Modeling
institutional
evolution
Bilin
Neyapti
*
BilkentUniversity,DepartmentofEconomics,06800Bilkent,Ankara,Turkey
1. Introduction
Institutions are defined as commonly accepted rules of the game and their enforcement mechanismsthatresultfromrepeatedhumaninteractions(North,1990).Theintertwinednatureof therelationshipbetweeninstitutionsandeconomicperformancehasbecomeakeyfocusofthenew developmenteconomicsliterature.1Thisstudyoffersaformalframeworktoanalyzethisrelationshipin
viewofthetwoprominentapproachestoinstitutionaleconomics:transactioncostandcollectiveaction theories.TheformerofthesehasbeenpioneeredbyCoase(1960)anddevelopedasNewInstitutional Economics(NIE)byWilliamson(1985)andNorth(1990)amongothers,whilethelatterisduetoOlson (1965,1982).Thetwoapproachescomplementeachotherinunderstandingthenatureofinstitutions inagiveneconomyatagivenperiod,aswellasthefactorsthataffecttheirevolution.
Thetransactioncostapproachtoinstitutionalchangefocusesonthechangesinproductivefactors andtheirrelativepricesthatinturninfluencethenatureofinstitutionalarrangementsdemandedby ARTICLE INFO
Articlehistory: Received10April2012
Receivedinrevisedform25April2012 Accepted15May2012 Keywords: Institutionalevolution Punctuatedpath Growth ABSTRACT
Thispaperproposesaformalframeworktoanalyzetheprocessof institutionalevolutioninrelationwitheconomicprogress. Institu-tionshavebothformal(F)andinformal(N)aspectsthatmayexhibit varyingprocessesofchange.Nishypothesizedtoevolvewiththe levelofcapitalstock,asinlearningbydoing,whereasFischosen optimallybyagovernmentthatmaximizesoutputsubjecttosocial and political costs. F and N together define the production technologyandaffecttheincomelevel.Consistentwithevidence, simulationsofthemodel’ssolutionrevealthatoptimumFexhibitsa punctuatedpattern.
ß 2012ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
*Tel.:+903122902030;fax:+903122665140. E-mailaddress:neyapti@bilkent.edu.tr.
1
Theexamplesaremany,andinclude:Aron(2000),Clarke(2001),Cukiermanetal.(1992,2002),DollarandKraay(2003), EasterlyandLevine(2003),KnackandKeefer(1995),andRodriketal.(2002),tonamejustafewprominentones.
ContentslistsavailableatSciVerseScienceDirect
Economic
Systems
j o u r n a lh o m e p a g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / e c o s y s
0939-3625/$–seefrontmatterß2012ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosys.2012.05.004
society. According tothis approach, institutions adapt both to each other and tothe changing economicenvironment.Collectiveactiontheory,ontheotherhand,focusesonthecircumstancesthat affect the formation and effectiveness of interest groups that facilitate institutional changevia affectinggovernments’decisions.2Whilethefirstapproachprovidesanefficientviewofinstitutional
choice, collective action theory underlies the dynamics of institutional change, explaining the observedinefficiencieswithregardtoinstitutionalchange.3
In view of these two approaches, this paper models the formal and informal aspects of institutionsininteractionbothwitheachotherandwitheconomic progress.Astechnological accumulationanddemographicevolutionleadtochangesinthemeansofproduction,socialnorms andtraditionalwaysofdoingbusiness(informalinstitutions)continuouslyadapttothosechanges, albeitslowly.Whentheevolutionofinformalinstitutionsreachesalevelthatisnotsupportedwith theprevailing formalinstitutions, new interestgroupsemerge andsupport a changeinlegal frameworks.4Theprevailingformalstructureshavetheirpowerfulsupportgroups,however,who
wouldresistthechange.Hence,allinstitutionalchangesresultingfromthesedynamicsmaynotbe Paretoimproving.
Sinceformalinstitutionalchangeiscostlyduetocreativedestruction,itisinfrequent,althoughit maybeabruptandofteninefficientduetothepowerstruggleofinterestgroups.5Olson(1982)calls
thisphenomenoninstitutionalsclerosisandarguesthatitisamainfactorinexplainingthelowgrowth ratesinsomestabledemocracies.6Aspoliticiansfaceresistancefromspecialinterestgroups,reforms
maygetdelayeduntilthecostsbecometoowidespreadandoverwhelming,sometimesleadingto crises. Institutionsare usually reformed when their benefitsexceedthe cost ofmaintaining the existingonesontheaggregate.Politicalandeconomiccrisesthatdestroytheexistingpower-balances oftengenerateanimpetusforradicalinstitutionalreforms.7Therefore,thepatternofinstitutional
changeiscommonlyobservedtobepunctuated.
Inviewoftheforegoing,modelinginstitutionalevolutionshoulddistinguishbetweentwokey attributesofa productiontechnology:(i)thesetofinformalrules (N)thatisembedded in,or formedby,culturalorstructuralcharacteristicsofasocietyand(ii)thesetofformalrules(F)that definetheformalorganizationalcharacteristicsofproduction.Asproductionrelations(proxiedby N)evolvewiththeaccumulationofthefactorsofproduction,asinlearningbydoing,changesin lawsandregulationsthatorganizethoseproductionrelations(F)maylagbehind.Theadoptionof well-designedbankingorcompetitionlawsandfiscalpolicyinstitutionsare,forinstance,often observedtolagbehindtheneedsofaneconomyandusuallyfollowadiscontinuouspatternof development.8
Inadditiontodecisionsresultingfromdomesticpoliticalprocesses,internationaladviceor aid-conditionalitiesofinternationalorganizationsmayalsoplayaroleinformalinstitutionalchanges. Manytransitioncountries,forexample,haveadoptedlawsbasedontheexperiencesofdeveloped countries(best-practiceinstitutions),althoughtheymaynotbeconsistentwithdomesticneeds. Conflicts between legislations (F)and existing informal rules (N),however,have led to such reformsbeingdysfunctionalinseveralcases.9Inthesamespirit,bothBoettkeetal.(2008)and
2
CoatesandHeckelman(2003)andCoatesetal.(2010,2011)provideempiricalevidenceinsupportofOlson’stheory. Heckelman(2007)providesareviewofempiricaltestsofOlson’stheory.
3
SeealsoNabliandNugent(1989).
4
KemmerlingandNeugart(2009),forexample,showthesignificantroleofadevelopedfinancialsectoronpensionreforms inOECD.
5
Afutureextensionwillbedevotedtoendogenizingthechangesinthepowerstructureintheeconomytoexplicitly incorporatethecollectiveactiontheoryandthusthepoliticaleconomyperspectiveintothecurrentmodel.
6
AccordingtoOlson,stabledemocraciesaremostlikelytoaccumulatespecialinterestgroups,leadingtoinstitutional inefficienciesofthekindlatermodeledinAcemoglu(2006).
7
See,forexample,DincerandNeyapti(2008)forempiricalevidenceonthesignificanteffectofcrisesontheadoptionof bankinglaws.
8
CompetitionlawinTurkey,forexample,waslegislatedmorethanadecadeafteritsproposal,andmorethan100yearsafter itwasputintopracticeintheUS.
9
Transitioneconomies,forinstance,haveadoptedlegislationsthatgrantindependencetotheircentralbanksorbanking lawsofdevelopedcountriesattheonsetofreformsintheearly1990s;thoselegislations,however,lackedthequalityof implementabilitywhentheywerenotaccompaniedbyotherreforms(seeCukiermanetal.,2002;NeyaptiandDincer,2005).
Williamson(2009)argue, andprovideempiricalevidence,thatNisamoredominantfactorin explainingthedevelopmentprocessthanF,whichneedstoadapttoNtohaveanimpactonthe level ofdevelopment.10Mathers andWilliamson (2011),WilliamsonandMathers(2011)and
WilliamsonandKerekes(2011)allpointouttheimportanceofdistinguishingbetweenFandN,and reportevidenceregarding theirdynamicinterrelationshipwitheachotherandwitheconomic development.
Althoughtherehavebeenafewrecentattemptstomodelinstitutionalchange,thecomplexity ofthedynamicsinvolvingitspoliticalandeconomicaspectsleadsthesemodelstofocusonspecific aspectsofinstitutionalevolution.Foremostamongthem,Acemoglu(2006)developsapolitical economymodelbasedonex-antecharacterizationsofamiddleclass,workersandtheelitewho initiallyholdsallthepoliticalpower.Hearguesthatinefficientpoliciesresultunderbothfactor pricemanipulationand,thoughtoalesserextent,therevenueextractionincentivesoftheelite.In thatmodel,apotentialswitchofpoliticalpowertowardsthemiddleclassalsoresultsininefficient policychoices.Inefficientinstitutionsresult fromtheelite’sdesiretomaintainthesepolicies. Utilizing the implementation-theory framework to combine social choice with institutional economics,Yao(2004)alsostudiestheissueofinstitutionalefficiency.Hefindsthatinstitutional changeissensitivetoincomedistributionandstickywithrespecttotheeconomicenvironment; under several assumptions that define a good political process, efficient institutions arenot implementable.11
The current study presents an original framework that utilizes capital accumulation and technologyadoptiontomodeltheevolutionarypatternofFandN.Themodelpredictsapunctuated trajectory for F, which is consistent with the observed evolution patterns of various formal institutions.Inwhatfollows,Section2statesthemainthesisofthisstudy.Section3outlinesthe formalmodel,followedbycalibrationsthatarepresentedinSection3.1.Thefindingsofthemodelare comparedtotheempiricalevidenceinSection3.2.Section4concludes.
2. Thehypothesis
Thispaperarguesthattheevolutionofformalinstitutionsusuallylagsbehindthatofinformal institutions;here,Ispecifically focus onthe intrinsicprocessofinstitutionaldynamicsrather than externally guidedor imposedchanges that may reverse this phenomenon. As informal institutionschangeasaresultoflearningbydoing,theprocessviawhichtheorganizationofwork changesasfactorsofproductionevolveandadapttotechnologywhichinturnfollowsacontinual progression, formal institutions change by legislations that are enacted by the government. Althoughformal institutionsmay hencechangeovernight,the frequencyof majorchangesin themisrelativelylow.
Ina democraticsystem, governments facesome probabilityof replacement everyelection period and often focus on the demands of narrow constituencies rather than encompassing interests.12Untilthecontinuousprogressionininformalinstitutionsleadstotheemergenceof
newinterestgroupsthatgainpoliticalpowertosupportformalinstitutionalreforms,government policiesarelikely to accommodatethe demands of existing interest groupstoincrease their reelectionchances.Forthesakeofsimplicity,thecurrentmodelrefrainsfrommodelingpolitical competitionandinterestgroupdynamicsexplicitly.Toaccountforthesedynamicsimplicitly,the costof changingF isassumed todependonthe stateofthe economy.Ina politicaleconomy extensionofthismodel,whichisthesubjectofafuturestudy,interestgroupdynamicswillbe modeledasafunctionofthestateoftheeconomy,incorporatingthecollectiveactionapproach explicitlyintothemodel.
10
Boettkeetal.(2008)classifyinstitutionsasendogenousandexogenous,introducedbyforeignandindigenousactors,and arguethatindigenous-introducedendogenousinstitutionsarestickier.
11
AssumptionsthatdefineagoodpoliticalprocessareMaskinmonotonicity,theconsiderationofindividualpreferencesonly, nointerpersonalutilitycomparison,andzeromonetarytransfers,thelastofwhichiscrucialforthereportedfinding.
Whentherearepowerfulnarrowintereststhatincurthe(economicorpolitical)costsofchanging formalinstitutions,ittakestimeforpoliticianstorespond totheneeds buildingupforachange. Hence,rather than adjusting to the changes in Nevery period, F would exhibit a stepwise, or punctuated,change,occurringinaradicalfashionthatfollowsaperiodofstability.Thenotionofa punctuatedevolutionarypathfollowsfromevolutionarybiology(seeEldredgeandGould,1972)that arguesthatspeciesexistforanextendedperiod(stasis)untiltheyaresomewhatabruptlyreplacedby otherspecies(whichhasposedachallengetoDarwin’sgradualistapproachtoevolution).Thenotion ofinstitutionsfollowinga punctuatedpathhasalsobeendiscussedoralludedtointhepolitical scienceliterature(see,forexample,Mahoney,2000;Pierson,2000)andinorganizationtheory(see Gersick,1991),althoughit hasnotyetbeenmodeledformally.13Themodelproposedherehasa
potentialtoexplicitlyaccommodateforvariouspath-dependenceviewsofinstitutionalreproduction discussedinpoliticalscience.Gersickfurthernotes theusesofthis theoryintheexplanationsof scientific revolution, industrial innovation, organizational adaptation, adult development and in physics.Ina similar vein,Roland (2004)likensthedynamics of institutionalchangetobuilding tectonicpressures(intheformofgrowinginconsistencybetweenNandF),eventuallygivingwaytoa majorearthquake(anabruptchangeinF).
The main contribution of this paper is modeling formal institutional evolution in dynamic interactionwiththeeconomicgrowthprocess.Itsmainhypothesisisthat,facingthecostsofchanging institutionsthatareassociated withthechangingpreferences ofinterest groups,agovernment’s objective of maximizing its net benefit results in a punctuated nature of (formal) institutional evolution.
3. Themodel
Consideragovernmentthatchoosesthelevelofformalinstitutions(F)optimallytomaximizethe levelofoutput.Inreality,it canbearguedthat eachgovernmenthasaspecificconstituencyand optimallychoosesFbothtoserveitsredistributivepoliciesandtomaximizeitsreelectionchances, ratherthantomaximizeoutput.Thecurrentmodelproposesasimplesetupwhereitisassumedthat eachgovernmentcaresaboutthewholesocietyandassumestheentirecostofchangetoF;hence,the governmenttypedoesnotmatterwhilethestateoftheeconomydoes.Thissimplificationismerelyto focusonexplainingthedynamicsofinstitutionalevolution.14
Theproductionfunctionisinitsusualform,exceptthattechnology(A)iscomposedofformal (legal)andinformalinstitutions(norms),denotedbyFandN,respectively:
y¼AðF;NÞfðkÞ; where A0
1;2>0; A001;2<0; f
0
>0 and f00<0 (1)
whereystandsforpercapitaoutputandkiscapitalpercapita.Northdefinesproductionasaprocess comprisingbothtransformationandtransaction.Accordingly,thewaytechnologyisexpressed,A(F, N), reflects the transaction-cost reduction function of institutions.15 Thus, an increase in the
institutionalquality,indicatedbyhighervaluesofFandN,implieshighertotalproductivityorlower transactioncosts.16Incorporatingtheroleofinstitutionsintothemodelinthisfashionmayappear
13
Inthecontextoforganizationaltheory,Gersickarguesthatequilibriumissuchastatethatdeepstructuresdonotchangefor longperiodswhileinternalandexternalperturbationsaffectthesystemgradually.Healsonotesthat:PrigogineandStengers (1984,p.207)...havearguedthattraditionaldeterministicparadigmshavehad‘‘particularlyunfortunate’’effectsonthesocial sciences.Accordingtotheseauthors,thesearchforoptimizing,predictivetrajectoriesthatcanbeextrapolatedtoinfinityismisguided becausesuchapproachesaccountneitherfortheextremestowhichinertiamaydriveasystem....,asGould(1985)noted,effortsto unravelasystem’sworkingsbyminutelydissectingitspartsmissthepointwhentheparts’behaviorisdeterminedbythedeep structurethatorganizesthem.
14
Inapoliticaleconomyextension,differentconstituenciesandredistributivepoliciesshouldbetakenintoaccount.
15
Inaveryusefulrecentpaper,Halletal.(2010)modelgrowthwhereinstitutionsaffectgrowthviatheireffectonthe productivityof(physicalandhuman)capitalandprovideempiricalsupportforthisproposition.However,theirstudytakes institutionsasgivenandalsodoesnotdistinguishbetweenformalandinformalaspects.
16GranvilleandLeonard(2010)providerecentempiricalevidence,basedonthe89regionsoftheRussianFederation,that
simplistic,thoughitnotonlyservesformathematicaltractabilitybutitisalsoconsistentwiththe manyconceptionsofinstitutions.
FandNcanbeviewedasindexnumbersthatrangebetween0and1(orsomeupperandlower valuessuchasF<F< ¯FandN<N< ¯N),where1representsthehighestquality ofaninstitutional attribute.17Totalfactorproductivity(A)increasesinbothFandN,butatadecreasingrate.
Informalinstitutionsevolveaccordingtotheprocess:
Ntþ1¼NtþgðktÞ; where g0>0; g<0; (2)
whichindicatesthatNprogresseswiththelevelofpercapitacapital,inlineswiththeendogenous growthliterature.HencetheprogressionofNexhibitslearningbydoing;thehigherthelevelofcapital, thehigherthequalityorlevelofnormsthatamasswithit,definingahigherleveloftechnology.The equationcanalsobewrittenas:Nt¼NOþPti¼1gðktiÞ,implyingthatthequalityofnormsatany given time is givenby aninitial levelof normsthat is augmentedby the‘‘stockof know-how’’ accumulatedovertime.
Capitalperlaborevolvesaccordingtothestandardlawofmotion:
ktþ1¼ð1
d
ÞktþIt (3)where
d
is therateofdepreciationand It isthelevel ofinvestmentat time t.18Without lossof generality,itcanbefurtherassumedthatpopulationgrowthiszeroandhenceinvestmentisequalto thesavingsminusdepreciationallowance,suchthatIt= sytd
kt,wheresisthesavingsrate.19Amendingformalinstitutions,orchangingtheproductiontechnology,involves costscoinedas creativedestruction,alongwithitsprojectedbenefits.Hence,theincumbentgovernmentchoosesFto maximizeoutput,netofthecostofchangingF.Thesecostsmaybeintheformofincreasedwelfare spendingtoaccommodatethelaborthatbecomesidleasaresultofthenewlyadoptedtechnologiesor modifiedorganizationalstructures.20Theextentofthesecoststendstoberelatedpositivelywiththe
magnitudeofachangeinF,andnegativelywiththeprevailingdistancebetweenFandN.21Thefirstof
theseeffectsarisessinceeachlevelofFislikelytobeassociatedwithcertainspecialinterestgroups whomayresistitschange.IfoneconsidersthatNrepresentstheencompassinginterestsinasociety, however,thecloserFistoN,thelesssociallynecessaryoreconomicallyefficientwouldbeachangein F;hence,thelesswouldtherebepoliticalsupportforachangeinF.Hence,thecloserFistoN,the greaterthecostofchangingF.Inviewoftheabove,thegovernment’sproblemcanbewrittenas:
MaxF yC
D
F; F N ; where C0 1>0 and C 0 2>0 (4)Themechanicsofendogenousinstitutionalchangecanbesummarizedasfollows:thelevelof output,andthussavings,determinesthelevelofcapitalaccumulation,whichinturnleadsNtoevolve vialearningbydoing.Ineachperiod,thegovernmentoptimallychoosesFtomaximizethenetbenefit givenbyEq.(4).ThemodelimpliesthatwhileanincreaseinkleadsNtoincreaseandinturnaffectsthe optimalchoiceofF,FaffectsthelevelofNthroughitsaffectony.Hence,FandNinteractcontinuously, reflectingimplicitlythatthecostofchangingFhingesuponthestateofcollectiveaction.Hence, althoughhighervaluesofFmayreducetransactioncostsandthereforeincreaseoutput,theymaynot beoptimalforagovernmenttoincreaseF.
17
Theliteratureprovidesmanyexamplesofquantificationofinstitutionalqualityonanordinalscale.See,forexample, CentralBankIndependenceIndices(Cukiermanetal.,1992,2002);CorruptionPerceptionIndex(TransparencyInternational), EconomicFreedomoftheWorldIndex;andGovernanceindices(theWorldBank),tonameafewamongstthemany.
18
Iassumefullinvestmentefficiencyinthesensethatallinvestmentspendingbecomesanadditiontothecapitalstock.
19
Capitalaccumulationmayalsobeconsideredtoinvolveashocktermsuchthatkt+1= (1 d)kt+ It+ et,wherealargeetstands
foramajorleapinthecapital/laborratioduetoeitherdestructionofsomeproductiveforces,ininstancessuchaswarornatural disastersorasaresultofmajortechnologicalinnovations.Significantchangesinthestructureofproductionarealsooften associatedwithsignificantchangesinthepowerstructureandhencehaveimportantpoliticalimplications.Transitionfrom feudalismtocapitalismandsocialismentailedsuchmasstransformationsfromextensivetointensivelaboruseandthe IndustrialRevolution.
20
Moscoso-Boedo(2010)incorporatesthesecostsintothelawsofmotionofthephysicalandskilledworkerstocks.
21Inapoliticaleconomyextension,thesecostscanbedefinedastheweightedsumofthecostsincurredbydifferent
Theabovedynamicscanbesummedupbythefollowingsequentialpattern:
(i) GivenNtandFt,ktdepreciateseachperiodwhilenewcapitalaccumulatesduetosavingsthatare fullyturnedintoinvestments.
(ii) Nt+1evolveswithkt.
(iii) Basedonthelevelsofkt+1andNt+1,aswellastheratioofFttoNtinthecurrentperiod,optimalFt+1 isselectedtomaximizeyt+1–ifoptimalFt+1ishigherthanFt,andlessthanNt+1.22
3.1. Simulations
In ordertoobtainexplicitsolutionsforthemodelandtosimulatethetrajectoryofoptimalF, Eqs.(5)–(8)areconsideredinplaceofEqs.(1)–(4).Thegovernmentsolvesthefollowingproblem, wheretheproductionfunctionisgivenbyðFtþ1Ntþ1Þukbtþ1:
MaxFtþ1 ðFtþ1Ntþ1Þuktþ1b Cð
D
Ft;Ntþ1Þ (5) where the technology exhibits complementarity between F and N such that (for F < N), total productivitygetshigherthecloserthevaluesofFandN).Thecostfunctionisgivenby: Cð
D
Ft;Ntþ1Þ¼a
ðFtþ1FtÞFt Nt
; where
a
>0: (6)Inaddition,thelawofmotionforNandFisgivenbyEqs.(7)and(8)23:
Ntþ1¼NtþN½1=ð100logðkt tÞ (7)
ktþ1¼sðFtNtÞukbt þð1
d
Þkt; where 0<s;u
;b
;d
<1: (8) ItisfurtherassumedthatFt+1>FtandFt+1 Nt+1.Theformeroftheseassumptionsismadeonthe groundsthat,usually,theformalchangesarejustifiedandapprovediftheyimplysomeimprovement overtheexistingones;eventhoughtheoppositecasemayexistinreality,thecurrentstudydoesnot addressitasitisrare.Thesecondassumption,inaway,representsstatus-quobias;ifFislettoexceed N,itwoulddistorttheexistingonesandgenerateitsownnewinterestgroups.After substituting(6) in(5),thesolutionof theproblem givenby Eq.(5)yieldsthefollowing optimalpathforFt+1:
F tþ1¼
a
u
Ft Nt 1 Nu tþ1k b tþ1 " #ð1=ðu1Þ ; ifa
u
Ft Nt 1 Nu tþ1k b tþ1 " #ð1=ðu1Þ >F F; otherwise 8 > < > : (9)Hence,thesolutionoftheaboveproblemsatisfiesEqs.(5),(6)and(9).GiventheinitialvaluesofNand F,thevaluesofN,F,k,andycanthusbesimulatedtoyieldadynamicpath.
Fig.1showsthesimulationsofF*andkusingasetofreasonableparametervaluesfor
d
,b
ands.25Thefigureisbasedon
a
= 50andu
= 0.5,althoughdifferentvaluesoftheseparametersleadtosimilar patterns.26Theinitialcapitalintensityisnormalizedto1.Thefigurehasthreepanelscorrespondingtothreedifferentsets ofinitialF and Nvalues thatare considered toproxydifferentdevelopment scenarios.Tobeabletofocussolelyonthedifferencesintrajectoriesthatarisefromdifferentinitial
24
22ThelastassumptioncanbemadebasedontheendogenousevolutionofF,inwhichcasethedemandsofinterestgroupsare
limitedbythelevelofN.
23
ThefunctionalformgiveninEq.(7)ischosentoobtainasmoothprogressionforN.
24
I I nitial
:
N
=
0
.
3
a
n
d
I
n
i
t
i
a
l
F=0.1
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 years F* 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 years KII.
Initial N=0.7;I nitial F=0.5
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1 5 9 13 17 21 2529 33 37 41 45 49 years F* 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 years K
III.
Initial
N=0.7;I nitial F=0.2
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 years F* 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 years K
valuesofinstitutions,therestoftheparametervaluesandvariablecalibrationsarekeptconstant acrossdifferentscenarios.
The first panel in Fig. 1 represents the case of developing countries that have low levelsof institutionaldevelopment, withless than 0.5 initial values for F and N. The second represents developedcountries,wherebothtypesofinstitutionalindicesarerelativelyhigh(F = 0.5andN = 0.7), andthethirdonedevelopedcountrieswherenormsaredevelopedbutformalinstitutionsarenot, whereFandNaretakentobe0.2and0.7respectively.Forthislastcase,onecouldconsiderthe2007 crisisthat pointed at theneed ofsubstantial reforms for thefinancial institutions ofdeveloped countries.Onecanobserveclearly,basedonallthepanelsinFig.1,thatthetrajectoriesofF*reflecta punctuatednature.Inaddition,acomparisonofthelevelstowhichF*andkconvergeinallthree panelsindicatesthatconvergencemayberealizedandthepoverty-trapmaybeavoidedinthecaseof continuousinstitutionalreforms,evenwheninstitutionsarelowqualitytostartwith.
Observation1. Theoptimalpathofformalinstitutionalreformdepictsapunctuatedpattern.
Totestthesensitivityoftheresultstothemodelparameters,greaterkand
b
valuesarechosento representdevelopedcountries.Althoughthesemodificationsleavethenatureoftheresultsvirtually thesame,itisobservedthathigherkslowsdownthereforms,whereashigherb
appearstoleadto fasterupdatesofF*.Inaddition,convergenceisobservedtobereachedacrossdifferentvaluesofk, keepingtherestofthemodelparametersandinitialFandNvaluesthesame.Observation2. Incomeconvergencecanbeachievedviainstitutionaldevelopment.
Furthersimulationsareperformedtoexaminethesensitivityofthereportedfindingstothemodel parameters.27Keepingotherparametersconstant,itisobservedthatlowervaluesof
u
generallylead tolowersteady-statevaluesandmoreprolongedperiodsbeforeachangeinF*occurs(exceptfor N > 0.5).Theeffectofu
onF*getsweakerasthevaluesofincomeshareofcapital(b
)getbigger.The positiverelationshipbetweenb
andF*alsogetsweakerthegreaterb
is.Inaddition,thenegative relationshipbetweenthecostofchangingF(a
)andF*increasesasb
increases.Thefollowingpartial derivativessummarizetheseobservationsthatareallinlinewithexpectations.28@
F@a
<0;@
F@b
>0;@
F@u
>0;@
2F@a
@a
0;@
2F@b
:@b
<0;@
2F@u
@u
>0...ifu
<0:8 <0...otherwise; @2F @a@b <0;@
2F@b
@a
0; @ 2 F @u@a0; @ 2 F @b@u >0...ifu
<0:8 <0...otherwiseAstheabovecomparativestaticsindicate,thecostofchangingFdoesnotaffecttheresponsivenessof optimalFtotheincomesharesoftechnologyandcapital.Inaddition,asexpected,theeffectsof
a
,b
and
u
onF*generallyincreaseinu
anddecreaseinb
.Simulationsfurthershowthecomplementarity betweenNandF;theoutputeffectofNincreasesinFandviceversa,foralllevelsofinstitutional development.29ItisalsoobservedthatthecontributionsofbothNandFonoutputincreaseinb
, althoughatadecreasingrate.Basedontheseobservationsandimpliedtrajectoriesofthemodel,the followingobservationscanbemade.25
NadiriandPrucha(1996)showthatthedepreciationrateforphysicalcapitalis0.06andforR&Dis0.12fortheUS.In addition,Mankiwetal.(1992)showthatb= 1/3forUS.AccordingtotheWorldDevelopmentIndicatorsdatabaseoftheWorld Bank,theworldaverageofthesavingrate(grosssavingsaspercentageofGNI)hasbeenbetween0.20and0.23duringthepast threedecades.
26
Simulationsbasedonalternativeparametervaluesareavailablefromtheauthoruponrequest.
27
Thedataandgraphsareavailableuponrequest.
28
Observation3. AssumingaCRTSproductionfunction,thesmallertheincomeshareofcapital,themore gradualistheprogressionofF*.
Observation4. Thenegativeeffectofthecostofformalreforms(
@
F/@
a
)ismitigatedbytheincreasein theincomeshareofcapitalortechnology(foru
<0.2).The last two propositionshelp to explain whythe convergencebetween less developed and developedeconomiestakealongtimetooccur.Afocusonthereductionofthecostofformalreforms inlessdevelopedcountriesthereforeappearstobeanimportantpolicyissue.
Appendix1ashowsthetrajectoriesofoptimal-Fandkinrelationto
u
anda
.Thegraphsindicate that,eventhoughbothvariablesfollowanupwardtrendforarangeofu
values,thecostofreform lowers thesetrajectories severely. Appendix 1b shows that increasing the contribution of F on productivity(especiallyforu
>0.8)substantiallyincreasesthelong-termoptimalcapital.SinceNaccumulatescontinuously,itmayhaveincreasingreturns.Toaccountforsuchapossibility, Ialsoexploredthefollowingformoftheproductionfunction:ðFu1
tþ1Ntþ1u2Þk
b
tþ1,where
u
2>0.While thetrajectoriesinthiscaseindicateonlyaslightlymoreupwardtrend,thebasicobservationsonthe trajectoriesremainvirtuallyunchanged.3.2. Evidence
Institutionalchangeisa continuousprocessandconcernsnotonlydevelopingbutalsodeveloped countries.The implicationsoftheabovemodel canindeed be exemplifiedinthe attemptsofmany developednations’governmentstorevisetheirfinancialregulatoryandsupervisoryframeworksinthe aftermathofthe2007globalfinancialcrises.30TherecentcrisisrevealedthenecessityforFtocatchupwith
Ninthefinancialsector,whereNinthiscaserepresentstheincreasedriskappetiteinfinancialtransactions andrapidlydevelopingfinancialengineeringtoolsinagenerallyprosperingglobalenvironment,andF representstheregulatoryframeworkthatneedsreformsoastoreduceoreliminatethetransactioncosts relatedwiththeusageofthosetools.Crisesareamongtheprimaryfactorsthattriggerinstitutionalchange; theyarealsoobservedtoleadtoparadigmshiftsorcyclesineconomicthinking.Sinceforeseeingthe dynamicinteractionsbetweeninstitutionsandeconomicdevelopmentisnotfullypossible,however, neitherisreforminginstitutionsonceandforalltoinsureagainstallpotentialeconomicrisks.
Aseachformalinstitution mayinteractwithadifferentsetofinformalinstitutionsandhence affectsdevelopmentthroughvariousdirectorindirectchannels,providinganempiricalexplorationof themodels’predictionsisbeyondthescopeofthecurrentpaper.31Instead,thispaperpavestheway
for such research by drawing attention to the evidence regarding the evolution of some well-documentedformalinstitutionalmeasuresthatsupportthecurrentmodel’spredictions.
Williamson(2009)pointsoutthatmeasuringFisratherdifficultasmanyindicatorsaretheoutcomes of institutions rather than the institutions themselves (among them she counts the governance indicatorsofKaufmannetal.andtheICRGindex).Inviewofthis,WilliamsonandKerekes(2011)follow Gleaseretal.(2004)andtakeintoaccounttheconstraintsontheexecutive,judicialindependenceand constitutionalreviewtomeasureF.32SobelandCoyne(2011)alsousetheconstraintsontheexecutive,
democracyand autocracy(PolityIVmeasuresofMarshalletal.,2011)tomeasureF.Mostofthese variables,however,arenotavailableonatime-seriesbasisandhencecannotbeemployedtoobservean evolutionarypatternofthesortinvestigatedabove.Thevariablethatisavailableonatime-seriesbasis
29
ThisisincontrastwithAhlerupetal.(2009)findingofsubstitutabilitybetweenformalinstitutionsandsocialcapital. However,theexamplethatAhlerupetal.provideonthesmallertheeffectofNthehighertheincomelevelisconfirmedbythe currentmodel.
30Inarelatedstudy,VandeKlundert(2010)modelsinstitutionalchangeasrecurrentwavesinthecaseofacapitalistsociety. 31
AresearchinthatspiritisprovidedbyPosen(1995)inthecontextofcentralbankindependence,wheretheauthorargues thatitisnotthecentralbanklaw,buttheunderlyingfinancialconsensusthatmayalsoleadtotheadoptionofthelaw,that mattersfortheoutcomeofpricestability.
andappearstobetheclosestcandidatetomeasurethestatusofformalinstitutionsinamacroeconomic senseisthereforethePolityIVvariable.33Fig.2demonstratestheevolutionofthisvariableinasampleof
selectdemocraciesforaspanofmorethanacentury,supportingthepatternpredictedinthemodel describedintheprevioussectionandinFig.1.Itshouldbenotedthattheupwardbutpunctuatedpattern that the current model conjectures assumes away, for simplicity of the analysis, the effects on institutionsofdisruptionscausedbyextraordinaryeconomicorpoliticalepisodes.34Inadditionto
developedcountryexamples,thefigurealsoshowsthatCostaRica,anexceptionaldevelopingcountry withastabledemocraticregime,providesanexampleforanupwardpunctuatedpatternofPolityIV indexsincetheearly1800s.35
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1867 1876 188 5 18941903 191 2 192 1 1930 1939 194 8 1957 1966 197 5 19841993 200 2 Canada USA UK -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 18381848185818681878188818981908191819281938194819581968197 8 198 8 1998200 8 Cos ta-Rica Fig.2.Polity2indicesforasampleofcountries.
Source:Marshalletal.(2011).
32
Tabellini(2010)usestheWorldValuesSurvey(WVS),andWilliamsonandMathers(2011)focus,inparticular,onthetrust, self-determination,respectandobedienceaspectsofWVSformeasuringN.TheWVSdataset,however,haslagsinthetime-series reportedforeachcountry;hencethissectiondoesnotreportevidenceonthepatternofN,butfocusesontheevolutionary processofF.
33
In the following, the evolutionary pattern of specific monetary institutions, for which legal measurements are available, is presented. Fig. 3 shows sample trajectories of central bank independence(CBI)andbankregulationandsupervision(RS).Thefirstofthesegraphsdemonstrates
Degree of Central Bank Independence
(Data is based on Cukierman et al., 2002)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Index of Central Bank Independence
Czech Republic Estonia Poland Chile
Bank Regulation and Supervision Quality
(Data is based on Dincer and Neyapti, 2007)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
Index of Bank Regulation and Supervision
Brazil UK Turkey Poland Azerbaijan
Fig.3.Sampletrajectoriesofinstitutionalreforms:someevidence.
34
Unlikethecontinuous,thoughpunctuated,upwardpatterninthePolityIVindexobservedinCanada,UKandtheUSA,the indexisobservedtofallinGermanyandFranceduringWorldWarII,butcatchingupwiththosereportedaboveshortlyafter. Likewise,becausemanydevelopingcountrieshavehadintermittentperiodsofautocraticregimes,anupwardevolutionary patternisnotobservedinthoseoveralongperiodgoingbackinhistory.
thechangesinCBIinthreeformerlycentrallyplannedeconomiesandChile.Inthisgraph,whileCBIin Chileshowsacontinualprogression,CBIintransitioneconomiesshowsabruptchangespursuantto thewide-rangingmarketreformsthatfollowedmajorpoliticaloverhauls.Itcanbearguedthatthe costofmodifyingformalmechanismsbecamemucheasierfortransitioncountriesthatunderwent majorchangesinthepoliticalpowerstructuresaccompanyingeconomiccrises.Theuppergraphof Fig.2alsoprovidesexamplesinsupportofinstitutionalconvergence.
ThelowergraphofFig.3demonstratesmuchslowerchangesinBrazilandtheUKwithregardtoRS thanintransitioncountries.Inlinewiththeprevious,apossibleexplanationforthisobservationcould betheexistinginterestgroupresistancetoachangeinthestatusquointheformertwocountries,in contrastwiththetransitioncountriesthat revisedtheir legalframeworksfollowingseverecrises whoseeffectswereall-encompassing.ContrarytotheuppergraphofFig.3,however,thedifferent levelsofRSobservedindifferentcountriesprobablyindicatethatmanycountriesarestillfaraway fromthesteady-statelevelofRS.Inotherwords,comparingthetwographsseemstoexemplifythe factthatwhilethehighorhyperinflationaryepisodesthatcausedgreatwelfarelossesduringthepast decadeshaveledthecentralbankreformstohavebeenwidelyachievedaroundtheworld,therestill seemstobealongwaytogowithregardtothereformsinthefinancialandbankingsectorsinmany countries.
4. Concludingremarks
Thisstudyproposesanoriginalformalmodelofendogenousinstitutionalchangevisa` viseconomic growth.Technologycomprisestwoattributesthataffectproductivityandtransactioncostreduction: informalwaysofconductingbusiness,ornorms,andformalinstitutionsthatregulate,superviseand enforcethoseconducts.Whileinformalinstitutionscontinuouslyevolveasaresultoftechnological know-how,formalinstitutionschangeviagovernments’optimizingbehaviorandusuallyfollowa punctuatedpattern.Thispatternstemsfromthecreativedestructionthatinstitutionalchange,asany technologicalchange,mayleadto;suchdestructionisduetoeconomicandpoliticalcostsincurredby
35
CostaRicastandsoutasanexampleofanundisruptedpatternofevolutionandhenceitwouldnotbeappropriateto evaluate,basedonthissingleobservation,therelevanceoftheobservationsmadeearlierinthispaperwithregardtodeveloping countryperformance.
Fig.A1.SampletrajectoriesofF*andkovertimeanda(giveninitialvaluesandmodelparameters:F0= 0.1;N0= 0.5;k0= 1;
Fig.A2.SampletrajectoriesofF*andkovertimeandu(giveninitialvaluesandmodelparameters:F0= 0.1;N0= 0.5;k0= 1;
prevailinginterestgroups.Hence,themodelisconsistentwiththetwomainstrandsofinstitutional approaches: transaction cost and collective action theories. Simulations of the model reveal a punctuatedpatternofevolutionforformalinstitutions.Inaddition,incomeconvergenceseemstobe achieved via institutional development. The findings are consistent with the evidence on the evolutionarypatternofsomeobservedmeasuresofformalinstitutionalchange,namelythePolity2 index,centralbankindependenceandbankregulationandsupervisionquality.
Acknowledgements
IamverygratefulforthecommentsofEsraDurceylan,CagriSaglamandZekiSarigil.Iamalso indebtedtotwoanonymousrefereesfortheirinvaluablecommentsandsuggestions.Lastbutnot least,IthankM.KeremYukselforhisexcellentresearchassistance.
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