three students at the upper-intermediate level of English language proficiency at Bilkent University, two in the Department of English and Translation Studies and one in the Faculty of Translation and
Interpretation. The Department of English and Translation
32
register in the department according to their first*
university entrance exam scores. Like the other departments
at Bilkent University, the Department of English and
Translation Studies has a preparatory class where students take a year of intensive English in order to prepare for the
department. Students take a proficiency exam at the
beginning of the year and are placed in the preparatory
school according to the scores they get on the exam. The two
subjects from the Department of English and Translation Studies had already completed a year of English at the preparatory school.
The Faculty of Translation and Interpretation, where the third subject of this study was studying, is a four-year undergraduate program. Students register in the faculty according to their second“ university entrance exam scores. As in the Department of English and Translation Studies, the students are placed according to the scores they obtain in the proficiency exam they take at the beginning of the year. The subject in this study from the Faculty of Translation and Interpretation was exempted from preparatory classes and was
^ In Turkey people who want to enter a university have to take two entrance exams. Based on students' scores on the first exam, the better students are selected to take the second university exam. Students who pass the first university exam, but do not pass the second exam can enter two-year undergraduate programs or departments that select students
according to their abilities, such as the Fine Arts or the Sports Departments.
^ After passing the first university entrance exam, the better students are allowed to take the second exam, after which they are placed in four- year undergraduate programs according to the scores they received from the second exam.
faculty they translate from English to French and from French to English, as well as From English to Turkish and from
Turkish to English, whereas the subjects in the Department of English and Translation Studies translate only from English
to Turkish and from Turkish to English. In both schools
students study translation on various topics, such as
economics, business, politics, literature, humour, and lives of famous people.
The three subjects, two of whom were females and one
male, were aged between 18 and 23. Two of the subjects were
freshmen and one was a sophomore. The sophomore was
currently in training in translation at different
broadcasting companies, as part of his degree program, and therefore was considered the most experienced translator of the three, not only because it was his second year studying translation, but also because he was training in
professional organizations. Although all three subjects
belonged to families of high socio-economic status, English was neither spoken nor read in the home.
The instructors in both translation departments were asked for their assistance in locating good translators as subjects for this study since they were aware of their
students' capabilities. The students who were considered
good at translation were informed about the study, followed by individual talks between these students and the
34
researcher, who explained to students about the think-aloud
process. The students were not told that their translation
strategies during the think-aloud protocols would be
investigated because it was thought that such information
would affect their performance during the protocols. Of the
five students who were identified as being good at
translation and who indicated an interest in participating in the study after meeting with the researcher, three subjects
were then randomly selected. The subjects were coded as FI,
F2 and M during the analysis to ensure that their names would not appear in this research report and their recordings would not be used as data for another research study. (See Appendix A for the consent letter.)
Descriptions of the subjects are as follows:
Subject One
The first subject was a 20 year-old female (hereafter FI) freshman from the Department of English and Translation
Studies, a two-year undergraduate program. FI was a graduate
of an English-medium high school. She was currently a
freshman taking regular translation courses and during her first year in the program, she did two-way translations from both English to Turkish, and from Turkish to English. She also took courses which prepared students for different types of translation texts such as expressive, persuasive, emotive and argumentative texts.
The subject was an 18 year-old female (hereafter F2) from the Faculty of Translation and Interpretation, a four-
year undergraduate program. F2 was also a graduate of an
English-medium high school. She was exempted the English
proficiency exam at Bilkent the first time she took it and
was a freshman taking regular translation courses. During
her first year in the program she trained in translation from English to French and French to English, as well as from English to Turkish and Turkish to English.
Subject Three
The only male (hereafter M) subject of this study was a sophomore in the Department of English and Translation
Studies, a two-year undergraduate program. He was a graduate
from an English-medium high school like FI and F2, but unlike the others, he had lived in the United States for two and a
half years. During his second and last year at the program,
he was doing interpretations from both English to Turkish and
from Turkish to English. At the time this study was
conducted, he was doing his training at T.R.T. (Turkish Radio and Television).
When the three subjects were compared with each other,
M was considered more experienced in translation than FI and F2 because he was a sophomore and had already started his
practical training. By the time this thesis was finished, he
