T.R.
YASAR UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
MASTER DEGREE THESIS
THE USE OF HUMOR IN ORGANIZATIONS
GİZEM ULUĞ
INSTRUCTOR:
ABSTRACT
THE USE OF HUMOR IN ORGANIZATIONS
Gizem ULUĞMBA, Master of Business Administration Advisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Yıldırım ÇETMELİ
2017
Humor is standart/simple element of human relationships and so has influence on working groups and organizations. It reflects multiple management tool that used to succeed many purposes. This thesis report identifies that how managers can use humor in organizations in order to increase employees’ individual & team performance, motivation, commitment, reduce stress, and improve leadership, communication and creativity. At the same time, we will discuss humor styles and theories. We will examine affects of demographic characteristic on use of humor in organizations. (like gender, age, education level etc.). Our main goal is to research postivive effects of humor on employees’ behaviors, individual & team performance, motivation and commitment. We will also focus on other factors and effects that increase individual team performance, motivation and loyalty. For our survey, Companies and organizations from various sectors were selected (like tourism, production factories, logistic & export & import factories etc.). Two separate surveys were conducted for managers and employees. It is aimed to measure the use of humor in different sectors. Attitudes related to the use of humor in the workplace are determined and the degree to which people participate in these attitudes is questioned. Firstly, according to demographics charactersitics, Frequeny analysis has been made (for both employees and managers). T Test and Anova test have been made for comparison managers and employees for humor- related expressions. Findings proved that all hypotheses are meaningful.
ÖZ
ŞİRKETLERDE MİZAH KULLANIMI Gizem ULUĞ
Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İşletme Programı Danışman: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yıldırım ÇETMELİ
2017
Mizah, insan ilişkilerinin standart / basit bir öğesidir ve çalışan gruplar ve örgütler üzerinde etkiye sahiptir. Birden çok amaç için kullanılan birden fazla yönetim aracını yansıtır. Bu tez raporu, çalışanların bireysel ve takım performanslarını, motivasyonlarını, bağlılıklarını artırmak, stres azaltmak ve liderlik, iletişim ve yaratıcılık düzeylerini arttırmak için, yöneticilerin şirketlerde mizahı nasıl kullanabileceğini tanımlar. Aynı zamanda, mizah tarzlarını ve teorilerini tartışacağız. Şirketlerde mizahın demografik özelliklerini inceleyeceğiz (Cinsiyet, yaş, eğitim düzeyi gibi). Temel amacımız, mizahın çalışanların davranışlarına, bireysel ve takım performansına, motivasyonuna ve bağlılığına etkisini araştırmaktır. Aynı zamanda bireysel takımsal performansı, motivasyonu ve bağlılığı arttıran diğer faktörler ve etmenler üzerinde de duracağız. Anketimiz için, çeşitli sektörlerden firmalar ve kuruluşlar (turizm, üretim fabrikaları, lojistik ve ihracat ve ithalat fabrikaları gibi) seçildi. Yöneticilere ve çalışanlara ayrı olmak üzere 2 ayrı anket yapılmıştır. Farklı sektörlerde mizahın kullanımını ölçmek hedeflenmiştir. Mizahın işyerinde kullanılmasıyla ilgili tutumlar belirlenmiş ve insanların bu tutumlara katılıp katılmama derecesi sorgulanmıştır. İlk olarak, demografik özelliklere göre frekans analizi yapılmıştır (Çalışanlar ve yöneticiler için). Yönetici ve çalışanların mizah ile ilgili ifadelerinin karşılaştırılması için T test ve Anova test yapılmıştır. Bulgular tüm hipotezlerin anlamlı olduğunu kanıtlamıştır.
Anahtar sözcükler: Mizah, Yönetici, Çalışan, Performans, Motivasyon, Bağlılık, Liderlik
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Asst. Prof. Yıldırım Çetmeli for her guidance and patience during this study.
Gizem Uluğ İzmir, 2017
TEXT OF OATH
I declare and honestly confirm that my study, titled “THE USE OF HUMOR IN ORGANIZATIONS” and presented as a Master’s Thesis, has been written without applying to any assistance inconsistent with scientific ethics and traditions. I declare, to the best of my knowledge and belief, that all content and ideas drawn directly or indirectly from external sources are indicated in the text and listed in the list of references.
Gizem ULUĞ 4 August 2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ... iii
ÖZ ... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... v
TEXT OF OATH ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT ... vii
LIST OF TABLES ... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ... xii
INTRODUCTION ... 1
CHAPTER 1. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE & ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 1.1. The definition of Organizational Culture ... 2
1.2. Features and Functions of Organizational Culture ...4
1.3. Organizational Culture Components ... 5
1.4. The role of social cultures in the organization of organizational culture……5
1.5. Organizational climate ... 6
1.6. Communication ... 7
1.6.1. The definition of Communication ... 7
1.6.2. The process of Communication ... 7
1.6.3. Types of Communication ... 9
1.6.4. Employee Communication ... 11
CHAPTER 2 LEADERSHIP 2.1. The definition of Leadership ... 12
2.2. Leadership styles ... 13
2.2.1. Transformational Leadership ... 14
2.3. The differences and similarities between leaders and managers… ... 17
2.3.1. Skills of managers ... 18
2.3.2. Roles of managers ... 19
2.4. Why Leadership is important? ... 20
CHAPTER 3 MOTIVATION & COMMITMENT 3.1. The definion of Motivation ... 21
3.2. Major Motivation theories ... 22
3.2.1. Content Motivation theories ... 22
3.2.1.1. Hierarchy of needs theory ... 22
3.2.1.2. Two factor theory ... 22
3.2.1.3. Acquired needs theory ...23
3.2.2. Process Motivation Theories ... 23
3.2.2.1. Equity theory ... 24
3.2.2.2. Expectancy theory ... 25
3.2.2.3. Goal-setting theory ... 26
3.2.2.4. Reinforcement theory ... 28
3.2.2.4.1. Types of reinforcement ... 29
3.3. How motivation affects performance ... 29
3.4. The relationship between motivation, performance and commitment ... 30
3.5. Motivation and Leadership ... 31
3.6. Commitment ... 31
3.6.1. The definition of Commitment ...31
3.6.2. Commitment strategies... 32 3.6.3. Commitment types ... 33 3.6.3.1. Affective commitment ... 33 3.6.3.2. Continuance commitment ... 34 3.6.3.3. Normative commitment ... 34 3.6.4. Organizational Commitment ... 35
3.6.4.1. The importance & benefits of Organizational Commmitment ... 37
3.7. Performance Management ... 38
3.7.1. The definition of performance and performance Management ... 38 3.7.2. The aim of performance evaulation ... 39
CHAPTER 4 HUMOR 4.1. The definition of Humor ... 40
4.2. Humor styles ... 41 4.2.1. Self-enhancing humor ... 41 4.2.2. Affiliative humor ... 41 4.2.3. Aggressive ... 42 4.2.4. Self-defeating ... 42 4.3. Theories of humor ... 43 4.3.1. Superiority theory ...43 4.3.2. Psychoanalytic theory ... 43 4.3.3. Arousal theory ... 44 4.3.4. Incongruity theory ... 44
4.4. Using of humor in workplace ... 45
4.4.1. Humor cartoons at work ... 48
CHAPTER 5 THE USE OF HUMOR IN ORGANIZATIONS 5.1. The purpose of the study ... 53
5.2. Scope and importance of research ...53
5.3. Research method ... 53
5.3.1. Data collection method ... 54
5.3.2. Survey form ... 54
5.3.3. Sampling method ... 55
5.3.4. Field research ... 55
5.3.5. Data analysis ... 55
5.3.6. Constraints of the research ... 55
5.3.7. Model of the research ... 55
5.4. Research findings ... 58
5.4.1. Frequency table (Demographic) ... 58
5.4.2. Frequency tables of likert scales (For Employees)..60
5.4.3. Frequency tables of likert scales (For Managers)…72 5.4.4. T Test (Comparison of managers and employees for humor-related expressions) ... 83
5.4.5. Variation of the Level of Participation in the Thoughts about Employees' Humor in the Workplace by gender… ... 84
5.4.6. Variation of the Level of Participation in the Thoughts about Managers' Humor in the Workplace by Gender ... 85
5.4.7. Variation of the Level of Participation in the Thoughts about Employees' Humor in the Workplace by age ... 86
5.4.8. Variation of the Level of Participation in the Thoughts about Managers' Humor in the Workplace by age ... .87
CONCLUSION ... 89
REFERENCES ... 92
APPENDIX 1- QUESTIONNAIRE (FOR EMPLOYEES) ... 103
APPENDIX 2- TURKISH QUESTIONNAIRE (FOR EMPLOYEES) ... 107
APPENDIX 3- QUESTIONNAIRE (FOR MANAGERS) ... 111
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Theoretical Approaches to Organizational Culture ... 4
Table 2. Types of Communication ... 9
Table 3. Themes in the New Leadership Literature ... 16
Table 4. The differences between managers and leaders ... 17
Table 5. Frequency table of Demographic characteristics (Both employees and Managers) ... 58
Table 6. Manager Behavior (For Employees) ... 60
Table 7. Humor effect (For Employees) ...63
Table 8. Work environment (For Employees) ... 66
Table 9. Commitment (For Employees) ... 69
Table 10. Manager Behavior (For Managers) ... 72
Table 11. Using of Humor (For Managers) ... 74
Table 12. Individual Relations (For Managers)... 77
Table 13. Work Environment (For Managers) ... 80
Table 14. T test (Comparison of managers and employees for humor-related expressions) ... 83
Table 15. Variotion analysis for employees’ gender ... 84
Table 16. Variotion analysis for managers’ gender ... 85
Table 17. Variation analysis for employees’ age ... 86
Table 18. Variation analysis for managers’ age ... 87
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Organizational Culture ... 6
Figure 2. The communication process ... 8
Figure 3. Leader-Manager power differentiation ... 18
Figure 4. The Motivation process ... 21
Figure 5. Key factors in equity assessment ... 24
Figure 6. Motivation and behavior relations in Expectancy theory of Vroom ... 25
Figure 7. Elements of effective goal-setting ... 26
Figure 8. The MBO process ... 28
Figure 9. Components of Reinforcement theory ... 29
Figure 10. Motivation and ability as factors in performance ... 30
Figure 11. The process of Motivation for a long time period ... 30
Figure 12. A model of Organizational Commitment ... 36
Figure 13. Strategic control process ... 39
Figure 14. Organizational humor model ... 47
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important powers of an enterprise is human power. In this direction, motivation and commitment of employees are the most important factors in the success of companies and firms. To motivate employees and increase their commitment are the most important criterias for company’s success, team and individual performance. Working conditions, social opportunities, promotion, salary, individual relationships between superiors and subordinates, managerial attitudes, working environment are causes that increase motivation and commitment of employees. This thesis focuses on the relations between the employee and the manager about use of humor in organizations. The main goal of this thesis is to investigate the effects of sense of humor on managers & employees and to determine perspectives about sense of humor in organizations according their gender and age. The definition of organizational culture and organizational communication are explained in first chapter of study. In the second chapter of study, the definition of Leadership, leadership styles, roles & skills of managers and differences & similarities between managers and leaders are located. In the third chapter of study, it is explained that motivation and commitment definition, factors that increasing commitment, and types of commitment. In the same chapter, Motivation definition, motivation theories, the ways of motivating employees, relationship between motivation and performance, commitment, Leadership are took part. The forth chapter of study includes humor and the using of humor in workplace. The effects use of humor by managers in organization, aim of the research, frequency tests, T tests, Anova tests, hypotheses are took part in the last chapter. This study has been made on managers and employees in different sectors. Two separate surveys are done according to managers and employees. Generally, the effects of managers' use of humor on employees are discussed.
CHAPTER 1 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
1.1. The definition of Organizational Culture
Today, the idea that the organization should have a strong culture in order to be able to successfully carry out its activities is widely advocated. Therefore, culture is a phenomenon that defines and determines the organization and differs from other organizations. In reaching and achieving the goals of the organizations, since their unique cultures play an important role, compliance with culture and organization will be essential when management strategies and policy implementations are successful (Doğan, 2013; p.7).
While there is no full consensus on the definition of organizational culture, there is a broad consensus that the definition of culture in this context refers to the culture of the organization, a system of meanings that distinguishes the organization from other organizations and is shared by the members of the organization (Doğan, 2013, p. 9).
According to Andrew Pettigrew, ‘’Organizational culture is a system of meanings shared by a group; symbols, ideology, belief, language, myths and ceremonies’’ (Pettigrew, 1979, p. 574; quoted Doğan, 2013, p. 9). According to Richard Daft, ‘’Organizational culture is a community that shared social values, norms, standards, norms, beliefs and understandings by members of the organization’’ (Daft, 2008, p.85, quoted Doğan, 2013, p.9). Pasquale Gagligardi defined that ‘’Organizational culture is the system of basic values and assumptions that separate an organization from others and direct options. According to this; How deep the values are rooted and spread, culture is so strong and it can not be changed’’ (Gagligardi, 1986, p. 119, quoted Doğan, 2013, p.10).
Organizational culture is a subculture that formed by beliefs and values. In organizational culture created by people who gathered with professional judgment (Derek R., a.g.e 1998, p.128). On the contrary mission and vission, it is not written but it is the soul of organization.Culture plays a big role in determining organizational life. If cultures have a big role in organization, this time the should be managed. Culturel Symbols, shared behaviors, cultural values and shared assumptions are layers of organizational culture. Shared assumption is basic beliefs about reality and human.
Cultural values are opinions, beliefs and feelings about what things are normal, rational, good etc. These are change from organization to organization. Some organizations care about money, but some organizations care technological innovation. Shared behaviors are involving norms, which are more visible. Cultural symbols are gestures, pictures, words that carry specific meaning. (Slocum and Hellriegel, 2009, p. 458).
Organizational culture can affect its success, giving the firm a competitive edge. In an organization with a strong organizational culture, everyone knows and supports the same principles, beliefs and values (Bone & Kurtz, 2013, p. 245, Trans. A Yalçın). Organizational culture is the key factor of the work area in which employees fulfil their jobs. A culture can emerge within the organization or occurs from any department, branch or part in organization. Culture can be affected by everything in the organization. There are many factors that constitute culture within the organization. Organizational cultures have crucial importance in organizations’ success. They provide an organizational identity to employees. At the same time, they ensure a perception of security to its members. Culture helps to motivate employee fad for their duties. Cultures transmit vision and mission, and help to create high productivity (Newstrom J. W. Dawis K., 1993, p. 58).
Organizations can direct their attention to the culture when they meet the following questions:
Change opportunities
(Will it be possible to adapt to the new job? Will the business understand and manage it?)
Fast growing
(How to protect the good one and how to decide what to change?) Changes in the competition strategy
(Will the new strategy fit in the organization?) Serious conflicts between groups in the organization
(What led to subculture conflicts? How can the judge in the organization help to solve cultural differences?)
Crisis
(Which parts should be reduced in size and which employees should be removed from the work? How should the organization protect its power while going to shrink?) (Doğan, 2013, p. 9).
Table 1. Theoretical Approaches to Organizational Culture
Approaches Organizational
Paradigm
Organizational Culture
Rationalism The organization is the instrument of effective success
Organizational culture is a tool for achieving organizational goals. Functionalism An organization is a
community trying to maintain its life by fulfilling the necessary functions.
It is a combination of shared values and basic assumptions that fulfill functions related to culture, external harmony and internal integration. Symbolism
It is a human system that express a complex composition of symbolic actions.
Culture is a pattern of socially constructed symbols and meanings.
Source: Schultz, 1995, p. 14.; quoted Dogan, 2013, p.11
1.2. Features and Functions of Organizational Culture
Thompson and Luthans have listed the characteristics of the culture as follows: Culture is a defining concept based on behavioral factors.
Culture can be learned.
Culture is transmitted through behavioral interactions.
In the organizational setting, various reinforcements and supporting tools increase the cult power.
It is difficult to change culture (Thompson and Luthans, 1990, p. 328-336.; quoted Doğan, 2013, p. 12).
Culture sets boundaries that create differences between an organization and others; Empowers employees with a sense of identity, increases organizational commitment, and empowers the social system. (Robbins, Judge, 2007, p.578.; quoted Doğan, 2013; p.12)
1.3. Organizational Culture Components
Organizational culture components are basic determinants in organizational culture management. Pettigrew describes the elements of organizational culture as "symbols, language, ideology, beliefs, ceremonies and myth’’ (Pettigrew, 1979, p.570- 581, quoted Doğan 2013, p.14). Hofstede describes the elements of organizational culture as ‘’ symbols, heroes, ceremonies and values’’ (Hofstede, 2001, p. 291, quoted Doğan, 2013, p.14).
1.4. The role of social cultures in the organization of organizational culture One of the basic features of the culture is sociality. As culture can not be independent from it, outside of society as a concept that is formed and living in the place or periods where societies are located, There will be no organization culture independent of social culture. The social culture or socio-cultural environment is one of the most important factors affecting the organization and functioning of the organizations and shaping the organization's culture (Türk Psikologlar Derneği, 1998, p.30, quoted Doğan, 2013, p. 23).
Figure 1. Organizational Culture
Social Culture Leadership
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational conditions Social climate
Source: Dastmalchian, Lee, Ng April 2000, p. 395; quoted Doğan, 2013; p. 24
1.5. Organizational climate
At a given time; The environments and atmosphere characteristics of the organization, reflecting the members' perceptions, experiences and reactions in the organizational context (Denison, 1996, s.623-624; quoted Ceylan ,1998, p. 128 ). It is a reaction to environmental conditions of employees. Organizational commitment affects attitudes about morale and motivation. It is the management responsibility for the creation of an organization climate where people do their jobs better. Organizational climate is a level that interest, loyalty, feelings of belonging and morale between members. Climate affects employees' relations and attitudes towards performance. Climate includes cultural harmony, psychological distance of leaders, creativity, ready for innovation, socialization, orientation, rewarding. Internal motivation, organizational commitment, work satisfaction, and organizational citizenship are attitudinal behavioral consequences. (Ceylan 1998; p.140-141) Organizational climate is characterized with individual behaviors, types of leaders, management process, and interaction between targets and aims. (Derek R.; a.g.e 1998,
s.567; quoted Ceylan 1998; p.141) Organization’s history, basic functions and technology, targets and aims, organizations’s size, place, management and staffing, environment are factors that develop organizational culture. (Ceylan 1998; p.130)
1.6. Communication
1.6.1. The definition of Communication
It is the process of receiving information and interpretation the message. True communication occurs only when all the people understand the message in the same meaning. According to a research, each employee and manager spend time for commnunication 75 percent of their time in working day. So, every successful person have ability to speak, communicate with others, good communication skills (Aydın et al., 2006, p. 340-341). People who living in communities need to connect with one another in order to maintain their existence together. This only happens with communication.
Communication is an important process that links human activities and enables them to live in harmony in a social group. From an organizational point of view, communication consists of various parts of an organization and information among employees, emotional transfer, all kinds of tools and methods in this transfer process, various channels related to transfer and form of message. Decisions which taken and plans which made by management are transferred to the employees and the work is carried out in an organization through communication. Employees present their works to their senior management staff through communication. At the same time, they express their complaints and requests through communication. Communication is a process that needs to be very careful especially by managers. Communication is a first condition that applying plans and decisions. It is also important to communicate about the environment as well as the communication within the enterprise itself. Statistics and research show that managers spend most of their time (between %75-%95) in communication with other people. The good functioning of the communication system in organizations is one of the important factors that affecting its success (Aydın et al., 2006, p. 339-340).
1.6.2 The process of Communication
Communication usually consists of three phases: Information coding in the form of a message, transfer a message with a tool and finding the meaning by decoding the code of the received message. This process involves the steps between the sender and the receiver, resulting in the transmission and understanding of meaning in communication. The communication process consists of 8 part: the sender, encoding, the message, the channel, decoding, the receiver, noise and feedback (Aydın et al., 2006, p. 343).
Figure 2. The communication process
Sender Receiver
Message Encoding Message Message
To be message Channel received decoding
Sent
Noise
Feedback
Source: Robins, Judge, 2010, p. 378
First of all, the sender constructs the message in the mind as an idea and then codes this idea. In other words, it converts into words, numbers or shapes. These codes are sent to the receiver via the communication channel. Coding is the process in which the sender in the communication is expressed the idea of being abstract and put in a message that can be transferred to someone else. The person who sending the message at this stage; decides the shape, length, style and tone of the message. Message is a symbolic form that the sender wants to transfer. Communication channel is the way that the message is delivered. It is selected by the sender of the message. The communication channel can be wide variety like as face to
face, telephone, letter, electronic communication etc. Channel which used for effective and efficient communication should be appropriate for the message. Decoding is the process by which the receiver decodes the meaning of the incoming message. While the receiver makes sense of the symbols, uses his/her experience and knowledge. The receiver is the person who receives the coded message and opens the code. The receiver perceives the symbols bearing the message, makes sense, and end communication or he/she sends a message and goes to the sender position. Feedback is a response that the receiver gives the sender. This response informs to the person who sent the message, how the message was interpreted, and how the communication was generally received. . (Aydın, Azizoğlu, Can, 2006; p.344-345-346) Noise is a barrier that blocking and deflecting the message and communication. Such as cultural differences, perceptual problems etc. (Robbins-, Judge, 2010, p.378)
1.6.3. Types of Communication
Communication occurs in various forms: Verbal, written, formal, informal, Non-verbal communication.
Table 2. Types of Communication
Format Definition Examples
Verbal & Oral communication
The communication is transmitted via speech.
Speeches, interviews, meetings, phone calls Written communication The communication is
conveyed through writing.
E-mails, letters, notes, press releases, reports
Formal communication Communication is transmitted via command chain to other members of an organization or to people outside the organization
Internal Communication: Short notes, reports, meetings
External Communication: Letters, oral
presentations, press releases
Informal communication Communication is transmitted through external formal channels regardless of the
organizational hierarchy.
Rumors spread informally among employees.
Non-verbal Communication is Hand-arm movements,
communication conveyed through facial expressions, body behaviors and actions language, clothing rather than word
Source: Boone & Kurtz, Trans: Azmi Yalçın, 2013 p. 299
Managers spend too much time verbally communicating both face-to-face and over the phone. Face-to-face verbal communication allows people to combine with hints such as voice tone and face expressions (Boone & Kurtz, Trans: Azmi Yalçın, 2013 p.298). It is generally easier and quicker than written communication. The handicap is that there is no written anything (Sandberg, 2006, p. B1, quoted Lussier ,2008, p.351). Written communication channels (reports, notes, e-mails etc.) delay the feedback and create a record of the message. So the person who sends the message should carefully prepare the message and review the message for avoiding misunderstandings (Boone & Kurtz Trans: Azmi Yalçın, 2013, p.300). A formal communication communicates messages flowing in the structure of the command chain defined by the channel organization. Communication which is usually downward, conveys messages from top positions to subordinates in the organization. The most important factor in formal communication is to be open and honest. Employees feel free to express their views, to offer suggestions, and even to express a complaint in work environment where exists open communication (Boone & Kurtz Trans: Azmi Yalçın, 2013 p. 300). Informal communication channels carry messages outside the legally authoritative channels within the hierarchy of organization (Boone & Kurtz Trans: A. Yalçın, 2013 p. 302). Informal communication channels are networks created by leaders, chance encounters, and the grapevine including rumors. Grapevine can deflect the information. Rumors and gossip are the most constituents of the grapevine. Rumor and gossip generally transfer through word of mouth (DuBrin,
2009, p. 415-416). Non-verbal communication includes gestures, voice tone, facial expressions, body languages etc. These non-verbal cues can have a greater influence on communication than many people realize. (Boone & Kurtz Trans: A. Yalçın, 2013, p. 303). The aim of the non-verbal communication is to express the feeling back a message. Hand-body movements, facial expression etc. includes specific information to other people (DuBrin-, 2009, p.411).
1.6.4 Employee Communication:
Many organizations give importance employee communication and face-to- face communcation. The face-to-face communication has a crucial role in uncertainty and change times (Young, Post, 1993 p. 31-43, quoted Guirdham, 1996, p. 299). Employee communication should not just what it is, it should be interested in how and why. It should be dead on time before dissappearing every detail, communication should be established. Employee communication absolutely should be consistent, particularly crisis and change times. It should get in touch between ‘’big picture’’ and ‘’little picture’’. Employees should use language which will be understood by everyone. Employees should try to overcome emotional barriers. They should avoid to demolish relationships. They should show their commitment enthusiasm and respect to other colleagues (Guirdham, 1995, p. 299-300).
CHAPTER 2 LEADERSHIP
2.1. The definition of Leadership
Leadership is a subject and concept that is constantly discussed from the past to daily. One of the most discussed topics, is she/he born as a leader? Or will it acquire leadership qualities through training and experience that it has over time? Besides this, the concept of leadership is a much discussed issue. How leadership practices are implemented and how they should be conducted is a highly discussed issue. One of the most important things in leadership is affecting the audience with their behavior and to move them. In the case of management, the situation is different. Management can be defined in the form of '' art of making work using resources effectively and efficiently ‘’ (Bakır, 2013; p. 30).
Leadership is increasing importance in every year. In recent years, leaders have played an important role in the success of organizations and firms. Although there is no certain definition of leadership, many definitions have been made.
Leadership means directing and inspiring people to reach organizational goals. Effective leaders have common characteristics such as empathy, self-awareness, and objectivity in relation to others. Leaders also use the power of the experience to influence their work, their expertise and others (Bone & Kurtz, 2013, Trans: Azmi Yalçın, p. 245).
Now, we will look at the leadership definitions of CEOs and managers from various companies.
Jordan French,( founding CMO, BeeHex, Inc. 3D Food Printing) defined leadership that ‘’serving the people that work for you by giving them the tools they need to succeed.’’
Kurt Uhlir, (CEO and co-founder Sideqik) defined leadership that
‘’True leadership comes when those around you are influenced by your life in a positive way.’’
Tom Madine,(CEO and president,Worldwide Express) defined leadership that ‘’Leadership styles differ, but at the core, good leaders make the people they are leading accomplish more than they otherwise would. The most effective leaders do this
not through fear, intimidation or title, but rather by building consensus around a common goal."
Andrea Walker-Leidy, (Owner, Walker Publicity Consulting) defined leadership that ‘’Leadership is the ability to see a problem and be the solution. So many people are willing to talk about problems or can even empathize, but not many can see the problem or challenge and rise to it. It takes a leader to truly see a problem as a challenge and want to drive toward it.
"
Randy Stocklin, co-founder and CEO, One Click Ventures defined leadership that
"Leadership is the ability to help people achieve things they don't think are possible. Leaders are coaches with a passion for developing people, not players; they get satisfaction from achieving objects through others. Leaders inspire people through a shared vision and create an environment where people feel valued and fulfilled." (Post, 2017, from Business new daily web site received from 25 July).
Effective Leadership includes a lot of charecteristics. Strong character, honesty, communication skills, trustworthiness, positive energy and attitudes, ability to influence, creativity, motivating to other people are the most important characteristics that leaders have.
Lussier & Achua (2007) determine that traits of effective leaders are dominance, high energy, Self-confidence, Locus of Control, Stability, Integrity, Intelligence, Emotional Intelligence, flexibility and sensitivy to others ( Lussier, Achua, 2007, p.32- 36).
2.2 Leadership styles
In recent years, the most important work on leadership is find out the differences between the transformational leader and the transactional leader. Many leadership theories are focused on transactional leadership. (Robbins 1996 p.438 ;quated Iraz, Şimşek; 2004, p.11) The most important comparative leadership theories for organizational change are transformative and transactional leadership theories
2.2.1 Transformational Leaders
Transformational Leadership includes forecasting future trends, inspiring followers, developing to employees to be leaders, and building the organization and awarded learners. Transformational leaders show special attention to followers according their achievement and growth (Slocum, Hellriegel, 2007, p. 301). It creates a sense of responsibility for the individual in the organization and it is a style of leadership that forces the organization to learn all its members. This type of leadership is closely linked to charismatic leadership and inspirational leadership (Certo, 1997: 368; quoted Iraz, Şimşek, 2004; p.110) .
The features that transformational leaders should have are listed as follows:
Charisma: The leader is pride in creating a sense of mission and vision to the audience, so they gain respect and trust.
Inspiration: The leader reflects the high expectations he has through the symbols through the audience and teaches important goals in simple ways.
Mental stimulation: Leader helps viewers to develop intelligence, reasoning and careful problem solving skills.
Individual interest: The leader is interested in everyone, showing individual interest in the audienc
Guidance skills have improved (Robbins, 1996, p. 439; quoted Iraz and Şimşek, 2004, p. 110).
2.2.2 Transactional Leaders
Transactional leadership is a model where the leader pays rewards for the viewers and is the result of the process of change between the leader and the audience
(Eisenbach vd., 1999: 83; quoted Iraz, Şimşek; 2004; p. 12). Despite that
Transformational leadership is the process of influencing the attitudes and perceptions of the members of the organization and determining the mission and goals of the organization (Lewis et al., 1995, p. 440; quoted Iraz, Şimşek, 2004, p.12). The transformational leader has deeply influenced the members of the organization so that their organizational goals are in front of their personal expectations. For this reason, they set their expectations on the second plan and they fulfill their responsibilities in a willful and willing manner by focusing on their duties (Ülgen Mirze, 2004, p. 377; quoted Iraz, Şimşek, 2004, p.12).
Transactional leaders motivate and direct employees according to their self- interest. Transactional leaders establish performance expectations and goals and give feedback to employees. They focus on controlling, organizing and short-term planning. They intend measurable results with detailed goals in short-term. They affect employees by exchanging good performance for extrinsic rewards, such as financial, benefits and status symbols. (Slocum, Hellriegel 2009, pg. 295).
Conditional rewarding: The leader rewards those who exhibit good performance and appreciates success.
Management with active exceptions: Leader searches, follows and corrects deviations from standards and rules.
Management with passive exceptions: The leader intervenes only when the standards are not reached.
Leave it to you (Laissez-Faire): The leader avoids taking decisions by delegating his responsibilities (Robbins, 1996, p. 439; quoted Iraz and Şimşek, 2004, p. 111).
Keçecioğlu (2003) examined the concepts dealt with in new leadership approaches. (quoted Iraz, Şimşek; 2004; p.13)
Table 3. Themes in the New Leadership Literature
Less Needed Ideas Less Needed Ideas
Planning
Vision/Mission
Deploying responsibilities
Vision grafting
Checking and problem solving
Motivation and activation
Creating rules and balances
Creating change and innovations
Power reminders
Miscellaneous
Obedience / Creating obliques
Obedience / Creating obliques
Creating willingness
Agreement on obligations
Encourage extra efforts
Rationalism and the neutrality of your leadership
Intuitive and interested in others
The reactive environmental approach
The proactive environmental approach
Source: Iraz, Simsek; 2003;14
largely found in transformational leaders. Thus, it can be said that the transformative leader has many features that can successfully accomplish change and transformation in the present. (Iraz, Simsek, 2003, p.14)
2.3 The differences and similarities between leaders and managers
The concepts of management and leadership are sometimes referred to as very distant and sometimes very close concepts. Kırılmaz (2013) explains the similarities and differences between leadership and management.
Both managers and leadership are about people being directed at specific goals. Both managers and leaders use power while doing the job of directing and
influencing.
The manager works under the current conditions so that he/she can produce the best result. Leader efforts to create a new vision by making necessary innovations and regulations, for the organization to follow the changes. (Kırılmaz, 2013; quoted Bakır 2013, p.33)
Benis (1989) tabulated these differences.
Table 4. The differences between managers and leaders
Manager Leader
Administrator Innovator
Repeater Original
Continuity Developer
Focus on systems and structures Focus on people
Trust to audit Trust to accuracy
Has a short term view Has a long term view ‘’How-When’’ questions are
important
‘’Why’’ questions are important
Accepts the current situation Challenge the current situation Source: Bennis, 1989, p.42
Figure 3. Leader-manager power differentiation Authority (Power Source)
↓
Manager Leader
↓
↓↑
Group (Followers) Group(Followers-Power source)
Source: Kılınç, 1997: 385; quated Eraslan, 2004: 162, quoted Bakır 2013, p.15 As Figure 1 shows; The manager is acting with the power that has received from the authority. The manager, who has adopted this scheme and is working to maintain its continuity. Manager influences and directs the followers (subordinates) in a hierarchical way. The power source of the leader is the followers. The interaction between the leader and the audience is the key element of the leader's power. The followers' love, respect, appreciation, envy, etc. factors are the source on which the leader's power is based (Bakır; 2013, p.15).
2.3.1 Skills of managers
All managers have four types of basic skills. There are technical, human, computer and conceptual.
Technical: It is the managerial ability that use techniques, resources, knowledge in order to showing work in a specialized field. For example; a.manager must have technical skills about finance, manufacturing, accounting etc. Merck & Co. can be shown example of technical skill. It produce drugs for medical. The company’s most important resource is first class scientists. Their technical skills improved. At the same time, this company’s managers have the same skills. The company’s CEO has a doctorate about medicine (Donnelly, Gibson and Ivancevich, 1990, p. 31). Human: This skills related with a manager’s ability to work and communicate with
others both as a member of a group and as a leader. Managers use human skills that motivating others, developing themselves, and work well in order to achieve
organizational goals. James F. Lincoln who the founder of Lincoln Electric Co, can be shown example of human skills. His company has 40 percent of the world’s market and has 3,000 employees. He believed that payment must depend on performance in order to award employees and that honesty and understanding relationship must maintained between employees and managers (Donnelly, Gibson and Ivancevich , 1990, p.31-32).
Computer: Using a computer is one of the essential feature that managers should have. Computers are used to perform tasks about financial analysis, Human resources area, planning and other areas. For example, Xerox save much time and money by electronic devices. All documents standardized and compiterized and read by all employees’ and managers’ computers screen before meeting (Donnelly, Gibson and Ivancevich, 1990, p.34).
Conceptual: This skill is related with ability to see the organization as a whole, how the organizational parts fit together. For example; Jack Welch, CEO of General Electric, is accepted as having superior conceptual skills. He buys the company from household goods and television industries. It is turning into high- tech manufacturing, publishing and other high-risk and more profitable industries (Donnelly, Gibson and Ivancevich, 1990, p. 34).
2.3.2 Roles of managers
Interpersonal Roles: This roles grow up from formal authority (manager’s position) and including developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships with others. There are three types of roles:Figurehead, leader and liasion. A college dean give graduation diplomas. This is example of figurehead. The manager’s role includes directing and coordinating all of the subordinate activities. (Hiring, training, promoting etc.). The liasion role that managers establish relationships outside of their area. In the organization, managers must have good relationships with other managers and employees. For example; in any logistic company, a finance supervisor must interact with a sales supervisor.
Informational roles: Manager is gathering and and receiving information by interpersonal contacts in monitor role, and conveying that this information in the
and problems that can affect organization. The disseminator role involves to transmit information internally to subordinates that might not ordinarily know about or be able to obtain. The manager represents to organization to others in the spokesperson role.
Decisional roles: Developing interpersonal relationships and gathering information are very important issues in business life. Some employees believe that manager’s most important duties are decisional roles(entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator). The aim of the entrepreneur role is improve the performance by using new ideas or methods. It works for the best performance and result. Disturbance handler role is required quickly and corrective make decisions beyond their control. This role has priority between other roles. The resource allocator role is that manager will get what resources like as money, people, time etc. The manager should reserve the resources toward numerous possible ends. It is the most crucial of the manager’s decisional roles. The negotiator role, managers must discuss with other departments and people in order to determine advances for their own departments. The discussions can be about performance objectives, work etc. (Donnely, Gibson and Ivancevich, 1990, p.35-38)
2.4. Why Leadership is important?
When people create social groups, they need leaders and managers to manage and reach their goals. The integration and coordination of human efforts is necessary for group effectiveness and productivity. It reveals the need for the leaders (Dincer and Fidan, 1996, p.335).
There are a lot of reasons why leadership is important. A lot of manager, CEO and supervisor explained leadership importance according their opinions, beliefs, company positions etc. Peter Drucker who was an Austrian-born American management consultant explain that the success or failure of the organization depend on performance of the managerial leadership. Poor leadership tend to failure, good leadership tend to success. David Brandon who was Domino’s Pizza chain states that each store is shaped according to the leadership provided by the manager. According to a survey conducted in England, %60 employees are not well managed and %77 employees are not happy in their jobs. This shows that employees stay or leave is how they are treated. (Lussier and Achua, 2007, p.4
CHAPTER 3 MOTIVATION & COMMITMENT
3.1 The definition of Motivation
There are many motivational definitions made by various people. Halil Can defined that (1992) it is the period in which the individual is motivated and inspired to move into action by creating a business environment that satisfies the needs of the organization and the individual. Encourage people to work is a challenging and complex process. The reason is the limitless and complex nature of human needs. It is first necessary to know their needs in order to understand and influence people's behavior. Needs form the basis of human behavior (Dinçer and Fidan, 1996; p. 307). People have different structures and different backgrounds, so it is differentiated their needs. For this reason the motive tools differ from individual to individual. For example; for one employee, job satisfaction is more motivated than salary. Employees need to be able to fulfill their duties with great desire and diligence. The great desire and careful work of the employees plays a very important role in the success of the managers. (Dinçer, Fidan 1996, p.308)
Figure 4. The Motivation Process
Need Motive Behavior Consequence Satisfaction or diss. ... Feedback ...
Source: Lussier and Achua, 2003, p.74
Show as Figure; People motivate behaviors to meet their needs. And as a result, satisfaction or dissatisfaction arises and they give feedback. Generally; our needs, wants, and desires determine and motivates all behaviors. But in general, we are not aware of what we want or why we do the things we do. Firstly, for understanding needs, it need to understand motivation and behavior. Motives can not be observed, but you can observe from their behaviors whether it is motive or not. In the same time, people can behave the same for different reasons (Lussier, Achua pg. 74).
3.2 Major Motivation Theories
There are two types of fundamental motivation theories: Content motivation theories and process motivation theories.
3.2.1. Content Motivation Theories: It focuses on clarifiying and forecasting behavior based on employee need motivation. There are three content motivation theories.
3.2.1.1 Hierarchy of needs theory: According to this theory, employees are motivated by five levels of need (Physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self- actualization.). Individuals strive primarily to satisfy their bottom-line needs. It is not possible to reach an upper step without satisfying the needs of that stage. It is impossible to motivate someone who is hungry to satisfy their social needs (Dinçer, Fidan 1996, p. 309).
Physiological needs are basic needs that are air, food, relief etc. Safety & Security needs are the second level of needs. After to meet physiological needs, pass to these needs. Belonging needs take place in the third level. These needs include love, friendship, acceptance etc. Esteem needs which take place in fourth level, include status, ego, self-respect, self-confidence and prestige. The highest level of needs is self-actualization needs. These are growth, achievement, and advancement. But this theory of Maslow loses its validity. People have different levels of needs based on different directions of their lives. Today, Maslow and other some people noticed that needs are not positioned in the simple five-step hierarchy. In now, Maslow’s hierarchy and predictions are used by updating (Lussier and Achua, 2007, p.75).
3.2.1.2 Two-factor theory: Herzberg distinguishes needs that are lower- level needs (hygiene or maintenance) and higher-level needs (motivators). This theory assumed that people are motivated by higher level needs instead of maintenance factors. Maintenance (Extrinsic motivators) factors are pay, job, security, working conditions, relationships. Motivators (Intrinsic) factors are achievement, recognition, challenge and advancement. (Lussier and Achua, 2007, p. 76-77). Herzberg wanted to draw attention to this point. If the hygiene factors fall below a certain limit, they create dissatisfaction. As a result of this dissatisfaction, the individual may feel cold and hate
from the workplace, the managers and other co-workers. Hygiene factors do not exactly act on the person but their absence constitutes a source of dissatisfaction. After minimizing the factors to increase the yield, motivating internal factors must be studied (Dinçer and Fidan, 1996, p.312).
3.2.1.3 Acquired Needs Theory: People are motivated by achievement, power and affiliation needs. Needs are based on personal characteristics. The important thing is to actualize how closely linked characteristics, behavior and motivation.This theory defends that all people have achievement , power and affiliation needs but changeable degrees (Lussier and Achua, 2007, p.76-80). Achievement theory that some employees have to obtain and maintain challenging goals. An employee with this drive, work harder when they discern that they will credits for their performance. At the same time, employee want to take feedback about their past performance. Feedback guides to them about what they will do. Affiliation theory means that people based on a social basis and a perception of community. When compare of achievement-motivated employees with affiliation-motivation employees, achievement-oriented employees work harder when their managers ensure detailed considerations of their work behavior. Employee who have affiliation power are likable and friendly. They have positive social relationships and ability to working together. Power motivation refers that influence and control people, change situations. Power-motivated managers create an impact on their organizations and employees’. Managers should use leadership positions through successful performance (Newstrom, 2011, p. 111-112).
3.2.2 Process Motivation Theories
This theory focus on how people to select behaviors to meet their needs. Process motivation theories more difficult and mixed than content motivation theories. It concentrated on reasons. Like as why people have different needs, why their needs change etc. There are three process motivation theories; equity theory, expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory.
3.2.2.1 Equity theory:
Employees feel better motivated when they have the same conditions as other employees. If they feel unfair, this can irritate, break to them and negatively affect their motivation. This theory defend that employees should have the same inputs and outputs (Dinçer and Fidan, 1996, p. 313). People are strongly motivated that if they believe that maintain a balance between other employees’ inputs or outputs. Equity theory defended that a employee sense inequity, their motivation and commitment will decrease. At the same time, quantity or quality should go down. But they perceives an equity, they will be motivated and committed and as a result of this, quantity and quality should go up (Dessler, 1998, p. 410). It concerns the perception of one's fair and egalitarian behavior. Employees first consider their own efforts and rewards for their efforts. Then compare their results to those of other colleagues. If employees feel that their prizes for their own efforts are little compared to those doing similar work, they will reduce their efforts to balance according to the theory of equality. On the contrary, if employees consider themselves to be highly rewarded, they will feel guilty and increase their efforts to ensure equality and reduce criminality (Boone and Kurtz, 2013, p.270 Trans: Azmi Yalçın).
Figure 5 Key factors in equity assessment
Outcomes Inputs
(Compared with others) (Compared with others)
Source: Newstrom and Dawis, 1993, p. 155 Actual pay and benefits
Social rewards Phychological rewards Job difficulty Job effort Education Seniority Performance
Inputs are all the elements that employees convey, contribute to the job like as previous work experiences, commitment, time and effort, performance etc. Outcomes are the prizes that employees get when accomplish the goals like as social rewards,bonuses etc. Employees should believe that the fairness of their own outcome/input, when compare themselves with other colleques in the same works (Newstrom and Dawis, 1993, p.155).
3.2.2.2 Expectancy theory
Motivation =Expectancy*instrumentality*valence (Victor Vroom’s formula) (V. Vroom, 1964; quated Lussier 2008; p. 396). This theory focus that people are motivated when they believe they can complete successfully the duty, they will get reward, and these prizes and rewards are worth the effort. Behavior is affected from internal (needs) and external (environment) factors. Normally, every people have different desires, aims; and in the result of, people take a decision on their perception of the outcome. (Lussier and Achua, 2007, p.83-86). From another perspective, employees behave according to the awards which they desire. First of all, the individual must believe that the effort will earn prizes. The individual must desire this award. Individual must believe that she/he can achieve the expected success (Dinçer, Fidan 1996, p. 313).
Figure 6 Motivation and behavior relations in Expectancy theory of Vroom
Abilities
Motivation Effort Success Reward Saticfaction
3.2.2.3 Goal-setting theory
Determining objectives has a positive effect on motivation and perfomance. This theory defend that difficult but achievable goals motivate people. If people have a goal/aim, they will be more willing in order to accomplish the duty (Lussier and Achua, 2007, p. 83-86). In goal-setting theory, first of all, goals are determined in order to accomplishing the tasks. Because, to determine goals motivates and ancourages to employees. After the desired behavior, goals are available, employees contrast their results to their goals. Meeting goals contribute to provide more higher successes. Employees who have successfully achieved the objectives which are given, they determine higher goals for themselves in the future (Nwestrom and Dawis 1993; p. 139).
Figure 7 Elements of Effective Goal-setting
Source: Nwestrom and Dawis,1993, p.140
As shown Figure; Goal acceptance, specificity, challenge and performance monitoring and feedback are elements of goal-setting theory. In goal acceptance,
Acceptance
Specificity
GOAL SETTING
Challenge
Monitoring and
effective goals are determined and should be understand by employees. If the goal is difficult to accomplish, this will motivate employees more than. Supervisors should explain the purpose behind goals. An effective method is the employees to integrate in the goal setting process. Specificity means that goals should be clear, specific and measurable. When employees reach to goals, they show results in easily way. Specific goals guide the emloyees and it helps to planning. Chanllenge in goal setting theory means that If employees have difficult goals, they have to work harder rather than easy ones. The last one is performance monitoring and Feedback. Performance monitoring is observing behavior, controling outputs and evaulating performance after determining well-defined and challenging goals. Performance feedback helps that people see their performance and guide them accordingly. At the same time, feedback is one of the most important powerful motivational tool (Nwestrom and Dawis, 1993, p.139-141).
Management by Objectives (MBO): Management by Objectives (MBO) is that determine goal difficulty and goal clearness in order to motivate employees. Goal difficulty means that goals should be difficult and challenging but possible to success. Goal clearnes means that goals should ve clarify while directing effort. Employees should know that what is achieved. If clear and challenging goals are determined, employees focus on job-related tasks, high performance, and goal achievement (Slocum and Hellriegel, 2009, p. 165).
According to other source, it is a process that the employees and the managers come together for determining common goals, set their goals to be accomplished, and contribution and deciding following actions. Firstly, the term ‘’Management by Objectives’’ was used by Peter Drucker in his book ‘’The Practice of Management’’. The MBO system’s aim is to get managers and empowered employees in order to perform and succeed their goals. For each member, specific goals are determined. Performance evaulation and feedback are most important components in MBO’s (retrieved from management-by-objectives slide share, receieved from 07/2017).
Figure 8 The MBO Process
Define Define Continuous Performance Providing
Organizational Emp. monitoring evaluation/ Feedback
goals objectives of employee
performance and progress
Performance Appraisals
Source: retrieved from management-by-objectives slide share, receieved from 07/2017
In the motivation perspective, it is a goal setting theory that involves employees. Employee powerment possitively affect employee jobsatisfaction and commitment. The SMART method is that clarifies the goals. MBO includes the concept of smart goals. These are; specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound. MBO managers give attention to results, more than activity (retrieved from management-by- objectives slide share, receieved from 07/2017).
3.2.2.4. Reinforcement theory
All the managers should understand the relationship between behaviors and their consequences and according to reasons, he/she supports desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable behaviors. With predetermined ways, people will be motivated in easily way. Namely, according to this theory, people move through experiences and consequences that live before (Lussier and Achua, 2003; p. 89). In other words, at the end of a certain behavior, If the person feels pleasure, he/she repeats this behavior. But if he/she is punished he/she will not show this behavior again. Pawlow and Skinner proved them in their experiments on animals (Dinçer and Fidan, 1996, p.316).
Figure 9. Compotents of reinforcement theory
Stimulus Responding Behavior Consequences of
Behavior-
Reinforcement
Source: Judge and Ilies, 2004, p. 151 ; quated Lussier and Achua 2007, p. 89
3.2.2.4.1. Types of reinforcement
There are four types of reinforcement. These are positive, avoidance, extinction, and punishment. Positive enforcement is that encouraging behavior for desairable performance by using attractive consequences. Positive reinforcements are promotions, increased status etc. Repetition of desairable behavior is provided by giving awards. Avoidance reinforcement is negative reinforcement that the employee abstain from the negative consequence. Extinction is used when people want to reduce undesirable behaviors. From another direction, If the manager does not award good behavior or performance, this can cause extinction. Employees can stop their good performance when they don’t award. Punishment is directed to stop undesirable behavior completely. Punishment methods are harassing, prbation, demoting and so forth. It is aimed to reduce unwanted behavior by punishment. But this can cause other undesirable behavior; such as poor morale, lower productivity etc (Lussier and Achua, 2007, p. 89-90).
3.3. How Motivation Affects performance?
Generally, it is believed that motivated people work harder to be successful and make their jobs better than those who are not motivated (Chittum, 2006, p.R7, quoted Lussier, 2008, p.387). But performance can not be based solely on motivation. Three independent factors define the level of performance: ability, motivation and resources. The interaction of these factors determine performance. For maximum performance, all these should be high level. Employees who don’t have proficiency to carry out a job and those who don’t contribute their best exertion lower performance. Performance
3.4. The Relationship between Motivation, Performance and Commitment: Motivation is one of the most contributor to efficiency and performance. Abilities, skills and technolgy are supplementaries of motivation in performance evulation.
Figure 10. Motivation and Ability as Factors in Performance
Motivation * Ability Performance and Commitment
Skill Technology
Source: DuBrin, 2009, p.373
As shown Figure; there is a relationship between motivation and performance. Performance is created from the combination of motivation and ability. Technology and skill are contribute to ability. Commitment emerges in the result of the performance. The committed employee fulfill their work with cheery. While achieving organizational goals, it makes with great desire and will. If employees well motivated and rewarded, they become committed workers who provide the company competitive advances. So, gaining employee commitment is very important issue in the business life (Katzenbach, 2000; quoted DuBrin, 2009, p. 372).
Figure 11. The process of motivation for a long time period
Day-by-day Long-term Emotional Competitive Elevated motivation motivation commitment advantage profits
and good of workers to the firm and
treatment stok price
of workers
By group norms, contributed to motivation and performance. If Group norms and organizational culture incentive to high performance and high motivation, the employee will feel to work harder. On the contrary, If the employee alienate from group and culture, they will show low motivation and as a result of this, emerges lower individual performance and output. Managers motivates all employees, improves their employees’ abilities, provides positive work environment and culture. In this way, they contribute to employees’ motivation and performance (DuBrin, 2009, p. 373).
3.5. Motivation and Leadership
Motivation is things that affects behaviour in achieving definite results. Motivating others is hard and cause time consuming because it is motivate each follower based on a personel basis. If you want to be successful and achieve your company goals, you need to motivate yourself and others. Namely, to motivate yourself and others is a critical personal characteristic for your success as a leader( Lussier and Achua, 2007, p.74).
3.6. Commitment
3.6.1. The definion of Commitment
The concept of commitment has received intense interest and popularity in the literature of organizational behavior, industrial and organizational psychology. There are several reasons why the relevance of the topic is high. One reason is that organizational commitment understands the workforce as better than job satisfaction. It is also anticipated that organizations with higher levels of commitment will have a higher level of performance and productivity, and lower levels of absenteeism and job delays (Cohen, 2003, p.18, quoted Doğan 2013; p.65). People who have commitment feel to belong themselves of something and become motivated to maintain this bond (Malley, 2000, p.27-28, quoted Doğan, 2013, p.66). In the majority of research conducted on the relationship between employee loyalty and workplace productivity and intent to leave the workplace. Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979) first described organizational commitment that the emotional commitment to employees' organizations as they perceived their values and their intentions. In other research,
model covering these two types of ties. First type of commitment, emotional attachment; And the second type of commitment is defined as continuing commitment. Later, this model was first introduced by Weiner and Vardi in the normative or moral. They have added a third dimension which is defined as loyalty. Normative loyalty occurs when one sees work as a task in the organization and feels that it is right to show commitment to the organization (Wasti, 2000, p.401; quoted Doğan, 2013, p.66).
3.6.2. Commitment Strategies
Total quality management (TQM) have shown effectiveness in determing commitment. This is created by their systematic and obvious objectivity, quality standarts and project management. Commitment is reinforced that brief employees and management’s quality levels. The measures that must be included in the commitment programs are: Communication, Education, Ownership, emotional identification, performance, rewards and employment contracts (Price, 2004, p.239).
Communication: It is determining of organizations’s strategy and any
changes. Employees want to know why their decisions are taken and understand before implementation. They should be encouraged to make contributions with their ideas and experiences
Education: When changes in new technology are done, an appropriate training education program should be planned to employees. Training should be construct commitment and respect to managers.
Ownership: While implementing specific actions, commitment is promoted by including employees in decision making process.
Emotional identification: It refers to enthusiasm. This could be created by accepting and promoting responsibility and aware of hard work and results.
Performance: Performance evaluation and award patterns must be focus on commitment.
