■tt Λ . Γ · 3 ' r * Í $ ■ f';. Щ f. Λ - Ψ ‘fı^ :іГ * Ä '· >·'. ) v ^ ' j - Ή r ^ · y,f^-‘ .{Ч .. ,1.3 ·?'·'^·^^-;! » л ^ яУ*-4 ^ I h i T i I P l f p r v ^ ÿ ’^4» ¿ !M ¿ '^t. ¿U*» й } .уч ^ ^ '.■. ^ . ""’^ ’i " ' ■, ^‘,’»*·.· . f |* |s f •Mtt ; w , . . a ?{ M ,- ¿ fit * . ·· ., , i'*y, „■•■.Ч ·■· . ,;. ·’ , « / ■.-■ >\*^-.,t ia “ ;■■ ■·*·■.. ''.■:· ,ÿ ' / ‘v , '".Я (W ;. .",» , · '<Τ>. V ''•’•^*'· /•‘tii “t«: ■'''•i ^ ? ■’? ?*^Ό. . .4 ■*■ sw*·*’ 4· *1 *·*>;< ^M'ii ώ W *ч#іУ' ¿ * « **, >'*'·.. «г» .->i^,···*^ ,f k \ ?. V .:' У· *’ ‘'ll- V**''·'· V ■*' i :' J '·*· Λέ t í ¿ *♦ ^ '# li» ^ L» 'íw*^
S E C O N D R E P U B L I C D E B A T E S IN T U R K E Y A Thes i s Su b mi t t e d to t he D e p a r t m e n t o f Pol i t i cal Sc i e n c e a n d Publ i c Ad mi n i s t r a t i o n o f Bi l ke nt Un i v e r s i t y
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1 cer t i f y t hat I have r ead this t hesi s and in my o p i n i o n it is fully
a d e q u a t e , in s c o p e and in qual i t y, as a t hes i s for t he d e g r e e o f Ma s t e r o f Ar t s in Pol i t i cal Sc i e n c e and Publ i c Ad mi n i s t r a t i o n ,
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I cer t i f y t hat 1 have r ead this t hes i s and in my o p i n i o n it is fully
a d e q u a t e , in s c o p e and in qual i t y, as a t hes i s for t he d e g r e e o f Ma s t e r o f Ar t s in Pol i t i cal Sc i e n c e and Publ i c Ad mi n i s t r a t i o n .
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1 cer t i f y t hat I have r ead this t hes i s and in my o p i n i o n it is fully
a d e q u a t e , in s c o p e and in qual i t y, as a t hes i s for t he d e g r e e o f Ma s t e r o f Art s in Pol i t i cal Sc i e n c e and Publ i c Ad mi n i s t r a t i o n .
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Thi s s t udy ai ms at a n a l y z i n g t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c d e b a t e s in T u r k e y in t he ear l y 1990s whi c h are i mp o r t a n t in d e t e r mi n i n g t he c o n t o u r s o f its d e mo c r a t i z a t i o n pr oce s s .
Th e cr ux o f t he f o l l o wi n g s t udy is to a n a l y z e t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c d e b a t e s in Tu r k e y and to s i t ua t e t he m in d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y . The S e c o n d Re publ i c d e b a t e s can be a p p r o a c h e d f r om t he v i e w p o i n t s o f t wo di f f e r e n t c u r r e n t s o f i deas e mb r a c i n g R o u s s e a u e a n and L o c k e a n e l e me nt s , f h e c o n c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a r e p u b l i c and a d e mo c r a c y is also a n a l y z e d in this t hesi s. Th e d i f f e r e n t vi ews p r e s e n t e d by t he t wo g r o u p s ( pr o ve r s us a n t i - S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s ) are s i t ua t e d wi t hi n d e mo c r a t i c t h e o r y as well as a n a l y z e d u n d e r f our mai n h e a d i n g s ; pol i t i cal , e c o n o mi c , fiscal and soci al . Th e pr o- S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s di spl ay a mo r e L o c k e a n i ssue o r i e n t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , wh e r e t he a n t i - S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s ar e mo r e R o u s s e a u e a n e mp h a s i z i n g t he need to p r e s e r v e t he e xi s t i ng e ga l i t a r i a n pol i t i cal c u l t u r e in Tur ke y.
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Bu ç al ı ş ma doks a nl ı yı l l arı n b a ş ı n d a T ü r k i y e ' n i n d e mo k r a t i k l e ş me s ür eci ni (ayin e t me k t e öne ml i yeri ol an İ ki nci C u mh u r i y e t t a r t ı ş ma l a r ı n ı i nc e l e me yi a ma ç l a mı ş t ı r .
Bu ç a l ı ş ma nı n ana hedef i İki nci C u mh u r i y e t t a r t ı ş ma l a r ı n ı i n c e l e me k ve onl ar ı d e mo k r a s i t eor i si i çi ne y e r l e ş t i r me k t i r . İ ki nci Cu mh u r i y e t t ar t ı ş ma l a r ı iki deği ş i k fi kir a k ı mı n a g ö r e İ n c e l e n me k l e d i r . Bu n l a r Ro u s s e a u ' c u ve Lo c k e ' c u o k u l l a r d ı r . Bu t e z d e c u mh u r i y e t ve d e mo k r a s i a r a s ı n d a ki k a v r a ms a l f ar k l ı l ı k l a r da i nc e l e nmi ş t i r . İki gr up t a r a f ı n d a n öne s ür ül e n de ğ i ş i k f i ki r l er hem d e mo k r a s i t eor i si i çi ne ye r l e ş t i r i l mi ş hem de pol i t i k e k o n o m i k ve sosyal ol ma k üz e r e üç ana başl ı k a l t ı nda i n c e l e n mi ş t i r .
ACKNOWLEDGEI VI EN TS
1 a c k n o w l e d g e t he c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f Pr of . Me t i n I l e p e r wh o r ead and e x p r e s s e d his va l ua bl e o p i n i o n s a b o u t t he e a r l i e r d r af t and e q u i p p e d me wi t h a c a d e mi c di s ci pl i ne. I al so mus t e x p r e s s my de ep o b l i g a t i o n to Dr. Ays e Ka d i o g l u wh o has s p e n t a lot o f t i me r e a d i n g and c r i t i c i z i n g t his st udy. In a d d i t i o n , I mus t al so t h a n k my f ami l y for t he mor a l s u p p o r t t hey have p r o v i d e d to me t h r o u g h o u t t he st udy.
C h a p t e r 1 Cl i apt er 2 T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S Introduction D e mo c r a c y 2.1 L o c k e a n De mo c r a c y 2. 2 R o u s s e a u e a n D e m o c r a c y 2. 3 D e m o c r a c y ve r s us Re p u b l i c 2. 4 The L o c k e a n and R o u s s e a u e a n E l e me n t s in S e c o n d Re p u b l i c A r g u me n t s A. Ar g u me n t s for a S e c o n d Re p u b l i c B. A r g u me n t s a ga i ns t a S e c o n d R e p u b l i c C h a p t e r 3 A r g u me n t s for a S e c o n d Re p u b l i c 3.1 The Pol i t i cal As p e c t s
3. 2 Th é Ec o n o l n i c As| ) ect s 3.3 The Fi scal As p e c t s 3. 4 Th e Soci al A s |) e c t
C h a p t e r 4 A r g u me n t s a ga i ns t a S e c o n d Re p u b l i c 4.1 The Pol i t i cal As p e c t s
4. 2 The E c o n o m i c As p e c t s 4. 3 The Fi scal As p e c t s 4. 4 Th e Soci al As pe c t C h a p t e r 5 Bi b l i o g r a p h y Co n c l u s i o n
C H A P T E R 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
Wh e n v i e we d f r om t he p e r s p e c t i v e s o f L o c k e a n and R o u s s e a u e a n s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t , t he pol i t i cal c u l t u r e t r a d i t i o n in T u r k e y has mai nl y c o n t a i n e d R o u s s e a u e a n f e a t u r e s . It has a l wa y s be en an e g a l i t a r i a n one, e mp h a s i z i n g t he i n t e r e s t s o f t he s t at e and t he well bei ng o f t he over al l s oc i e t y s u p e r i o r to t hat o f t he si ngl e i ndi vi dual s . Th e pol i t i cal e n v i r o n m e n t in T u r k e y was s h a p e d by t his R o u s s e a u e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . In t his t hesi s, t he ai m is to a n a l y z e t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c d e b a t e s in Tu r k e y , and to s i t u a t e t he m in d e mo c r a t i c t heor y. Th e rise o f S e c o n d Re p u b l i c d e b a t e s b e c a me a ri val to t he exi s t i ng e ga l i t a r i a n pol i t i cal c ul t ur e .
T h e r e are mai nl y t wo di f f e r e nt p e r s p e c t i v e s wi t hi n l i beral d e mo c r a t i c t h e o r y , each bas ed on v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f e mp h a s i s on t he r e l a t i on b e t we e n t he s t at e and t he i ndi vi dual . Di f f e r e n t vi e ws we r e p r e s e n t e d on t he r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n t he s t at e and t he i n d i v i d u a l s in l i ber al d e mo c r a t i c t h o u g h t . Th e s e ar e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t he d i f f e r e n c e s b e t we e n L o c k e a n and R o u s s e a u e a n s c h o o l s . Th e L o c k e a n s c hool e mp h a s i z e s t he i mp o r t a n c e o f equal i t y, i ndi vi dua l f r e e d o m, g o v e r n m e n t bas ed u p o n on t he c o n s e n t o f t he g o v e r n e d and t he i mp o r t a n c e o f p u t t i n g l i mi t a t i ons u p o n t he st at e.
In Lo c k e ' s vi ew t he i ndi vi dua l s have t wo ma j o r r i ght s . T h e s e ar e s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n and t he r i ght to have pr i va t e p r o p e r t y . L o c k e gi ves s peci al e mp h a s i s to pr i vat e p r o p e r t y . He r e d u c e d an i ndi vi dua l s r i ght onl y to pr i vat e p r o p e r t y . But he put s t wo l i mi t a t i ons on this r i ght . He c o n s t r u c t s his l i mi t a t i o n s f r om a
t h e o l o g i c a l angl e. Th e first one is to l eave o t h e r s e n o u g h p r o p e r t y ( t he ear t h was gi ven, by God, to p e o p l e in c o m m o n ) ; and t he s e c o n d one is to avoi d a n y t h i n g to be s poi l ed ( Go d ' s g r a n t was to ma k e use o f t he ear t h not to al l ow it to r o t ) . '
L o c k e be l i eve s t hat , in t he p r o c e s s o f c o n s t i t u t i n g a g o v e r n m e n t t he de c i s i o n is not t a ke n c o n c u r r e n t l y but by t he r a t i ona l par t o f t he s oc i et y whi c h o wn s p r o p e r t y . Th e g o v e r n m e n t s ' r ol e a c c o r d i n g to Lo c k e , is l i mi t ed onl y to c e r t a i n t as ks l i ke t he d e f e n s e and t he we l f a r e o f t he s oci et y.
On e c o n o mi c as pec t s , t he L o c k e a n l i ber al d e m o c r a c y is s h a p e d by t he i deas o f t he ut i l i t ar i an s c h o o l o f J e r e my B e n t h a m and J a me s Mill. Th e ut i l i t ar i an s c hool has d e v e l o p e d t he t h e o r y o f " e c o n o m i c man" , wh o we r e in s e a r c h f or ma x i mi z i n g p l e a s u r e and mi n i mi z i n g pai n. Th e y c o n s t r u c t e d a t h e o r y in wh i c h a l i mi t ed s t a t e wo u l d al l ow c i t i ze ns to run af t er t h^i r own i nt e r es t s . Th e u t i l i t a r i a n s b e c a me e x p o n e n t s o f e c o n o mi c i nd i v i d u a l i s m t hat is c a p i t a l i s m.
Du r i n g n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Lo c k e ' s t h e o r y o f c o n s e n t and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t we r e b r o a d e n e d , h o w e v e r , t he t h e o r y o f e c o n o mi c i n di vi dua l i s m has f aced many c r i t i ci s ms . Wh i l e p u t t i n g o v e r - e mp h a s i s on i n d i vi dua l i s m, Lo c k e ' s t h e o r y n e g l e c t s s h a r e d val ues. I nge r s ol l and Ma t t h e w s ma k e a g o o d s u mma r y o f L o c k e a n t h e o r y ;
He r e t hen is a b r i e f s k e t c h o f t he a t t r i b u t e s o f h u ma n i t y in its na t ur a l c o n d i t i o n : f r ee to p u r s u e ends ; r e l a t i v e l y e qual ; p o s s e s s e d o f r i ght s t hat are not s ubj e c t to t he a u t h o r i t y o f any o t h e r h u ma n bei ng; and a b o v e all, d e p e n d e n t onl y u p o n t h e ms e l v e s , or God, for t hei r e x i s t e n c e . O f p a r t i c u l a r not e in
t he l i beral c o n c e p t o f t he na t ur a l h u ma n c o n d i t i o n is wh a t mo d e r n soci al t h e o r i s t s wo u l d call t he l ack o i s h a r e d v a l u e s . -Th e mai n cr i t i ci s m t o wa r d s L o c k e a n s c h o o l c a me f r o m a F r e n c h p h i l o s o p h e r J ean J ack Ro u s s e a u . Th e w o r k s o f R o u s s e a u l at er b e c a me an a l t e r n a t i v e s c h o o l in l i ber al i s m.
Ro u s s e a u whi l e c o n s t r u c t i n g his t h e o r y , put s e mp h a s i s on t he l ar ge pol i t i cal and soci al cos t s o f mo d e r n ma r k e t s o c i e t i e s . He c o n s t r u c t e d a t h e o r y in whi c h he wi s he s a mo r e e g a l i t a r i a n pol i t i cal c o mmu n i t y t hat is less s ubj e ct to t he n e v e r - e n d i n g c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f t he ma r ke t .
In Ro u s s e a u ' s opi n i o n , e c o n o mi c i ne qua l i t y and cl ass di vi s i o n s d e v e l o p e d b e t we e n t hos e wh o own and t h o s e wh o do not own p r o p e r t y whi c h p r e s u me d a ge n e r a l c o n d i t i o n o f wa r b e t we e n i ndi vi dual s . The rich de vi s ed a cl e ver s c h e me i nt o e s t a b l i s h i n g a s t at e to p r o t e c t t he p r o p e r t y o f t he ri ch. In R o u s s e a u ' s vi ew, " The p r o j e c t was t he c r e a t i o n of a s o c i a l c o n l r a c t to p r o t e c t t he ri ch f r om t he p o o r in t he na me for j u s t i c e for a 11".^
In Ro u s s e a u ' s o p i n i o n t he mo d e r n p e r s o n is an a l i e n a t e d c r e a t u r e t hat a g r e e d to es t abl i s h a s t at e b e l i e v i n g t hat it wo u l d b r i n g t hem f r e e d o m, i ns t ead t hey have c r e a t e d cl ass i n e q u a l i t y and t he r ul e o f t he ri ch for t h e ms e l v e s . Ro u s s e a u a r g u e d t ha t a m o d e r a t e e q u a l i t y o f p r o p e r t y is n e c e s s a r y to c r e a t e a h a r m o n i o u s s oc i et y. T h e r e f o r e in his o p i n i o n t he g o v e r n m e n t s houl d f u n c t i o n to p r e v e n t i n d i v i d u a l s f r om e x t r e me i ne qua l i t y o f f o r t u n e s . Th e r ol e o f t he g o v e r n m e n t is to ma k e l egi s l at i on and fi ght a g a i n s t cl ass i n e q u a l i t i e s and ma k e p r o p e r t y l e gi s l a t i ons to r e d i s t r i b u t e we a l t h.
Ro u s s e a u is a ga i ns t t he l ack o f f r e e d o m wh i c h c a pi t a l i s t e c o n o mi c r e l a t i o n s has c r e a t e d. In his o p i n i o n t he f r e e d o m o f one cl ass o f t he c i t i zens is b o u g h t by a n o t h e r cl ass. T h e r e f o r e he be l i eve s t hat in o r d e r to s e c u r e f r e e d o m e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y is a mus t and ever y i ndi vi dua l s houl d have l i mi t ed p r o p e r t y to be f r ee in t he s oci et y.
R o u s s e a u bel i eve s t hat in a d d i t i o n to l i mi t ed p r o p e r t y , t he i n di vi dua l s ar e onl y f r ee if t hey obey a l aw t hat t hey p r e s c r i b e for t h e ms e l v e s . T h e r e f o r e Ro u s s e a u r ej ect s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t . Un d e r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t p e o p l e will onl y be f r ee wh e n t hey vot e. Af t e r wa r d s , t hei r f r e e d o m will be t r a n s f e r r e d to t h o s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
Ro u s s e a u is a l i beral d e mo c r a t as he wa n t s a ki nd o f s o c i e t y wh e r e e v e r y o n e mus t have an equal c h a n c e to d e v e l o p . In a d d i t i o n he be l i eve s t hat d e mo c r a c y is' an e l e c t o r a l me c h a n i s m wh e r e b y i ndi vi dua l s ( not t hei r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ) di s c us s and vot e on publ i c pol i cy.
In Tu r k e y , t he c o n s o l i d a t i o n p e r i o d o f a l i ber al d e m o c r a c y in t he We s t e r n s e ns e has not c o me to an end. Si nce 1946, wh e n t he first c o mp e t i t i v e e l e c t i o n s we r e u n d e r t a k e n , t he p r o c e s s o f d e mo c r a t i z a t i o n has al ways been har d and pai nf ul . Th e c o s t s o f t he p r o c e s s we r e pai d by t he c i t i zens , in wh i c h t h r e e mi l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s (in 1971 t he r ul i ng p o w e r was left in t he h a n d s o f t he ci vi l i ans ) had vi ol a t e d bas i c h u ma n r i ght s and l i ber t i es.
As a c o u n t r y t r yi ng to gi ve bi rt h to d e mo c r a c y , ' f u r k e y faced many di f f i cul t i es t o wa r d s t aki ng part in t he d e m o c r a t i c wo r l d . Wi t h t he d e mo c r a t i z a t i o n p r oc e s s , di f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i e s b e g a n to be
d i s c us s e d in t he soci et y. Wi t h c o mp e t i t i v e e l e c t i o n s , af t er At a t u r k ' s and s i ngl e pa r t y r egi mes ' rul e, many pa r t i es ar e f o r me d on t he left and r i ght o f t he pol i t i cal s p e c t r u m. In a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i me t hey al so g a i n e d publ i c s u p p o r t .
Wi t h left and r i ght i d e o l o g i e s f i ndi ng s u p p o r t a m o n g t he mas s es , a p l a t f o r m o f d e b a t e was c r e a t e d . A wi de r a n g e o f i ssues f r om pol i t i cs to e c o n o mi c s ever y i ssue has t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n f r eel y d i s c us s e d whi l e e x c l u d i n g t he Kur di s h p r o b l e m, t he u n i t a r y s t at e model o f Tu r k e y and c r i t i ci s ms t o wa r d s t he Ke ma l i s t r e publ i c . T h e s e ar e vi e we d as t a b o o s by t he mas ses.
Be f o r e 1960s t he .main c l e a v a g e in T u r k e y was t he c e n t e r - p e r i p h e r y c l e a v a g e . Wi t h t he rise o f d e mo c r a t i z a t i o n t he c l e a v a g e s be g a n to be mo r e i ssue o r i e n t e d . In t he p o s t - 1980 er a wi t h a mo r e l i beral a p p r o a c h t hat Ozal has b r o u g h t , t he t a b o o s ha ve s t a r t e d to be q u e s t i o n e d in Tu r k e y . The me d i u m led to t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a r g u me n t s .
In t his t hesi s, a full pi c t u r e o f t he d e b a t e o f S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a r g u me n t s will be p r e s e n t e d whi l e f o c u s i n g on t he s p e c i f i c vi e ws o f t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s and t hei r o p p o n e n t s . Bo t h g r o u p s c o n s i s t o f pol i t i ci ans , j o u r n a l i s t s and pol i t i cal sci ent i s t s .
The vi ews o f bot h Se c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s and t hei r o p p o n e n t s will be p r e s e n t e d mai nl y u n d e r pol i t i cal , e c o n o mi c , fi scal and s oci al c a t e g o r i e s . The p r o p o n e n t s are i d e o l o g i c a l l y l i ber al s. Th e a r g u m e n t f ound s u p p o r t e r s a mo n g old Ma r x i s t s and Ma r x i s t r e v i s i o n i s t s wh i c h t o d a y ga ve up Ma r x i s m and b e c a me l i ber al s as d e f e n d e r s o f c api t a l i s m. The na t i o n a l i s t s wh o have j o i n e d t he Na t i o n a l i s t Ac t i o n Pa r t y in t he p r e - 1 9 8 0 era and s o me r el i gi ous f u n d a me n t a l i s t s are also
in t his g r o u p . Th e S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s will be r e f e r r e d as t he p r o g r o u p .
Th e o p p o n e n t s ar e not in f a vor o f a l i ber al c a p i t a l i s t s oc i et y. Th e y ar e al so Ma r xi s t s , but mo v e d t o wa r d s D e m o c r a t i c So c i a l i s m. Th e y cl ai m to be d i e h a r d Kemal i st s. ' · Th e y r e p r e s e n t t he r e f o r mi s t s e c t i on o f t he s oc i et y whi l e t he pr o g r o u p are r e v o l u t i o n a r y in t hei r i deas. Thi s Ke mal i s t g r o u p is not a ga i ns t c h a n g e , t hey ar e r e f o r mi s t s wh e n c o mp a r e d to t he pro g r o u p . f h e s e o p p o n e n t s o f t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c will be r e f e r r e d as t he a n l i g r o u p .
Th e first c h a p t e r o f t he essay will p r o v i d e t he t h e o r e t i c a l basi s p r e s e n t i n g t he vi ews o f t he L o c k e a n and R o u s s e a u e a n s c h o o l s o f l i ber al t h o u g h t . The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t we e n t hes e t wo s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t and t hei r p r o j e c t i o n s on t he vi ews o f t he p r o p o n e n t s and t he o p p o n e n t s o f t he Se c o n d Re p u b l i c will al so be p r e s e n t e d . Bot h g r o u p s di s pl ay L o c k e a n and R o u s s e a u e a n f e a t u r e s whi l e d e f e n d i n g t hei r a r g u me n t s . T h e r e f o r e , n e i t h e r o f t he m can be i d e n t i f i e d as pur e l y L o c k e a n or R o u s s e a u e a n . Th e s a me c h a p t e r will al so s e r v e to cl ar i f y t he c o n c e p t s o f d e m o c r a c y and r e p u b l i c . The s e c o n d c h a p t e r is an o v e r v i e w o f t he t hes i s o f t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s whi l e e mp h a s i z i n g v a r i o u s i ssues as t ool s o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e r e are ei ght pol i t i cal i ssues na me l y, a f u n c t i o n i n g p a r l i a me n t , t he d e b a t e s ove r mi l i t ar y p o t e n c y , s e c u l a r i s m, r ul e o f l aw, d e - c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , pr e s i de nt i a l s ys t em, t he c o n s t i t u t i o n and cr i t i c i s ms t o wa r d s Ke ma l i s t i de ol ogy. The e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f t he d e b a t e c ons i s t o f f e we r i ssues na me l y, a smal l s t at e, p r o d u c t i v i t y . The fiscal a s pe c t is t he tax c o l l e c t i o n s ys t em in Tu r k e y . And l ast l y, t he soci al a s p e c t s i nc l ude t he i ssues o f t he e d u c a t i o n s ys t e m and t he
heal t h s ys t em. The pr o g r o u p is mai nl y i n t e r e s t e d in a f u n c t i o n i n g p a r l i a me n t , t he d e b a t e s o v e r mi l i t ar y p o t e n c y and on e c o n o m i c i ssues. In t hei r o p i n i o n , a t ot al t r a n s f o r ma t i o n o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s will gi ve T u r k e y an o p p o r t u n i y to have a p r e s t i g i o u s p o s i t i o n in t he f r ee wor l d.
The t hi r d c h a p t e r will pr e s e n t t he vi ews o f t he anti g r o u p by u s i ng t he s a me me t h o d . The f ocus o f t he ant i g r o u p is mai nl y on t he i ssues o f d e - c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , s e c u l a r i s m, and c r i t i c i s ms t o w a r d s Ke ma l i s t i de ol ogy. 7' heir mai n a p p r o a c h is to p r e s e r v e t he Ke ma l i s t , u n i t a r y and s e c ul a r f e a t u r e s o f t he . r epubl i c. Th e anti g r o u p al so ma ke s c r i t i ci s ms t o wa r d s t he i d e o l o g i c a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f t he pr o g r o u p .
Th e last c h a p t e r will p r e s e n t t he c o n c l u s i o n s . A c o mp a r i s o n o f t he t wo g r o u p s ' o p i n i o n s on t he a b o v e s t at ed c a t e g o r i e s will be c o n v e y e d , and t hei r R o u s s e a u e a n and L o c k e a n f e a t u r e s will be expl a i ne d.
T h e r e are also o t h e r g r o u p s wh o are in f a v o r o f a s e c o n d r e publ i c wi t h o u t gi vi ng it a na me , h o we v e r , t his essay d o e s not c o n t a i n t he i deas o f all t he c r i t i que s o f t he Ke ma l i s t republic-^. Th e y can be t he s ubj e ct o f a n o t h e r t hesi s.
^ Ingcrsoll Dnvicl E. and Mallhcws Richard A., The Philosophic Roots ofhkolop^v ( New Jersey, United Slates: Prentice Hall, 1986).
^ Ingersoll David E. and Matthews Richard A., 'The Philosophic Roots o f Ideology ( New Jersey, United States: Prentice Hall, 1986).
^ Ibid., p.46.
^ This statement does not mean that all Kemalisls are Marxists, but the group referred here arc old
Marxists claiming themselves as being Kcmalists.
^ These groups are mainly the religious fundcmentalisls in favor of a sharia based stale organizi\lion in Turkey, Kurdish nationalists in favor of a federation and the followers of Turgul O/iU who believe in a presidential system and a democracy in an American sense.
C H A P T E R 2 D E M O C R A C Y " D e mo c r a c y l i t eral l y me a ns t he g o v e r n m e n t o f t he p e o p l e . It c o me s f r om t he Gr e e k wo r d d e m o s , p e opl e , and k r a i o s , g o v e r n m e n t or po we r . Th e c o n c e p t d e v e l o p e d first in t he smal l Gr e e k ci t y- s t at es, and t he At h e n i a n d e mo c r a c y is wh a t we a l wa ys go b a c k to as t he pr i nci pal earl y e x a mp l e . " '
Th e g r e a t At h e n i a n s t a t e s ma n , Pe r i c kl e s , has put f o r w a r d f our mai n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d e mo c r a c y : - (1 ) G o v e r n m e n t by t he p e o p l e wi t h t he full and di r ec t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t he p e opl e . ( 2 ) E q u a l i t y b e f o r e t he law. ( 3 ) Pl u r a l i s m- t h a t is, r e s p e c t for all t al ent s , p u r s u i t s and vi ew poi nt s . ( 4 ) Re s p e c t for a s e p a r a t e and p r i v a t e ( a s o p p o s e d to p u b l i c ) d o ma i n for f ul f i l l ment and e x p r e s s i o n o f an i ndi v i d u a l ' s p e r s ona l i t y.
Th e s e f our r ul es we r e t he c o r n e r s t o n e s o f ear l y d e m o c r a c y o f At he ns , whi c h l at er d i s a p p e a r e d .
C o n t e m p o r a r y d e mo c r a t i c t h o u g h t g o e s ba c k to s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y and even ear l i er . The f eudal p r a c t i c e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y r i ght s, t he f r e e d o m to p u r s u e i ndi vi dua l e c o n o mi c v e n t u r e s , t he r e l i gi ous war s , t h e o r i e s a b o u t n a t u r a l l aws and r i ght s and n o t i o n s on p u t t i n g l i mi t a t i o n s on pol i t i cal a u t h o r i t i e s we r e t he r o o t s o f d e mo c r a t i c t h o u g h t .
Th e first c o r n e r s t one s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y d e mo c r a c y we r e e x p r e s s e d by t he Engl i s h p h i l o s o p h e r J ohn L o c k e in t he s e v e n t e e n t h c ent ur y. Th e s e we r e: e qual i t y, i ndi vi dua l f r e e d o m, g o v e r n m e n t
bas ed u p o n t he c o n s e n t o f tlie g o v e r n e d and l i mi t a t i o n s u p o n t he st at e. His t h e o r i e s led to t he d e v e l o p me n t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and p a r l i a me n t a r y g o v e r n me n t . ^
Ad d i t i o n a l a r g u me n t s , as i mp o r t a n t as L o c k e ' s , c a m e f r om Ad a m Smi t h. In t he first h a l f o f t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y he and his c o l l e a g u e s ( l at er on cal l ed t he ut i l i t a r i an s c h o o l ) d e v e l o p e d t he t h e o r y o f t he " e c o n o mi c man" dr i ven by t he t wi n i mp u l s e , to ma x i mi z e p l e a s u r e and to mi n i mi z e pai n. Th e y c o n s t r u c t e d a t h e o r y in whi c h a l i mi t ed s t at e wou l d al l ow c i t i zens to run a f t er t hei r own i nt er es t s . The ut i l i t a r i ans b e c a me e x p o n e n t s o f e c o n o m i c i n di vi dua l i s m t hat is capi t al i s m. ' '
Du r i n g t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Lo c k e ' s t h e o r y o f c o n s e n t and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t we r e b r o a d e n e d , h o w e v e r , t he t h e o r y o f e c o n o mi c i n d i vi dua l i s m f aced many c r i t i ci s ms . Th e w o r k s o f t he Fr e n c h p h i l o s o p h e r J ean J a c k Ro u s s e a u , b r o a d e n e d t he t h e o r y o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n so as to i ncl ude e v e r y b o d y . Th e r ol e o f t he s t a t e was r e - i mp o s e d to f avor mo r e i n t e r v e n t i o n in e c o n o m i c and s oci al ma t t e r s for t he p r o t e c t i o n o f t he ol d, t he u n e mp l o y e d , t he y o u n g and many o t h e r d i s - a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s in a s o c i e t y . “' Wi t h R o u s s e a u , for t he first t i me, t he not i on o f a p o s i t i v e s t a t e a p p e a r e d , one t hat act s to of f er soci al s e r vi ce s and g u a r a n t e e e c o n o m i c r i ght s f or its ci t i zens . Fi nal l y, b e g i n n i n g in t he t we n t i e t h c e n t u r y and c a r r i e d to p r e s e nt , s oci al i s t s and d e mo c r a t s a s ked to i mp r o v e t he c o n c e p t o f t he Pos i t i ve St a t e and ar r i ved at t he c o n c e p t o f t he W e l f a r e S t a t e / ' " Thus , in d i s c u s s i n g d e mo c r a c y as an i d e o l o g y , we ar e d e a l i n g wi t h a ver y ri ch and c o mp r e h e n s i v e body o f t h o u g h t and a c t i o n - o n e t ha t has
u n d e r g o n e shi ft s and c h a n g e s in t he past t h r e e c e n t u r i e s and has p r o d u c e d a g r e a t var i et y o f pol i t i cal mo v e me n t s . ’
In t he fi rst par t o f t his c h a p t e r , t he d i f f e r e n c e s and s i mi l a r i t i e s b e t we e n t he L o c k e a n and R o u s s e a u e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f d e m o c r a c y will be di s c us s e d. In t he s e c o n d par t o f t he c h a p t e r t he p r o - s e c o n d r e publ i c and a ga i ns t s e c o n d r e publ i c t h o u g h t s will be d i s c u s s e d in t he l i ght o f t he R o u s s e a u e a n and L o c k e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . In t he final par t o f t he c h a p t e r t he de f i ni t i on o f t he c o n c e p t s o f r e p u b l i c and d e mo c r a c y will be gi ven and t hei r r el a t i on to t he s e c o n d r e p u b l i c a r g u me n t s will be di s c us s e d.
2.1 L O C K E A N D E M O C R A C Y
J ohn L o c k e ( 1632-1 7 0 4 ) wa s an Engl i s h p h i l o s o p h e r , p h y s i c i a n , and a s t u d e n t o f pol i t i cs wh o is· wi del y r e g a r d e d as t he f o u n d e r o f l i ber al d e mo c r a t i c t h o u g h t . In L o c k e ' s t h o u g h t all p e o p l e pos s e s c er t ai n nat ur a l r i ght s , whi c h t hey hol d p r i o r to t hei r s o c i e t y or g o v e r n m e n t by vi r t ue o f t he f act t hat all p e o p l e are c r e a t e d by god. Pe o p l e are seen as di s t i nct l y i ndi vi dua l , f ree, equal and p o s s e s s i n g c er t ai n na t ur a l r i ght s. *
F o l l o wi n g Ho b b e s , Lo c k e also used a s t at e o f n a t u r e a r g u m e n t to expl ai n his t heor y. In his u n d e r s t a n d i n g Lo c k e f i nds s t at e o f n a t u r e to be a s t at e o f wa r and he a s s u me s t hat p e o p l e wo u l d l ike to r e mo v e t h e ms e l v e s f r om t his c o n d i t i o n :
To avoi d this St at e o f Wa r . . . i s one g r e a t r e a s o n o f Me n' s p u t t i n g t h e ms e l v e s i nt o s o c i e t y , a n d q u i t t i n g t he St a t e o f N a t u r e . ’
L o c k e a r g u e d t hat , tliere we r e mor al o b l i g a t i o n s p r e s e n t in t he s t at e o f n a t u r e t hat ( eve n in t he a b s e n c e o f a g o v e r n m e n t ) r e q u i r e d h u ma n s to r e s p e c t t he r i ght s o f ot her s . Thi s p r i mi t i v e s o c i e t y was c r e a t e d by t he God as tlie s o v e r e i g n . L o c k e f i nds t hi s t h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g hel pf ul in t he e c o n o mi c basi s o f his a r g u m e n t as wel l. He be l i eve d t hat , t he e ar t h was gi ven to p e o p l e , ma n k i n d in c o mm o n . S e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n and t he r i ght to have pr i va t e p r o p e r t y was t hei r mai n na t ur a l r i ght de r i ve d f r om di vi ne a u t h o r i t y . L o c k e d e d u c e d an i ndi vi dua l s nat ur a l r i ght onl y to p r o p e r t y . He put t wo l i mi t a t i o n s on t hi s ri ght : (1) an i ndi vi dual mus t l eave e n o u g h p r o p e r t y for t he ot he r s ; and (2) an i ndi vi dual mus t not a l l ow a n y t h i n g to rot. T h e r e f o r e , ob e y i n g t he s t at ed r e s t r i c t i o n s an i nd i v i d u a l c oul d a c c u mu l a t e as much p r o p e r t y as he can in wh i c h he has put his l a bor in. I f a p e r s o n i nves t s l abor in s o me t h i n g he has t he r i ght o f o wn e r s h i p .
Wi t h t he i nvent i on, oI mone y, t he h u ma n i t y u n a n i mo u s l y a g r e e d to modi f y t he r ul es o f t he or i gi na l s i t ua t i on. T h e y a g r e e to use mo n e y as a me d i u m o f e x c h a n g e . It c r e a t e s less s p o i l a g e a c c o r d i n g to Lo c k e , be c a us e ; gol d and si l ver do not spoi l . G o o d s still c oul d not be p e r mi t t e d to spoi l but wi t h t he i n v e n t i o n o f mo n e y t his mi l e s t o n e s hi f t ed f r om t he p r o d u c e r to t he c o n s u m e r . "
L o c k e has t wo final vi ews on p r o p e r t y . He a s s u me s t hat it is na t ur a l for i ndi vi dua l s to sell t hei r l a bor to o t he r s . Th e i ndi vi dua l doe s " . . . t he s e r vi c e he u n d e r t a k e s in e x c h a n g e f or wa g e s he is to
receive.">2 The o wn e r s h i p r i ght is also t r a n s f e r r e d to t he b u y e r as a
a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h botli di r ect , pe r s o n a l l abor , or t l i r ough i ndi r e c t , p u r c h a s e d l abor .
Th e s e c o n d poi nt c o n c e r n i n g p r o p e r t y is Lo c k e ' s a s s u mp t i o n o f qu a l i t a t i v e l y di f f e r e n t l evel s of r a t i ona l i t y in pe o p l e . A c c o r d i n g to hi m s o me p e o p l e are i n d u s t r i o u s and r at i onal ; o t h e r s are q u a r r e l s o m e and c o n t e n t i o u s . In his S e c o n d T r e a t i s e , he f u r t h e r e x p l a i n s t he c o n c e p t ;
He ( God) ' ^ gave it to t he use o f t he I n d u s t r i o u s and Ra t i o n a l . . . ; not to t he Fa nc y or C o v e t o u s n e s s o f t he Q u a r r e l s o m e and Co n t e n t i o u s .
T h e r e f o r e s ome p e o p l e are a c t i ng in c o n f o r mi t y wi t h na t u r a l l aw and t he o t h e r s a ga i ns t it. The f o r me r s houl d be r e w a r d e d f or t he i r g o o d wo r k , t hey have t he r i ght to ma k e i nf i ni t e a c c u mu l a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y . Thi s wo u l d in t he end will be benef i ci al for all t he s e g me n t s o f t he s oc i et y f r om t op to bot t o m.
Fi nal l y, L o c k e e x t e n d s this p r e j u d i c e in r a t i o n a l i t y a mo n g p e o p l e i nt o his a r g u me n t s on g o v e r n i n g s oci et y. T h o s e wh o ha ve s h o wn t hei r r a t i ona l i t y by o wn i n g p r o p e r t y al so has t he r i ght to p a r t i c i p a t e in t he g o v e r n i n g o f t he s oci et y. T h o s e wh o p o s s e s n o t h i n g mo r e t han t hei r l abor may not p a r t i c i p a t e in t hi s pr oc e s s . They can not vot e. 1 nger s ol l and Ma t t h e ws s t at e t hat :
Be c a u s e t he l a b o r e r s n e v e r t h e l e s s are still s ubj e c t to t he l aws o f s o c i e t y , e v e n t h o u g h t hey can not p a r t i c i p a t e in t he ma k i n g o f t h o s e l aws, t hey are said to be in, but not of, civil s oc i et y. ' ^
If at s o me poi nt t he l a b o r e r is abl e to r e q u i r e p r o p e r t y t hen he wo u l d mai nt ai n t he r i ght to vot e.
Dr a ma t i c a l l y , wh a t in tlie f eudal t r a d i t i o n was o n c e c o n s i d e r e d mor a l l y d e t e s t a b l e b e h a v i o r n o w b e c a me in a ma r k e t s oc i e t y vi r t u o u s . Al so, t he a r g u me n t s o v e r t r a d i t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t was r e p l a c e d by L o c k e a n g o v e r n me n t .
Lo c k e , t al ks a b o u t t wo a g r e e me n t s in a s t at e o f n a t u r e . Th e first one is t he c o n t r a c t o f s o c i e t y in whi c h i n d i v i d u a l s a g r e e to r e l i nqui s h t he t ot al f r e e d o m o f t he s t at e o f n a t u r e and to es t abl i s h a soci et y. As I nge r s ol l and Ma t t h e ws s t at es, t he s e c o n d a g r e e m e n t is a ki nd o f t r u s t e e r e l a t i o n s h i p In this r e l a t i o n s h i p w h e r e we can not call a c o n t r a c t , the t wo par t i es ( t he g o v e r n m e n t and t he s o c i e t y ) are not equal pa r t ne r s . G o v e r n m e n t po s s e s e s no r i ght s , t h e r e f o r e t he a g r e e me n t p r o c e s s is l i mi t ed to s oci et i es ' i mp o s i n g o b l i g a t i o n s t o wa r d s t he g o v e r n me n t . In Lo c k e a n pol i t i cs it is i n c o r r e c t to t al k a b o u t t he r i ght s o f t he g o v e r n me n t . G o v e r n m e n t has no r i ght s a g a i n s t t he s oci et y, it onl y t akes on ob l i g a t i o n s .
In t he p r o c e s s o f c o n s t i t u t i n g a g o v e r n m e n t t he d e c i s i o n is not t ake n c o n c u r r e n t l y , but by t he r at i onal p o r t i o n o f t he s o c i e t y wh i c h o wn s p r o p e r t y . The g o v e r n m e n t s rol e in a civil s o c i e t y t hen is onl y l i mi t ed to c er t ai n t asks, such as, t he de f e n s e and t he we l f a r e o f t he soci et y. Ho we v e r , t her e is an i mp o r t a n t f act t hat s h o u l d not be u n d e r e s t i ma t e d , t he g o v e r n m e n t e s t a b l i s h e d by t he ma j o r i t y r ul e can al so be r e mo v e d by a ne g a t i v e ma j or i t y vot e. In a d d i t i o n , if s uch an o v e r t h r o w o f t he g o v e r n m e n t o c c u r s t h e r e is no f ear o f r e t u r n i n g to t he s t at e o f n a t u r e b e c a u s e t he c o n t r a c t o f s o c i e t y r e ma i n s u n b r o k e n . Th e maj or i t y is t he c ent r al uni t in L o c k e a n t h e o r y , t hat it has t he p o we r to u n ma k e g o v e r n me n t , t h e r e f o r e t he ma j o r i t y is abl e to hol d t he g o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n s i b l e to its wi shes.
Th e L o c k e a n s ys t em o f dual a g r e e m e n t has b r o u g h t an i mp o r t a n t e l e me n t in l i ber al t r a di t i on. In t he L o c k e a n s ys t e m t he r e is a t h r e e - t i e r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p ; An i ndi vi dua l is at t he s a me t i me a pr i v a t e p e r s o n , a me mb e r o f a s oci et al ma j o r i t y and t he s u b j e c t o f a l i mi t ed g o v e r n me n t . Wi t h this a n a l o g y he ma k e s a f a v o r a b l e di s t i nc t i on b e t we e n t he pr i vat e and publ i c life o f i ndi vi dua l s .
In Lo c k e ' s vi ew t he g o v e r n m e n t has no r i ght to i n t e r f e r e wi t h any i ndi v i d u a l s r el i gi ous bel i efs. Th e y s h o u l d be t o l e r a t e d n ot onl y by g o v e r n m e n t but al so by all pe opl e . Th e p u b l i c - p r i v a t e d i c h o t o m y e v e n t u a l l y has lead to t he d e v e l o p me n t s o f c r e a t i o n o f civil r i ght s . T h o s e are t he r i ght s t hat n e i t h e r t he g o v e r n m e n t n o r t he s o c i e t y ha ve t he a u t h o r i t y to i n t e r f e r e wi t h. Wi t h t his r e s p e c t l i ber al d e mo c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n has b r o a d d i f f er enc e ? wh e n c o mp a r e d to f as ci s m and Ma r x i s m in whi c h publ i c and pr i vat e lives can not be s e p a r a t e d .
In L o c k e a n vi ew, p e o p l e are c o n s i d e r e d as a t o mi c uni t s, s uf f i ci e nt f or t he ms e l v e s . Th e y i n t e r a c t wi t h o t h e r p e o p l e wh e n it is to t hei r s e l f - i nt er e s t . L o c k e can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by his e mp h a s i s on r adi cal i ndi vi dua l i s m. Pe o p l e are a l ways s e l f - o r i e n t e d p r e c e d i n g to t he e s t a b l i s h me n t o f a s oci et y. In L o c k e a n l i ber al i s m t he i ndi vi dua l is pr eva i l i ng. Th e nat ur a l r i ght s t hat are g r a n t e d to i nd i v i d u a l is due to t he very n a t u r e o f t hei r huma n i t y . Th e s e r i ght s ar e not d e p e n d e n t f or t hei r e x i s t e n c e u p o n t hei r r e c o g n i t i o n by a s t at e or any o t h e r i n s t i t ut i on ,it is bui l t - i n in h u ma n n a t u r e . De s p i t e ma ny d i f f e r e n c e s in phys i cal and ment al abi l i t i es all h u ma n b e i ngs are s u b j e c t to t hes e r i ght s. Thi s l eads to a p os i t i on o f r e l a t i v e e q u a l i t y . On e has t he r i ght to a t t e mp t to t ake t he o t h e r s p r o p e r t y wh e r e as t he o t h e r al so have t he r i ght to de f e n d his p r o p e r t y . Pe o p l e , all t hi nk t ha t in
o r d e r to s e c u r e tlieir na t ur a l r i ght s ( p r o t e c t t hei r p r o p e r t y ) f r e e d o m is t he u t mo s t i mp o r t a n t t as k to be r eal i zed. Of c o u r s e t hi s f r e e d o m can be l i mi t ed in c er t ai n t i mes by t he p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r p e o p l e or by t he na t ur a l l aw o f God.
I f we sum up t he basi c a s s u mp t i o n s o f L o c k e a n l i ber al t r a d i t i o n , we c o me up wi t h f our mai n a s s u mp t i o n s :
I n d i v i d u a l s are: (a) Fr ee to p u r s u e ends , (b) r e l a t i ve l y e qua l , (c) ha ve r i ght s t hat are not s ubj e c t to t he c o n t r o l o f any o t h e r a u t h o r i t y o t h e r t han t h e ms e l v e s , (d) d e p e n d e n t onl y u p o n t h e ms e l v e s or God for t hei r e xi s t e nce . T h e r e is a g r e a t e mp h a s i s on t he p r e s e r v a t i o n o f r i ght s and l i ber t i es o f i ndi vi dual s , wi t h o u t p u t t i n g l i mi t a t i o n s on t hem. T h e r e f o r e , in this t h e o r y t h e r e is a l ack o f s h a r e d val ues .
Th e h u ma n be i ngs are l ar gel y mo t i v a t e d by a sel f i sh d e s i r e to a c q u i r e t hi ngs . Th e i r mos t i mp o r t a n t aim b e c o me s to h a v e as mu c h pr i v a t e p r o p e r t y as t hey can. The L o c k e a n l i ber al i s m sees h u ma n s as e c o n o mi c bei ngs . In a p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , a s t he l a bor is i n v o l v e d in t he c r e a t i o n o f an obj ect , t he obj e c t b e c o me s t he e x t e n s i o n o f t hat p e r s o n and coul d be l e gi t i ma t e l y o wn e d by t hat p e r s o n . But c onf l i c t ar i s es b e c a u s e o f sel fish i nt er es t s . It is not easy to d e t e r mi n e t he s ha r e o f each par t y in a g o o d p r o d u c e d , t h e r e f o r e t he o w n e r s h i p is al so s u s p e c t e d . The i r des i r es wo u l d l ead t hem to c o n c e n t r a t e on si mi l ar g o o d s . Th e y will not feel t h e ms e l v e s in s e c u r i t y as l o n g as u n l i mi t e d r i ght s exi s t ed. T h e r e f o r e t hey a g r e e to ma k e t he s oci al c o n t r a c t and get rid o f s t at e o f wa r and mo v e i nt o a s oc i et y. L o c k e in his anal ys i s is in f avor o f a s t r o n g and a u t h o r i t a r i a n s o v e r e i g n wh o can e xe r c i s e u nl i mi t e d p o we r , o f c o u r s e wh e n t he p o w e r was t r a n s f e r r e d by t he i ndi vi dual s . T h e r e f o r e we can c o n c l u d e t hat in
t er ms o f its or i gi n t her e is not much d e mo c r a c y in l i ber al i s m. Witli t he wo r k s o f J e r e my Be n t h a m who f a v o r e d one man o n e vot e, l i ber al i s m was d e mo c r a t i z e d .
2. 2 R O U S S E A U E A N D E M O C R A C Y
T h e r e exi st s a s e c o n d b r a n c h o f l i ber al i s m t hat f o u n d its r o o t s in Ro u s s e a u ' s wr i t i n g s p o i n t i n g to the l ar ge pol i t i cal and s oci al c os t s o f mo d e r n ma r k e t s oci et i es . ■ Thi s b r a n c h o f l i ber al i s m is not g o i n g ha nd in ha nd wi t h c api t al i s m as it was t he case in t he p r e v i o u s L o c k e a n v e r s i o n . J e a n J ack Ro u s s e a u was a Fr e n c h p h i l o s o p h e r 17 12- 1778) wh o ga ve bi r t h to t his a l t e r n a t i v e vi si on. F o l l o wi n g Ho b b e s and L o c k e he is t he t hi r d p h i l o s o p h e r wh o e mp l o y e d a s t at e o f n a t u r e a r g u me n t to s t r e n g t h e n his pol emi c. Di f f e r i n g f r om Lo c k e , he s t a r t e d his a r g u me n t by d e s c r i b i n g h o w na t ur a l h u ma n s e v o l v e d i nt o soci al be i ngs , t hen to ci vi l i z at i on, whi l e L o c k e r e s t r i c t e d his d i s c us s i on to t he p e o p l e who we r e a l r e ady ci vi l i zed.
Th e a n c e s t o r s o f our h u ma n r ace we r e at fi rst a mo r a l and as oci al c r e a t u r e s , bl es s ed wi t h s uf f i ci ent f ood and s he l t e r . T h e r e was no not i on o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e t we e n t hem. R o u s s e a u b e l i e v e d t hat t hey we r e a c t i ng on t wo pr i nci pl e s o f mo t i v a t i o n : s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n and pity. Na t ur a l l y, t hes e pr i mi t i ve mo t i v a t i o n s did e v e r y t h i n g n e c e s s a r y to sur vi ve. But in a ddi t i on to s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n t h e s e c r e a t u r e s also e xhi bi t ed c o mp a s s i o n b e c a u s e t hey did not wa n t to wi t n e s s t he s uf f e r i ng o f any o f t hei r me mb e r s .
Ov e r a pe r i od o f year s, t hes e p r i mi t i ve ne eds b e g a n to c h a n g e . As t hes e c r e a t u r e s be gan to des i r e new obj ec t s , t hey b e c a me i n c a p a b l e o f be i ng s at i s f i ed or f ul fi l l ed. Out o f t his p r o c e s s t he need
f or o t h e r p e o p l e we r e d e v e l o p e d and h u ma n s b e c a me soci al c r e a t u r e s . Fr o m t hat poi nt on, t he o t h e r h u ma n b e i n g s we r e n e c e s s a r y for t hei r s ur vi val . I ' he c r e a t i o n o f p r o p e r t y r i ght s in a p r e - c a p i t a l i s t s oc i et y f ol l owe d t he l at t er. f h e c r e a t i o n o f t hes e r i ght s led to a n t a g o n i s ms and c onf l i ct s b e t we e n h u ma n bei ngs .
E c o n o m i c i nequa l i t y and cl ass di vi s i ons we r e c r e a t e d b e t we e n t h o s e wh o o wn e d p r o p e r t y and wh o did not . Thi s led to a g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n o f wa r b e t we e n h u ma n bei ngs . Th e ri ch d e v i s e d a c l e ve r s c h e me i nt o e s t a bl i s hi ng a s t at e to p r o t e c t t he p r o p e r t y o f t he ri ch. A c c o r d i n g to I nger s ol l and M a t t h e w s : ’’ The pr oj e c t was t he c r e a t i o n o f a s o c i a l c o n i r a c t d e s i g n e d to p r o t e c t t he rich f r om t he p o o r in t he n a me o f j u s t i c e f or all. Th e n t he mo d e r n s t at e was a c r e a t i o n o f t he r i ch, whi c h s h o u l d be o v e r t h r o w n in o r d e r to c r e a t e a l e g i t i ma t e s oci et y.
In his f a mo u s wo r k The S o c i a l Cot t l r acl , he ma k e s his o b s e r v a t i o n on h u ma n bei ngs that.'**
Ma n is bor n free; and e v e r y wh e r e he is in c h a i n s . O n e t hi nk h i ms e l f the ma s t e r o f o t h e r s , a n d still r e ma i n s a g r e a t e r s l ave t han t hey.
P e o p l e be l i eve t hat t hey are free, in f act t hey are not . Th e mo d e r n p e r s o n is a l i ena t ed f r om his e n v i r o n me n t . I n d i v i d u a l s a g r e e d to es t abl i s h a s t at e be l i evi ng t hat t his wo u l d br i ng t he m f r e e d o m, in fact t hey have c r e a t e d t he rul e o f t he ri ch, wi t h t he a p p e a r a n c e o f r ul e o f all by all. If t he c u r r e n t s i t uat i on was u n a c c e p t a b l e , t hen wha t s houl d be d o n e to c r e a t e a l eg i t i ma t e s oc i et y was his s e c o n d c o n c e r n .
Si nce he is a ga i ns t t he use o f f or ce, t he r e a l i z a t i o n o f t he c o n d i t i o n s ar e n e c e s s a r y in whi c h all wi l l i ngl y and k n o wi n g l y c o n s e n t to live t o g e t h e r . Hi s p r e s c r i p t i o n is t h r e e f o l d , i n v o l v i n g p r o p e r t y , f a c t i o n s and i ndi vi dual s ;
1. Pr o p e r t y : ' ^ He a r g u e d t hat mo d e r a t e e qua l i t y o f p r o p e r t y is n e c e s s a r y f or a h a r mo n i o u s soci et y. T h e r e f o r e , he gi ves an i mp o r t a n t r ol e for t he g o v e r n m e n t to p r e v e n t e x t r a v a g a n t di s pa r i t y o f f o r t u n e s . The r ol e o f t he g o v e r n m e n t was to f i ght a g a i n s t t he c r e a t i o n o f a n t a g o n i s t i c cl ass r e l a t i o n s h i p s by pa s s i ng l e g i s l a t i o n s such as t a x a t i o n , r e - d i s t r i b u t i n g we a l t h and etc. No ci t i zen s h o u l d be we a l t h y e n o u g h to buy o t h e r ci t i zens. He is a g a i n s t c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i o n s wh e r e one can buy t he l abor o f t he ot he r . F u r t h e r m o r e t he cl ass c onf l i ct can be o v e r c o m e wi t h ever y i ndi vi dua l ma i n t a i n i n g a l i mi t ed a mo u n t o f pr o p e r t y . Li mi t ed p r o p e r t y is a s e c u r i t y i n s t r u me n t for p r e s e r v i n g f r e e d o m. Th e f r e e d o m is t he u t mo s t goal . In t he a b s e n c e o f p r o p e r t y t he f r e e d o m can not be a c h i e v e d . - “
2. Fa c t i o n s : Af t er de al i ng wi t h e c o n o mi c o b s t a c l e s a g a i n s t c r e a t i n g a l e g i t i ma t e s oci et y, he t u r n e d his a t t e n t i o n to t he di vi s i ve i n f l u e n c e s o f f act i ons . Th e b a l a n c e he l on g e d can be r e a c h e d by o n e o f t wo pol i ci es: (1) ban all f act i ons , or (2) c r e a t e so many f a c t i o n s t hat t hey c h e c k each o t h e r so t hat no one f a c t i on will b e c o m e t oo p o we r f u l . - '
3. I ndi vi dua l ; Whi l e t he e c o n o mi c and soci al p r e - r e q u i s i t e s are n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to c r e a t e a l e g i t i ma t e s oci et y, R o u s s e a u f i nds t hem i ns uf f i ci ent in c r e a t i n g t he t ype o f c h a n g e in i ndi vi dua l s .
Ill his S o c i a l Coi i i r acl Ro u s s e a u i n t r o d u c e s a f i gur e cal l ed t he l egi s l at or , even t h o u g h he act ual l y is not l egi s l at i ng. I n g e r s o l l and Ma t t h e w s not e t hat :
--Wi t h o u t l egi s l at i ve p o we r , it is not s u r p r i s i n g t hat t he L e g i s l a t o r was d e s c r i b e d by Ro u s s e a u as h a v i n g an a u t h o r i t y t hat is me r e n o t hi ng.
The Le g i s l a t o r ' s f un c t i o n is to pl ay an i mp o r t a n t r ol e in c r e a t i n g s e l f - a wa r e n e s s a mo n g pe opl e , to . help t he m in c h a n g i n g t hei r p e r c e p t i o n s . The i ndi vi dua l s wi t h t he hel p o f t he L e g i s l a t o r u n d e r s t a n d t hei r i ndi vi dual sel ves and t hei r c o mmo n hi s t or y. Th e L e g i s l a t o r t r a n s f o r ms t he s oci et y, in t he p r o c e s s o f s e l f e n l i g h t e n me n t The c h a r i s ma t i c l eader , will ma i n t a i n wh a t is i mp o r t a n t for t he peopl e, t hat is, to free t h e ms e l v e s . In o r d e r to be free p e o p l e mus t rul e t hems el ves . - ^ ^
Ro u s s e a u ' s def i ni t i on o f f r e e d o m is t he o b e d i e n c e to a l aw one pr e s c r i b e s for one' s sel f . - “* Un d e r this s t a n d a r d o f s e l f - i mp o s e d l aws, Ro u s s e a u r ej ect s t he poss i bi l i t y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t . Ac c o r d i n g to him t he ci t i zens o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t will be free onl y wh e n t hey are vot i ng. Af t er t hey have v o t e d , t hei r f r e e d o m wo u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d to o t h e r s who wo u l d de c i d e in t he n a me o f t hem. Th e y will b e c o me sl aves. He is in f a v o r o f a p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e mo c r a c y , in whi c h t he i ndi vi dua l s have di r ec t i n f l u e n c e on t he d e c i s i o n s t aken. The i ndi vi dual p a r t i c i p a t i o n i nt o t he p r o c e s s is ver y i mp o r t a n t .
The s oc i et y is mat er i al and n e c e s s a r y for h u ma n d e v e l o p me n t . On c e i ndi vi dua l s be gan to see t h e ms e l v e s as b o u n d to t he o t h e r s .
t hey will act i vel y p a r t i c i p a t e in t he c r e a t i o n o f t he g e n e r a l will. Th e g e n e r a l wi l l is bot h in t he i nt e r e s t o f t he i ndi v i d u a l s and t he e nt i r e
s oc i e t y .2·'’
Th e R o u s s e a u e a n line o f t h o u g h t has p r e s e n t e d an a l t e r n a t i v e vi ew in l i ber al t r a di t i on. Wi t h t he d e v e l o p me n t o f h u ma n i t y , t he h u ma n s in s t at e o f n a t u r e has b e c o me soci al be i ngs , wh o n e e d s f r e e d o m in o r d e r to live a h u ma n life. Ro u s s e a u , r e j e c t e d c a p i t a l i s m whi c h is a ga i ns t e qual i t y, f r e e d o m and h u ma n i t y and an o b s t a c l e a ga i ns t his o n e - c l a s s e d s oci et y. In this s oc i e t y wh e r e t he i n d i v i d u a l s wo u l d own e n o u g h p r o p e r t y to mai nt ai n t h e ms e l v e s and a c a pi t a l i s t s oc i et y will not be c r e a t e d. In I ng e r s o l l and Ma t t h e w ' s vi ew:
Ro u s s e a u , t hen, is a l i ber al d e m o c r a t in a dual s e n s e : He c o n c e i v e s o f d e mo c r a c y as a ki nd o f s o c i e t y w h e r e e v e r y o n e mus t have an equal c h a n c e to d e v e l o p ; and d e mo c r a c y is an e l e c t o r a l me c h a n i s m wh e r e by i ndi v i d u a l s not t hei r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s - di s c us s and vot e on publ i c policy.-^’
2. 3 D E M O C R A C Y V E R S U S R E P U B L I C
It is u t mo s t i mp o r t a n t to make a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t he c o n c e p t s R e p u b l i c and D e m o c r a c y s i nce t he t e r ms will be us ed t h r o u g h out t he t hesi s. Wi t h t he rise o f t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a r g u me n t in Tu r k e y , t h e r e has not been any ef f or t to c o m m e n t on t he me a n i n g o f t he n a me o f t he p r o p o s e d r e g i me , na me l y. S e c o n d R e p u b l i c . It was onl y cr i t i c i ze d on t he g r o u n d t ha t n u m b e r i n g Re p u b l i c s is a t r a d i t i o n in F r a n c e and t he a t t e mp t to n u mb e r Re p u b l i c s in T u r k e y is art i f i ci al .
Th e r e a s o n I am i nt e r e s t e d in t he n a me o f t he p r o p o s e d r e g i me is di f f e r e n t f r om t he l at t er . I ns t e a d o f f o c u s i n g on t he n u m b e r i n g o f t he r e g i me it is n e c e s s a r y to c o n c e n t r a t e on t he t er m R e p u b l i c .
In Tu r k e y t he t e r ms r e publ i c and d e mo c r a c y has a l wa y s been p r o n o u n c e d t o g e t h e r . Pe o p l e al ways bel i eve d t hat t he s e t wo can not be s e p a r a t e d f r om each ot her . Ho we v e r , in t he wo r l d t h e r e are ma ny d e mo c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s rul ed by mo n a r c h i e s , such as Be l g i u m, Un i t e d Ki n g d o m, Ho l l a n d , etc. In a ddi t i on t h e r e are also many c o u n t r i e s on t he wo r l d whi c h are r e publ i c s but not d e mo c r a c i e s , s uch as I r an, I r aq, etc. T h e r e f o r e , it is very i mp o r t a n t to use bot h t e r ms in t he c o r r e c t c ont e xt .
A g o o d d i s t i nc t i on b e t we e n t he t e r ms d e m o c r a t i c and r e p u b l i c a n was gi ven by Ma d i s o n . As put by I n g e r s o l l and Mat t hews : ^^
To his mi nd a r e publ i c di f f er ed f r om d e mo c r a t i c f o r ms in t hat it was l ar ge r bot h phys i cal l y and n u me r i c a l l y , and t ha t it i n c l u d e d a s c h e me o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n has l ar gel y been lost in mo d e r n t i mes, wh e r e we t end to t hi nk o f all d e mo c r a c i e s as p o s s e s s i n g s o me s c h e me o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
Th e t er m r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t is very cl os e to wh a t Ma d i s o n me a n s by a r epubl i c. Ma d i s o n is in f avor o f l i mi t i ng t he s u f f r a g e as t he pol i t i cal r eal i t y wo u l d per mi t . He is t r yi ng to ke e p t he r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n g o v e r n m e n t and t he p e o p l e as i n d i r e c t as poss i bl e. The p o p u l a r .basis o f t he g o v e r n m e n t t u r n s out to be restrictive.-**
A c c o r d i n g to Ma d i s o n , t he s ys t em o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n was d e s i g n e d to f u n c t i o n o t h e r t han r e f l e c t i on o f t he p o p u l a r o p i n i o n . Th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on t he one hand is t he r e f l e c t o r o f t he publ i c opi n i o n , but on t he o t h e r hand his f unc t i on is to fi nd t he best pol i ci es for t he i nt e r es t o f t he s oci et y he is l i vi ng in. In this me a n i n g p r o b a b l y t he r e p r e s e n t a t i v e will act c o n t r a r y to t he o p i n i o n s o f t he ma j or i t y a s s u mi n g t hat he has mo r e i n f o r ma t i o n , or b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n whe n c o mp a r e d to t he maj or i t y. The t wo r ol es o f t he r e p r e s e n t a t i v e are in o p p o s i t i o n to each ot her . On t he one h a n d he is t he r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t he o p i n i o n s o f t he s oc i et y, on t he o t h e r a s t a t e s ma n , p r e s e r v i n g t he i nt e r es t s o f t he s t at e and t he s oc i et y.
As a r es ul t , a r epubl i c is a r e g i me in whi c h t he ma j o r i t y ha ve mo r e i ndi r e c t rul e in t he g o v e r n me n t a l pr o c e s s e s . Th e p o p u l a r will can be i g n o r e d at cert ai n' t i mes for t he s ake o f t he we l l - b e i n g o f t he soci et y. In a d e mo c r a c y , t he maj or i t y will and p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y is at t he h e a r t o f the de ci s i on ma k i n g pr oce s s .
My cr i t i ci s m a gai ns t t he g r o u p in f a vor o f a S e c o n d Re p u b l i c , is t hen, to t he t e r mi n o l o g y t hey have c h o s e n for t he r adi cal c h a n g e s . Th e i r mai n a r g u me n t is to c r e a t e a mo r e d e mo c r a t i c pol i t i cal s t r u c t u r e in Tu r k e y , in whi c h t he p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y will be t he basi s for t he r egi me. They wa n t to d e c r e a s e t he i n d i r e c t r u l i n g o f t he c i t i zens and i nc r e a s e pol i t i cal p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Th e i r c r i t i c i s ms t o wa r d s t he p o we r o f t he b u r e a u c r a c y is due to t he c o n d i t i o n s s t a t e d above.
T h e r e f o r e in my o p i n i o n it is a s t r a t e g i c mi s t a k e to use t he wo r d Re p u b l i c whi l e r e f e r r i n g to a mo r e d e mo c r a t i c s oc i et y. The mo r e r e p u b l i c a n a s oc i et y is t he less d e mo c r a t i c it is. In t he
f o l l o wi n g s e c t i o n s t he vi ews of t he g r o u p s on r e p u b l i c ver s us d e mo c r a c y d i c h o t o my will be b r o a d e n e d .
2. 4 T HE L O C K E A N AND R O U S S E A U E A N E L E M E N T S IN S E C O N D R E P U B L I C A N A R G U M E N T S
Th e a r g u me n t s on S e c o n d Re p u b l i c in T u r k e y has c r e a t e d , t wo c a mp s a mo n g t he pol i t i cal s ci ent i s t s and j o u r n a l i s t s in a ver y s h o r t pe r i od o f t i me: The g r o u p in f avor o f a S e c o n d Re p u b l i c in T u r k e y , we r e be l i e vi ng t hat t her e is a neces s i t y, to c r e a t e a ne w s oc i e t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n in Tu r k e y in o r d e r to s pe ed up its d e mo c r a t i z a t i o n p r o c e s s and r each t he d e mo c r a t i c and i ndus t r i a l l evel o f c o n t e m p o r a r y We s t e r n st at es. , The s e c o n d , wh o we r e a g a i n s t t he i dea o f a S e c o n d Re publ i c has s h o wn d o u b t s a b o u t t he f u t u r e o f t he exi s t i ng r egi me. Th e i r mai n c o n c e r n was to p r e s e r v e t he Re p u b l i c , whi c h At a t u r k has c r e a t e d , wi t h its f o r me r i n s t i t u t i o n s and wor l d v i e w s .
Th e s u p p o r t e r s and t he c r i t i que s o f a S e c o n d Re p u b l i c , o f c o u r s e had pol i t i cal o r i e n t a t i o n s pr i or to t hei r p o s i t i o n s in t he de bat e. In fact , an i mp o r t a n t part o f t he de b a t e , mos t l y by t he g r o u p wh o are a ga i ns t a S e c o n d Re publ i c , was c o n s t r u c t e d on an i d e o l o g i c a l cr i t i ci s m o f t he o t h e r g r o u p . To cl ar i f y t he pol i t i cal o u t l o o k s o f bot h si des wou l d p r o v i d e t he r e a d e r wi t h b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the c u r r e n t debat e.
In t r yi ng to di spl ay the d i f f e r e n c e s of t he t wo g r o u p s , it is not n e c e s s a r y to st r i ct l y c a t e g o r i z e t he g r o u p s as L o c k e a n or R o u s s e a u e a n .
A. A r g u m e n t s for a S e c o n d Re p u b l i c
Th e a r g u me n t o f t he ne ce s s i t y for t he d e c l a r a t i o n o f a S e c o n d
Republ i c in Turkey was first put forward by Mehmet A 11 a n I n hi s
o p i n i o n t he s t at e f o r ma t i o n in T u r k e y af t er t he i n d e p e n d e n c e wa r whi c h e n d e d in 1923, did not t ook the c o n s e n t o f its ci t i ze ns . In a L o c k e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g he cl ai ms t hat , t he g o v e r n m e n t is not f o r me d in T u r k e y by a t r u s t e e s h i p a g r e e me n t b e t we e n t he i n d i v i d u a l s and g o v e r n m e n t itself. In L o c k e a n t h e o r y a g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d ha ve onl y o b l i g a t i o n s t o wa r d s its c i t i zens and it is onl y a me c h a n i s m to
s e r v e the i n t e r e s t s oI' the c i t i z e n s w h i c h are: to h a v e p r o p e r t y , to
live freel y. The S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s a c c e p t t he u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f soci al c o n t r a c t in Lo c k e a n s ens e and t hey cl ai m t hat in Tu r k e y , t he s t at e has al ways act ed in t he na me o f its c i t i ze ns by i n v o l v i n g t hem as i ndi r e c t as pos s i bl e to pol i cy de c i s i on ma k i n g p r o c e s s e s .
In fact , wha t t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s ar e p o i n t i n g out is t hat in Tu r k e y , t he r e g i me c o n t a i n e d mo r e r e p u b l i c a n and less d e mo c r a t i c f e a t u r e s . T h e s t at es i nt e r es t s we r e al ways vi e we d as b e i n g s u p e r i o r to t hat o f i ndi vi dual s . ^'
Lo c k e has di s t i n g u i s h e d b e t we e n pr i v a t e and publ i c ver y cl ear l y. Th e i ndi vi dua l s have r i ght s t hat are not s ubj e c t to t he c o n t r o l o f any o t h e r a u t h o r i t y o t h e r t han t h e ms e l v e s . T h e r e f o r e t he g o v e r n m e n t s do not have any r i ght to i n t e r f e r e i nt o t he lives o f its ci t i zens . In Cet i n Al t an' s vi ew:
In Tu r k e y t he st at e has al ways been a s h e l l . y/ a/ ef kabuk de vl e t ) , ma k i n g t he lives o f t he i ndi vi dua l s di f f i cul t by i n t e r f e r i n g in
In L o c k e a n t r a di t i on, tlie pr i vat e lives o f tlie i n d i v i d u a l s e s pe c i a l l y t hei r r e l i gi ous r i ght s and p r e f e r e n c e s are t he mo s t cr i t i cal t he me . Th e g o v e r n m e n t can not i n t e r f e r e wi t h any i ndi vi dua l s ' r e l i g i o u s bel i efs. In par al l el wi t h L o c k e a n t r a d i t i o n , t he S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s are a gai ns t t he u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t he s e c u l a r i s m wh i c h is vali d in Tu r k e y . In t hei r o pi ni on t he Tu r k i s h s t at e has i n t e r f e r e d i nt o t he r el i gi ous bel i ef s o f its c i t i zens in t he n a me o f s e c u l a r i s m. Di f f e r e n t sect s and f a c t i ons o f Isl am we r e b a n n e d by t he s t at e i deol ogy. T h e r e f o r e t hey bel i eve t hat in T u r k e y t he pr i v a t e l ives o f i ndi vi dua l s we r e not r e s p e c t e d as L o c k e f o r e s a w.
In t hei r e c o n o mi c u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t hey are al so par al l el wi t h a L o c k e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i ndi vi dual f r e e d o m. Th e L o c k e a n l i ber al t r a d i t i o n we n t hand in hand wi t h t he e c o n o mi c t r a d i t i o n o f Ad a m Smi t h. Ev e r y i ndi vi dual was e x p e c t e d to g r o w his p l e a s u r e even if at t he e x p e n s e o f ot her s ' pain. T h e r e is no pl ace f or t he u n s u c c e s s f u l in t his ga me .
Th e S e c o n d Re p u b l i c a n s are d e f e n d i n g a c api t a l i s t e c o n o m y in Tu r k e y . They cl ai m t hat the st at es' hi gh r at e o f s h a r e in t he e c o n o my s l ows d o wn t he g r o wt h r at e o f Tu r k i s h e c o n o my . The y f a vor a f r ee ma r k e t e c o n o my , in whi c h c o mp e t i n g p a r t i e s will i n c r e a s e t hei r p r o d u c t i v i t y b e c a u s e o f r i si ng c o mp e t i t i o n . Wi t h t he l i be r a l i z a t i o n o f e c o n o my , in t hei r vi ew, t he i ne f f i c i e nt St a t e E c o n o m i c En t e r p r i s e s will be shut d o wn , or will a d o p t t h e ms e l v e s to f r ee ma r k e t e c o n o my and t he T u r k i s h e c o n o my will i m p r o v e . ”
In t he Se c o n d Re p u b l i c a n l ine o f t h o u g h t , R o u s s e a u e a n e l e me n t s can also be o b s e r v e d . In R o u s s e a u e a n t e r ms t he soci al c o n t r a c t was c r e a t e d by t he rich in o r d e r to s us t ai n t hei r p r o p e r t y
