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Life is short, stay awake: Death anxiety and
bedtime procrastination
Kutlu Kağan Türkarslan, Deniz Okay, Mustafa Çevrim & Özlem Bozo
To cite this article: Kutlu Kağan Türkarslan, Deniz Okay, Mustafa Çevrim & Özlem Bozo (2019): Life is short, stay awake: Death anxiety and bedtime procrastination, The Journal of General Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/00221309.2019.1633994
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2019.1633994
Published online: 10 Jul 2019.
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Life is short, stay awake: Death anxiety and bedtime
procrastination
Kutlu Kagan T€urkarslana, Deniz Okaya,b, Mustafa C¸evrima,c, and €Ozlem Bozoa
a
Middle East Technical University;bTED University;cUfuk University
ABSTRACT
In the present study, the relation between bedtime procrastin-ation and death anxiety, and also the moderator roles of gen-der and purpose in life were investigated. Data were collected from 245 participants through an online survey. The results revealed that gender, but not purpose in life, moderated the relation between death anxiety and bedtime procrastination. The effect of death anxiety on bedtime procrastination was significant only for males. Further, this effect was still signifi-cant even after controlling circadian energy and self-control. The findings can be explained based on the Terror Management Theory. Bedtime procrastination can be consid-ered risk-taking behavior, and it functions as a world view for males. Moreover, males might have regarded sleep as a waste of time, and therefore, delayed bedtime to increase their non-sleeping lifetime. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 25 January 2019 Accepted 17 June 2019 KEYWORDS Bedtime procrastination; death anxiety; sleep; purpose in life; gender
One of the most prominent characteristics of modern people could be lack
of sleep, which is widely accepted in modern society as well
(Chatzitheochari & Arber, 2009; Spiegel, Tasali, Leproult, & Van Cauter,
2009). Since the 1900s, total sleep duration had reduced from 9 to 7 hours in USA samples (Gangwisch et al., 2007; Spiegel, Tasali, Penev, & Van Cauter, 2004; Van Cauter, Knutson, Leproult, & Spiegel, 2005). According to the 2002 Sleep in America Poll, approximately 40% of citizens reported having less than 7 hours of sleep on weeknights (2002 Sleep in America Poll, 2002).
Researchers have consistently shown that insufficient sleep is closely
related to negative outcomes in emotion regulation (Dahl, 1999; Yoo,
Gujar, Hu, Jolesz, & Walker, 2007), decision making (Harrison and Horne,
2000), daily functioning (Åkerstedt, Anund, Axelsson, & Kecklund, 2014),
accident risk (Komada et al., 2008; Perez-Chada et al., 2005), cancer
(Verkasalo et al., 2005), and mortality (Gallicchio & Kalesan, 2009). Thus, having insufficient sleep is a very common problem that has both physical
CONTACT €Ozlem Bozo [email protected] Department of Psychology, Middle East Technical University, Dumlupınar Blv. No: 1, 06800 Ankara, Turkey.
ß 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
and psychological consequences, and therefore, it is important to investi-gate the factors that contribute to insufficient sleep.
Both internal and external factors play significant roles in getting insufficient sleep. One of these factors was suggested as bedtime procrastination (Kroese, De Ridder, Evers, & Adriaanse,2014), a phenomenon that leads individuals to postpone their sleeping time deliberately and to resist going to bed, independ-ent of any compelling external obstacles. Bedtime procrastination had moder-ate to strong associations with insufficient sleep and fatigue, and weak to moderate negative associations with hours of sleep and satisfaction with the amount of sleep (Kroese, Evers, Adriaanse, & De Ridder,2016).
The relationship between bedtime procrastination and various other vari-ables have been investigated. For example, researchers have investigated the relation between bedtime procrastination and general procrastination. Bedtime procrastination was explained based on self-regulation problems, which was also a major predictor of general procrastination (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996; Ferrari & Emmons, 1995). This proposed association between bedtime procrastination and self-regulation yielded significant
cor-relations ranging between .11 and .52 (Mr¼ .35) (Exelmans & Van
den Bulck, 2017; Kadzikowska-Wrzosek, 2018a; Kroese, De Ridder, Evers,
& Adriaanse, 2014; Kroese, Evers, et al., 2016; K€uhnel, Syrek, &
Dreher, 2018).
Researchers also examined the association between circadian chronotypes (genetically determined preference for morningness/eveningness) and bedtime procrastination. They found that the correlation between bedtime
procrastination and circadian chronotypes were .41 and .18
(Kadzikowska-Wrzosek, 2018b; K€uhnel et al.,2018). The significant negative association between these two variables indicated that people with evening preference (preference for going to bed later and waking up later) are more likely to procrastinate their bedtime (Kadzikowska-Wrzosek, 2018b). Finally, the role of subjective aversiveness of pre-bedtime routines (i.e., brushing teeth, cleaning home, and locking the door, etc.) in bedtime procrastination was examined. It was hypothesized that people do not want to go to bed, and thus, procrastinate bedtime, because they have to do some boring and aversive chores before going to bed. A significant moderate association
(r¼ .31) was observed between bedtime routine aversiveness and bedtime
procrastination (Nauts, Kamphorst, Sutu, Poortvliet, & Anderson, 2016). In summary, there are only a few studies conducted to investigate bedtime procrastination and related factors and thus, this topic requires further investigation. Thus, we proposed an intriguing and alternative hypothesis to explain the phenomenon of bedtime procrastination further.
Sleep, rest, coma, and death can be regarded as interrelated concepts. Cappuccio, Miller, and Lockley (2010) listed the similarities of these states,
such as lacking consciousness, being in a prone position, suppressed bodily movements, and decreased responsiveness to stimulation. Not surprisingly, many different cultures across the world have also noticed some resem-blance between sleep and death. For instance, Ancient Greeks believed that the god of sleep (Hypnos) and the god of death (Thanatos) were siblings (Hesiod, Schlegel, & Weinfield, 2006, p. 46). In ancient Egyptian culture, a part of the soul called “ba” (depicted as a human-headed bird) was able to leave physical body temporarily during sleep and permanently after death (Asaad, 2015; Britannica, 2015). In modern languages, sleep-death associa-tions can be easily noticed. For example, to wish good intenassocia-tions for a deceased person, people say “rest in peace” by linking death to resting and sleep. Similarly, in Turkish, the same phrase is uttered as “Huzur (peace) ic¸inde (in) yatsın (rest)”. The verb of this phrase, yatmak, means both “to sleep” and also “to lie on ground”.
Moreover, time spent during sleep is not a period of time lived con-sciously and may take away from individuals’ total life span. In other words, the less sleep one has, the more time he/she has left to live. Each day, sleep brings us closer to death. Therefore, sleep may be called the “deadline” of the day. If there is a deadline, then it can be delayed (Langs,
2004). Thus, it could be asserted that individuals who fear death or who are anxious about death may have preconscious or unconscious aversive attitudes towards sleeping, and as a consequence, they may try to avoid it by procrastinating at bedtime.
Although death has been considered to be analogous to sleep, and death anxiety has been regarded as an essential contributor to sleep problems in both children and adults (Yalom, 1980), limited number of studies (e.g., Carrera & Elenewski, 1980) focused on the direct relation between these two core areas of human experience. Thus, it is important to investigate the association between these two phenomena.
According to existential theory, there is a constant existential conflict between human beings’ basic instinct to survive and the knowledge of their inevitable personal death (Arndt & Vess, 2008). As Yalom (1980) stated,
human beings are “forever shadowed by the knowledge that we will grow,
blossom, and inevitably, diminish and die” (p. 1). Being cognitively aware of their own mortality is the ultimate struggle for all human beings (Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 2000). Confrontation with the inevit-ability of death brings fear and anxiety (Langs, 2004). This anxiety of the
unknown is a universal human experience (Becker, 1973). Yet, death
anx-iety is not always overt or easily observable. It can be repressed into the unconscious, denied, or disguised as psychological symptoms (Langs, 2004; Yalom, 1980). In their everyday lives, individuals tend to believe in the
mechanism: “In the unconscious every one of us is convinced of his own immortality” (p. 289).
Despite the inevitability of death, some factors have been found to alleviate its anxiety. Gender and purpose in life are two examples of such factors. Females experience significantly more death anxiety than males (Depaola, Griffin, Young, & Neimeyer, 2003; Eshbaugh & Henninger, 2013; Lester, Templer, & Abdel-Khalek,2007). This gender difference can be explained by women’s tendency towards emotional expressiveness and their approach to death with a more external locus of control compared to men (Depaola et al.,
2003; Russac, Gatliff, Reece, & Spottswood, 2007). Another possible explan-ation for this difference is related to reproductivity. According to Russac et al. (2007), death anxiety has a positive correlation with one’s reproductivity,
because dying and not being able to raise children is threatening. Women, as primary caregivers, are more influenced by not being able to take care of their offsprings, which might explain their higher levels of death anxiety as com-pared to men (Cacciatore,2010; Russac et al.,2007).
Another concept that is related to death anxiety is purpose in life. Purpose in life can be defined as “a central, self-organizing life aim that organizes and stimulates goals, manages behaviors, and provides a sense of
meaning” (McKnight & Kashdan, 2009, p.242). It guides individuals
throughout their lives, while easing their anxieties related to death (Osborne, 2017). Victor Frankl was the first person to present the concept based on his observations of individuals during and after World War II. Frankl (1984) proposed that all people have a will to find meaning, and it is the primary motivation of every individual to develop a purpose in their lives.
According to Frankl (1984), having a purpose provides people with
power to endure difficulties and overcome negative situations. On the other hand, if people fail to develop a purpose, they will experience existential
frustration and feel desperate (Frankl, 1984). Researchers consistently
pointed out the positive effects of purposefulness. Accordingly, having a purpose in life was related to physical and mental well-being (Gillham et al. 2011), higher satisfaction with life (Gillham et al. 2011; McKnight & Kashdan, 2009), self-efficacy (DeWitz, Woolsey & Walsh, 2009), self-esteem (Bigler, Neimeyer, & Brown, 2001), and happiness (French and Joseph,
1999). The relation between purpose in life and death anxiety was also
examined in various age and occupational groups. The findings of these studies revealed that purpose in life is inversely related with death anxiety (Amenta, Weiner, & Amenta, 1984; Bolt, 1978; Drolet, 1990; Rappaport, Fossler, Bross, & Gilden, 1993; Viswanathan, 1996; Tomer & Eliason,
2000). These results supported Frankl’s hypothesis (1984) that purpose in
An alternative explanation to the negative association between life pur-pose and death anxiety suggested that people who find purpur-pose in life may somehow feel that they have achieved a sense of symbolic immortality
through their accomplishments and contributions in life (Bronk, 2014).
This mechanism of symbolic immortality was a defense mechanism to fend off reality of death (Osborne,2017).
In light of the literature, and to provide a unique perspective on the eti-ology of bedtime procrastination, the current study investigated the relation between bedtime procrastination and death anxiety, and the moderating roles of purpose in life and gender. Thus, it was hypothesized that (1) higher death anxiety will predict higher bedtime procrastination and (2a) gender and (2 b) purpose in life will moderate the relation between death anxiety and bedtime procrastination.
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 245 participants. They were recruited through social media platforms (174 participants) and the department’s subject pool (71 participants). Independent samples t-test results showed that there were no statistically significant differences between these two groups on death anxiety, circadian energy, self-control, purpose in life, and bedtime procras-tination (for the demographic characteristics of the participants and group differences, please see Table 1).
Table 1. Comparison of participants drawn from two sources on all relevant variables.
Internet Subject Pool Total v2 (1) p
Gender 9.54 <.001 Female 99 57 156 Male 61 12 73 Marital Status 10.61 <.001 Single 129 67 196 Married 31 2 33 Children 6.18 .01 Yes 26 3 29 No 134 66 200 Employment 52.11 <.001 Yes 94 5 99 No 66 64 130 Socioeconomic Status 2.23 .53 High 18 3 23 Middle 100 11 150 Low 32 50 43 Very Low 10 5 13 t p Age (mean; sd) 30.20; 11.38 22.30; 6.66 27.82; 10.80
Death Anxiety (mean; sd) 25.25; 10.37 28.22; 11.17 1.94 .05 Circadian Energy (mean; sd) .24; 1.60 .57; 1.50 1.46 .15 Self Control (mean; sd) 41.23; 8.94 39.16; 9.04 1.60 .11 Purpose in Life (mean; sd) 35.25; 8.85 34.75; 8.35 .40 .69 Bedtime Procrastination (mean; sd) 28.58; 7.61 29.21; 8.58 .56 .58
Of the 245 participants, 16 were excluded due to their extremely low sleep quality scores or use of sleep medication. Thus, the data obtained from 229 participants were included in the final sample.
Measures
Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS). Bedtime Procrastination Scale was
developed by Kroese et al. (2014). It includes nine items answered on a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from never to always, and higher scores on this scale indicate a higher level of bedtime procrastination. “I go to bed later than I had intended” is an example for the items of the scale. It is a single-factor scale with an Eigenvalue of 5.5. The scale was adapted to
Turkish by Yılmaz Dinc¸, Koc¸han, and Zat (2016). The Cronbach’s alpha
for Turkish BPS was .71. In terms of validity, it was found that bedtime procrastination scale had a higher association (range¼ 0.46–0.61) with sleep
outcomes than general procrastination (range¼ 0.19 – 0.35). In the present
study, the Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was .91.
Death Attitudes Profile-Revised (DAP-R). The original Death Attitudes
Profile was developed by Gesser, Wong, and Reker (1987) and then revised by the same researchers in 1994. This self-report questionnaire consists of 32 items along five dimensions, which are fear of death (7 items), death avoidance (5 items), neutral acceptance (5 items), approach acceptance (10 items), and escape acceptance (5 items). “I am disturbed by the finality of death” is an example item for the death dimension of the scale. An advan-tage of DAP-R compared to other death attitude scales is that it gives researchers the opportunity to observe a broad range of death attitudes (Wong, Reker, & Gesser, 1994). The items on DAP-R are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Higher scores on subscales indicate the strength of that belief (e.g., fear of death, escape acceptance) regarding death (Wong et al., 1994).
The Turkish adaptation study of DAP-R was conducted by Is¸ık, Fadıloglu, and Demir (2009). In their study, factor analysis revealed three factors, which were (1) neutral acceptance and approach acceptance (12 items); (2) escape acceptance (5 items), and (3) fear of death and death avoidance (9 items). The researchers eliminated six items in the Turkish version due to their low correlations with the total scale (Is¸ık et al., 2009). The internal consistency coefficient of the final scale was .81, and it ranged between .72 and .82 for the subscales. The test-retest reliability for 4-week interval and the coefficient for the two-halves test were .85 and .72, respect-ively. To examine the construct validity of DAP-R, they looked at the cor-relation of it with the Death Anxiety Scale, and they obtained a corcor-relation coefficient of .66.
In the present study, only fear of death subscale of DAP-R was used to assess death anxiety. Factor analysis conducted on our sample yielded the same factor structure with the original study. Thus, the scale was used in the five-factor form. For the present sample, the internal consistency of fear of death subscale was .88.
Purpose in Life Test (PILT). The PILT was developed by Crumbaugh
and Maholick (1964) based on Frankl’s concept of purpose in life. It
includes 20 statements rated on a 7-point Likert scale. For example, the first statement “I am usually” is rated with response options ranging from 1 (“bored”) to 7 (“enthusiastic”). Higher scores on the scale indicate higher purpose and meaning in life. The original scale was reported as a unidi-mensional scale (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964). According to validity
ana-lysis, the PILT could successfully discriminate between “normal” and
psychiatric groups with (Crumbaugh, 1968). The Turkish version of the
scale was adapted by Kırac¸ (2007). After omitting four items, the 16-item Turkish PILT’s Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .91 and split half reliability was .92. The items of adapted PILT loaded under three factors (i.e., quality of life, meaning and purpose, and freedom), and they explained 58.4% of the total variance (Kırac¸, 2007). In the current study, meaning and purpose subscale was used as a moderator variable and its internal consistency was .82.
Brief Self Control Scale (BSCS). Both the original Self Control Scale
and its shorter version were developed by Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone (2004). The scale aims to measure trait self-control, which is regarded as main indicator of self-regulation skills (Kroese et al., 2014; K€uhnel et al., 2018). The items on the scale are measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me), where higher scores indicate higher self-control. “I am good at resisting temptation” is an example for the items of scale. The Turkish version of the BSCS was translated by Nebioglu, Konuk, Akbaba, and Eroglu (2012). The internal consistency coefficient and test-retest reliability of the scale were .83 and .88, respectively. The criterion validity analyses revealed strong negative correlations with the impulsivity subscale of The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11); and weak-to-moderate negative correlations with the controlling negative body responses and anger management subscales of Emotional Management Skills Scale (EMSS). BSCS did also successfully dif-ferentiate individuals with bipolar disorder from healthy controls. In the present study, participants’ scores on this scale were used as a control vari-able. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of BSCS for the present sample was .85.
The Circadian Energy Scale (CIRENS). With the aim of developing a
(2011) developed the CIRENS. It has two items assessing energy levels at morning and evening, and an optional item for afternoon. The items are “In general, how is your energy level (1) in the morning? (2) in the even-ing? and (3) in the afternoon?.” Each item is rated on a 5-point scale rang-ing from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high). Chronotype is determined by subtracting the morning score from the evening score. In terms of categor-ical classification, subjects are considered as morning-type (2), neither-type (1 and 1), or evening-neither-type (2). The correlation between
CIRENS and Morningness-Eveningness Scale (MEQ) was .70 (Ottoni
et al., 2011). In the current study, the CIRENS was used to assess chrono-type (morningness-eveningness) as another control variable.
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The PSQI is a self-report scale that measures quality of sleep and sleep disturbances over the past month. The original scale was developed by Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman, and Kupfer (1989). The scale is composed of 24 items. Nineteen of the self-rated questions and remaining 5 items are answered by the individual’s sleep partner or roommate. The items rated on a 4-point scale ranging
from 0 to 3. An example for these items is “During the past month, how
would you rate your sleep quality overall?” The total score of PSQI varies between 0 and 21. While those with a total score of 5 and below indicates “good” sleep quality, the scores of above 5 indicate “poor” sleep quality. The scale has seven components, which were subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, duration of sleep, routine sleep activity, sleep disorders, use of drugs for sleeping, and daytime dysfunction. The original scale was found to have adequate internal consistency (a ¼ .80) and test-retest reliability over 28-days interval (r¼ .85). Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, and Hoch (1991) found that the scale has 89.6% sensitivity and 86.5% specificity in discern-ing sleep disorders. The scale was adapted to Turkish by Agarg€un, Kara, and Anlar (1996). Turkish PSQI had a good internal consistency (a ¼ .80)
and test-retest reliability (r¼ .98). In this study the PSQI was used to meas-ure sleep duration, sleep latency, sleep quality and the items rated by the sleep partner of the individual were excluded. The internal consistency of the PSQI was found as .75 for this study.
Procedure
Before the data collection, IRB approval was obtained from the Applied Ethics Research Center of the Institution. All instruments were presented online to participants through a Qualtric’s website. For participant recruit-ment, the authors shared the link of this survey in social media platforms as well as in department’s online data collection system with the same announcement informing the participants about the purpose of the study,
confidentiality procedures, and their right to refuse or quit the survey at any time during the process. After the approval of the participants, the questionnaires were presented in a counterbalanced order. Completing the online questionnaire took approximately 25 minutes.
Results
Descriptive statistics
The participants’ responses to the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) showed that their average sleep duration was 7.09 hours (SD¼ 1.23). Only 6.6% and .4% of the participants reported that they sleep less than 5 hours and more than 10 hours, respectively. Sleep latency as measured by PSQI was 27.1 minutes (SD¼ 23.73). Majority of the participants reported that they fell asleep in 30 minutes after going to bed.
Regarding subjective sleep quality, more than half of the participants described their sleep quality as fairly good. For detailed information about sleep quality please see Table 2. Means and standard deviations of gender differences on study variables can be seen in Table 3. Pearson correlation
coefficients among the study variables are presented in Table 4 and
Table 5.
Multiple moderation analysis
To test the hypothesis that gender and purpose in life function as modera-tors of the relation between death anxiety on bedtime procrastination,
Table 2. Sleep quality descriptives.
Sleep duration Sleep Latency Subjective sleep quality Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Less than 5 hrs 15 6.6 0–15 mins 101 44.1 Very good 18 7.9% 5–6 hrs 34 14.8 15–30 mins 73 31.9 Fairly good 121 52.8% 6–7 hrs 79 34.5 30–60 mins 43 18.8 Fairly bad 82 35.8% 7–8 hrs 72 31.4 > 60 mins 12 5.2 Very bad 8 3.5% 8–9 hrs 24 10.5
9–10 hrs 4 1.7 >10 hrs 1 .4
Table 3. Gender differences on relevant variables.
Sample Females Males
M SD M SD M SD t Age 27.82 10.81 25.95 8.50 31.82 13.81 3.349 Self-control 40.61 9.0 40.44 9.41 40.96 8.11 .404 Circadian energy .34 1.56 .37 1.59 .26 1.52 .502 Death Anxiety 26.14 10.68 28.08 10.33 22.00 10.31 4.157 Purpose in life 35.10 8.69 34.87 8.38 35.59 9.35 .581 Bedtime procrastination 28.77 7.91 28.92 8.09 28.47 7.55 .401 Note. p < .001.
PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2013) was used. Gender, the interaction of gender and death anxiety, the interaction of purpose in life and death anxiety, and death anxiety variables were included in the model. These variables accounted for a significant amount of variance in bedtime procrastination, R2¼ .11, F(5, 223) ¼ 5.38, p < .001. The significant predictors of bedtime procrastination were gender (b¼ 7.97, t(233) ¼ 2.91, p < .01) and
inter-action of gender and death anxiety (b¼ .34, t(223) ¼ 3.25, p ¼ .001).
Conditional effect of gender on the relation between death anxiety and
bedtime procrastination was significant, DR2¼ .04, F(1, 223) ¼ 10.58,
p¼ .001. In other words, death anxiety was a significant predictor of bed-time procrastination only for males. The interactions were probed with pick a point method for gender (female, male) and purpose in life scores (1 SD, mean, and 1 SD). The results showed the conditional effect for males at 1 SD, mean, and 1 SD purpose in life scores were 30 (p ¼ .002), .32 (p < .001) and .33 (p ¼ .001), respectively (see Table 6). After control-ling for age, having children, marital status, employment, self-control, and circadian energy, the moderation of gender on the relation between death
Table 4. Correlations among the study variables for females.
1 2 3 4 5 1. Age 2. Circadian Energy .17 3. Self Control .31 .23 4. Death Anxiety .13 .07 .06 5. Purpose in Life .18 .25 .46 .08 6. Bedtime Procrastination .05 .34 .37 .02 .19 Note. p < .05, p < .01 p < .001.
Table 5. Correlations among the study variables for males.
1 2 3 4 5 1. Age 2. Circadian Energy .40 3. Self Control .46 .28 4. Death Anxiety .21 .16 .26 5. Purpose in Life .49 .23 .55 .07 6. Bedtime Procrastination .32 .20 .65 .41 .32 Note. p < .05, p < .01 p < .001.
Table 6. Conditional effects of death anxiety at values of the moderators.
Gender Purpose in life Regression Coefficient SE t p LLCI ULCI Females 26.41 (1 SD) .04 .07 .54 ¼.59 .18 .10 35.10 (Mean) .03 .06 .44 ¼.66 .14 .09 43.79 (1 SD) .01 .07 .17 ¼.87 .16 .13 Males 26.41 (1 SD) .30 .09 3.20 <.01 .12 .49 35.10 (Mean) .32 .09 3.64 <.001 .14 .49 43.79 (1 SD) .33 .10 3.32 ¼.001 .13 .52 Note. LLCI: Lower Limit Confidence Interval; ULCI: Upper Limit Confidence Interval.
anxiety and bedtime procrastination still accounted 2% of variance in bed-time procrastination (p¼ .02) (see Table 6and Figure 1).
Discussion
Although the concept of procrastination is usually related to aversive activ-ities (Kroese, Nauts, Kamphorst, Anderson, & De Ridder, 2016), bedtime procrastination concerns delaying sleep, which is usually considered to be a non-aversive, regenerative, and healthy activity. Given this contradiction, we proposed that the resemblance between sleep and death constitutes the aversive component of sleep. Thus, the present study examined the effect of death anxiety on bedtime procrastination. According to the results of the study, gender significantly moderated the association between death anxiety and bedtime procrastination. The effect of death anxiety on bed-time procrastination was significant for males, but not for females. The moderation effect was significant even after controlling other socio-demo-graphic factors, such as age, marital status, having children, and
employ-ment, and non-demographic variables such as self-control and
circadian energy.
The moderator role of gender in death anxiety–bedtime procrastination association might be explained with various findings and theories. It has been widely observed that females report significantly more death anxiety than males (Depaola et al., 2003; Eshbaugh & Henninger, 2013; Lester et al., 2007). This significant association remained even after controlling self-disclosure and social desirability (Dattel & Neimeyer, 1990). On the other hand, most of the researchers investigating the terror management theory did not find gender differences after mortality salience manipula-tions, except risk-taking (Burke, Martens, & Faucher, 2010). Researchers using experimental designs demonstrated that mortality salience increases risk-taking attitudes of male participants, but not female participants
(Hirschberger, Florian, Mikulincer, Goldenger, & Pyszczynski, 2002;
Taubman Ben-Ari, Florian, & Mikulincer, 1999). Bedtime procrastination
Figure 1. Interactions of gender and purpose in life with death anxiety on bedtime procrastination.
can also be considered a risky behavior: “Voluntarily delaying going to bed, despite foreseeably being worse off as a result” (Kroese et al., 2014).
Men’s lifespan is shorter than women’s (Austad, 2006; Barford, Dorling, Smith, & Shaw, 2006; Eskes & Haanen, 2007), and consequently, bedtime procrastination could be even more risky for males, because it leads to insufficient sleep, and fatigue (Kroese, Evers, et al., 2016). Moreover, females tend to engage in more health behaviors compared to males and males are more inclined to take health-related risks than females (Lippa,
2005; Umberson, 1992). While bedtime procrastinators are usually aware of the results of their actions (e.g., being tired the next day, having diminished concentration, attention, and productivity), they intentionally choose to behave that way; and take the risk of being worse off (Kroese, et al., 2016). Also, from the terror management theory perspective, risk-taking can be included in males’ world view and it may serve as an anxiety buffer (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1997; Hirschberger et al., 2002). As a result, males with high fear of death may engage in more bedtime procras-tination, which is a risky and health-compromising behavior. In other words, they practice their world view by taking the risk of bedtime procras-tination and cope with their death anxiety.
Moreover, in a qualitative study of 40 males investigating their experien-ces of sleep, it was found that men generally perceived sleep as a waste of time and less important compared to other things (Meadows, Arber, Venn, & Hislop, 2008). One participant even stated that he would like to take a pill to get rid of the need for sleep completely. The notion of risk was another prominent theme. In other words, males regarded insufficient sleep as a risk that can be taken. Thus, males still tend to take the risk of not sleeping in order to spend more time on other, more “valuable” activities,
even though insufficient sleep causes various health problems.
Unfortunately, there were no qualitative studies about females’ attitudes toward sleep. Thus, it cannot be suggested that women do not consider sleep a waste of time. Nevertheless, the responses of the male participants supported the importance of risk factor in bedtime procrastination. Moreover, if males consider sleep a waste of time, it is plausible that males with higher fear of death are more likely to procrastinate. By delaying bed-time, they could use their limited life time more freely. This choice may be a conscious or unconscious decision. It seems that the issue requires fur-ther investigation to determine the underlying motives of choice.
The present study revealed that purpose in life was not significantly asso-ciated with death anxiety; and also it was not a significant moderator in the relation between death anxiety and bedtime procrastination. Although these findings were not in line with our hypotheses, they might be explained by two factors; the characteristics of our sample and the structure
of Purpose in Life Test (PILT). The majority of the present sample con-sisted of young adults. The unique characteristics of this age period might have affected the results. Young adulthood—that is, the age period between 18 and 25—is characterized by identity exploration and a search for mean-ing (Arnett, 2000; Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens, & Pollock, 2008; Steger, Oishi, & Kashdan, 2009). Being in the process of searching for meaning in life is a different inner state than having already found meaning. In fact, the search for meaning is defined as a rather dynamic effort to establish a purpose in life (Steger, Kashdan, Sullivan, & Lorentz, 2008). Thus, search for meaning and presence of meaning were proposed to be two different psychological concepts. As Lyke (2013) claimed, using PILT may be prob-lematic if researchers aim to measure search for meaning, because this scale was designed to assess the degree to which a person achieved meaning. In line with this conceptualization, researchers indicated that although mean-ing in life is negatively correlated with death anxiety (Bolt, 1978; Durlak,
1972; Tomer, Eliason, & Wong, 2008), one’s search for meaning is
posi-tively correlated with death anxiety (Lyke, 2013).
If search for meaning had been measured for this sample, the results could have been in line with the previous findings. That is, to examine the effect of purpose in life on death anxiety more precisely, further studies might employ different measurement tools, especially when studying young age groups.
The current study is not without its limitations. First of all, being a cross-sectional study, our study does not imply any causal relationship between death anxiety and bedtime procrastination. Second, the majority of the participants were students. In future studies, larger and more represen-tative samples might provide more robust results showing the association between death anxiety and bedtime procrastination. Third, some partici-pants were excluded from analyses due to their extremely low sleep quality scores on Pittsburg Sleep Quality Inventory (PSQI) and use of sleep medi-cation, which could be indicators of insomnia. We recommend future researchers to use a standardized insomnia measure to exclude participants who have insomnia.
All in all, this preliminary study was an exploratory one that attempted to examine the relation between death anxiety and a newly emerging con-cept of bedtime procrastination. Though the study provided some promis-ing results, further studies are required to expand the scope of these findings. Knowing that the assessment of death anxiety is a complicated issue due to various conscious and unconscious defenses employed by indi-viduals to protect themselves from the inescapable terror of it (Solomon et al., 2000), further studies should employ different methodologies investi-gating this relation between death anxiety and bedtime procrastination. One possible way to assess its preconscious forms could be using implicit
assessment tools, such as Implicit Association Test (Bassett & Dabbs, 2003). Use of different death anxiety scales may also be useful to capture the nature of the relation between other aspects of death anxiety and bedtime procrastination.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
We confirm that (1) our research meets the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements of the study country; (2) ethical com-mittee approval was sought where necessary and is acknowledged within the text of the submitted manuscript; (3) guidelines on patient consent have been met and any details of informed consent obtained are indicated within the text of the submitted manuscript; and (4) we do not have any conflict of interest in relation to this paper.
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