• Sonuç bulunamadı

Service projects and women's agency in Salalah, Oman: a portrait of pre-service Dhofari English teachers

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2021

Share "Service projects and women's agency in Salalah, Oman: a portrait of pre-service Dhofari English teachers"

Copied!
11
0
0

Yükleniyor.... (view fulltext now)

Tam metin

(1)

Service

projects

and

women’s

agency

in

Salalah,

Oman:

A

portrait

of

pre-service

Dhofari

English

teachers

Robin

Ann

Martin

*

GraduateSchoolofEducation,MainCampus,G-263BilkentUniversity,06800Ankara,Turkey

1. Situatingthestoryinitssocialandculturalcontexts 1.1. Introduction

In springof 2009, Iwas preparingto leaveSalalah, a small southerncityintheDhofarregionofTheSultanateofOman.After threeyearsasateachereducator,Ihadlearnedmuchaboutthe tribes,families,andindividualswhocallthemselvesDhofaris.In particular,Ihadlearnedaboutyoungwomenenrolledinaprivate universityonacareerpathtobecomeEnglishteachers.Asthethird groupofwomenwhostayedintheirownlocalareatocompletea four-yeardegreeandgoontopursueaone-yearteachingdiploma, theseyoungwomen werepushingtheir social and educational boundaries.Afterpursuingtherequisiteuniversityeducationand trainingnecessarytobecometeachers,whatkindsofchoicesand actions were these women ready and willing to take? What qualitiesdidtheyhavethatwouldallowthemtotake responsibil-ity in bringing new student-centered ideas and educational practicesintoschools? Moreover,what aretheimplicationsfor advancingthenewstudent-centeredapproachestolearningthat havebeenintegratedintothenationalEnglishcurriculum?

Thepresentresearchoffersa viewofruralArabwomenthat highlightstheiragencyanddeterminationinthefaceofunfolding opportunitiesthatwerenotavailabletotheirmothers.Although theseyoungwomenliveinasociallyconservativesocietythathas traditionallypartitionedthesocialroleofwomentotheprivate domain, a closer look reveals women who are taking new

responsibilitiesin relationtopublicschools,in awaythat may haveunexpectedaffectsontheirsociety.

Asevidenceofthesociallyconservativenatureofthissociety, theseyoungwomenareoftendriventoandfromuniversitybytheir brothers; they seldom show their faces in public spaces; and certainlythedomainsoftheirmotherswereprimarilyintheprivate spheresofhomes.Yet,asanthropologistUnniWikanpointsoutin heraccountentitledBehindtheVeilinArabia:WomeninOmanfrom threedecadespreviouswhenwritingaboutnorthernOmaniwomen: Itsoonbecameplainfromthewaythesewomenwalked,sat quietly,andtalked,thattheydidnotseetheirlivesintermsof unmitigatedsubjugation—onthecontrary,theyquestionedthe meritandeventhejusticeofwaysinstitutedtoenhancewoman’s lifeandfreedominneighboringGulfstates(Wikan,1982,5). Farfrom being dominated by maledecision-making, the Omani womenwithwhomIwasworkingwerelearningtotakechargeof theirliveswhile developingwithinthebounds ofa securesocial setting.

Thispaperbringstothesurfaceevidenceabouttheagencyof youngDhofariwomenastheypreparetoenterteachingcareers, andconsidersdirectionsforeducationalchangethatseempossible for these women within their protective and stable social situations.After establishingthenatureandqualitiesofDhofari women’s agency within an open-ended service project, the implications of these women’s agency on educational and curricularpoliciesarebrieflyexplored.

1.2. EducationinArabstates

Inexaminingtheliteratureofcomparative andinternational educational development at large, as publishedin journalsfor ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Teachereducation Oman Arabwomen Agency Curriculumpolicy Servicelearning ABSTRACT

Thisresearchexaminestheservicelearningactivitiesandwrittendiscourseofpre-serviceteachersfrom acohortof50youngwomenwhowereamongthefirstgenerationintheircommunitytocompletea local university education with BA degrees in English language and literature combined with a subsequentteaching diplomato become Englishteachers. Basedon writtenreportsabout service projectscompletedattheendofteachertraining,thedominantthemethatemergesisthatofwomen’s agency.DiscourseanalysisisusedtocreateaportraitofhowDhofariwomenarelearningtotakeagency andgraduallydevelopingtheirownuniqueviewswithinstudent-centeredlearning.

ß2011ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.

*Tel.:+903122902922;fax:+903122664065. E-mailaddress:RMartin@bilkent.edu.tr.

ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

International

Journal

of

Educational

Development

j ou rna l h ome pa ge : w ww . e l se v i e r. co m/ l oc a te / i j e dude v

0738-0593/$–seefrontmatterß2011ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.05.002

(2)

English speakers, neither the educational systems of Arab countries,norcontextualizeddiscussionsofsocialissuesforArab teachersarewellrepresented.

Recent studies published at the micro-level of educational-socialissueshaveportrayedArabs fromIsrael(Abu-Saadet al., 1998;WeinerLevy,2009)andtheUnitedArabEmirates (Clarke and Otaky, 2006; Richardson, 2004). Weiner Levy (2009)

investigates the ‘‘social exclusion, hybridity and alienation’’ of minorityArabwomencalledDruzeinIsraelaftertheyreturnhome fromgettingaWesterneducationforthefirsttime.Incontrast,the Dhofariwomeninthis studydidnotleavehome;rather,many aspectsofaWesternizededucationwerebroughttothem.Thus, ratherthancreatingtheostracizingandalienatingdynamicsthat formtheunderlyingthemeof Weiner-Levy’swork, the Dhofari women in the present study are staying carefully within the establishedboundsoftheirtraditionaltribalandfamilylife,while alsosteppingfirmlyintotheemerginghighereducation environ-mentsthatarebeingcreatedlocallyforbothwomenandmen.

InexaminingteachereducationintheUnitedArabEmirates, Scho¨n’snotionsofreflectivepracticesineducation(Scho¨n,1983) have been examined within the context of values in an Arab-Islamicculture.IncontrasttoapreviousdiscussionbyRichardson (2004),thefindingsofClarkeandOtaky(2006)suggeststrongly that young Emirati women are ‘‘whole-heartedly embracing’’ reflective practices as pre-service teachers. Reading the two articles together is like seeing the flip-side of the same coin, juxtaposingthedualitiesofeitherbeingagainstorforthecritical reflectivecapacitiesofEmiratiwomen.Inneithercasewasarange of skills of these Arab women clearly indicated. In the data collectedbythepresentexploratorystudyofDhofariwomen,they resembleyoungwomenaroundtheworld:someclearlystruggled tothinkcriticallyandreflectivelywithintheEnglishlanguageand withintheirpre-serviceteachingpractices,whileothersshowed patternsofthinkingdistinctlyoutsideoftheproverbialboxofthe traditional,teacher-centered,lecture-basededucationwithwhich theyhadgrownup.

Studiespublishedatthemacro-levelofsocial,economic,and demographicstatistics(UNESCO,2000,2008)giveanimageofthe Arabstatesashavingenoughsimilarityastobeabletoanalyze themasacohesive group.TheArabcountries asaregion show steadyprogressinmeeting‘‘basiclearningneedsofallchildren, youth, and adults’’ (UNESCO, 2008), though participation in secondaryeducationdifferswidelyfromcountrytocountry,with fourArabcountriesnowprovidingfreeandcompulsorysecondary education. The Sultanate of Oman provides free yet non-compulsoryprimaryand secondary educationto itspopulation (UNESCO,2000).

1.3. EastmeetsWest:socio-politicaltrendsinArabeducation Twomacro-leveldiscoursestudiesthatexaminesomeofthe political issues behind education (Grigorenko, 2007; Mazawi, 2002)suggestframeworksforinterpretingeducationalchangein theArabstatesthatmoveawayfromnaı¨ve conceptualizationsof examiningtraditionincontrasttochange.Botharticlesdiscussthe expansion of schooling in Arab states as a fact that needs explanation.

Grigorenko(2007)describeshowtheadaptationof Western-izedschoolingbyArabstateshasbeentriggeredand reinforced internally,asthesecountriesadaptittotheirownneeds.Shenotes that Arab countries have consciously emphasized their Arabic customsandlanguagetodistancethemselvesfromOttomanand Europeaneducationaldominance(2007,181).

Inexaminingthediscourseofthepoliticsbehindeducationin Arab societies, Mazawi (2002) asserts that interpreting school changein termsofthe‘‘redundanttaleoftraditionalism versus

modernization’’isanexerciseofintellectualfutility.Hesuggests understandingthenatureofschoolchangeintheArabcountries lies in the ‘‘mediation of discontent’’ from within the local communities and public school systems themselves, citing examples fromOman andYemen.Tounderstand theexpansion of education within the Arab states, Mazawi claims that it is essential ‘‘togain insightsinto themultiplicityand interwoven complexityofvoiceswithinagivengeopoliticalregion’’(Mazawi, 2002,69).

Basedonthedatafromthepresentstudy,onecouldassertthat young Dhofari women were showing a willingness to open themselves and their schools to the content and methods necessary for more learner-centered approaches to education. Theyouthfulandidealisticvoicesoftheseyoungwomenwhose skills, capacities, and ongoingdecisions withinand beyond the classroomsmediatethedirectionalcourseofschoolswithintheir localarea,whichrepresentspartofthetapestryofvoicesthatmake upOmanieducation.

1.4. IndicatorsofhumandevelopmentinOman

Omanhada populationofalmost2.5 millionin1999witha population growth of 3.6%, making it the fifth smallest Arab countryintermsofpopulation(UNESCO,2002).Theliteracyrateat thattimeformenwas79%andforwomen59%;however,aspublic (orgovernment-funded)schoolsinOmanwerenotstarteduntil the1970swiththebeginningofthereignofSultanQaboosbin Said,theseliteracyrateslikelyreflectthepopulationabovetheage of45,manyofwhomdidnothaveanyformaleducation.Withthe nationalschoolsystemnowinplace,thedisparitybetweenmale and female literacyrates will likely dissipate. Asmore women become literate, many are pursuing higher educations, and it seemsreasonabletopredictthattheymaybegintointeractwith society by seeking new opportunities to use their newfound literacy.

IncontrasttothewealthyimageofArabstates,Omanisnota countryofthetoweringmodernbuildingsthatoneseesinnearby Emiraticities(suchasDubaiorAbuDhabi).MuchofOman’s short-term oil wealth appears to have gone tohospitals, roads, and schools, as well as other supports for developing the infra-structure of thecountryandits localeconomies. Asonepolicy writerdescribes:

In terms of political and economic development, generally speaking,Omanhasaccomplishedasmuchor morethanits fellowGulfmonarchies,despitestartingfromscratch consid-erablylater,havingless oilincome toutilize,dealingwitha largerandmoreruggedgeography,andresolvingabittercivil waralongtheway(Peterson,2004,125).

Since the 1990s, the Omani government has worked to integratewomen intoboth voting andelective positions inthe nominationandelectionofcandidatesfortheconsultativecouncil atthehighestlevelofgovernance(Peterson,2004,133).Areview of 2003 statistics about the employment of Omani women indicatesthat:

There were 598,000 employed men and 123,000 employed women,whichtranslatesto17%ofthefemalepopulation.Ifwe comparethatfigurewiththe11.9%proportionofwomeninthe labourforcein1990,wefindthattheprogressachievedina decadeisconsiderable(Rassekh,2004,6).

Rassekhalsodescribesthe‘‘outstandingposition’’ofwomeninthe MinistryofEducationwithmanyfemaleteachersand administra-tive staff. In education, the advancing role of women was evidencedinSalalahbyuniversitystaffwhowereamixofboth Omaniwomenandmen;allschoolprincipalswhomImetinthe

(3)

mixedprimaryschoolsandgirls’middleand highschools were female;andseveralwomenininfluentialpositionsattheMinistry ofEducationintheDhofarregion.

1.5. ThesignificanceofagencyamongArabwomen

Since the Enlightenment, in Western schools of thought, debateshaverangedfarand wideabouttheconceptof human agencyanditsusefulnesstosociologicalandpoliticaldiscourse.As human beings, to what extent are we able to exert our own decision-making powers, to make intentional choices, to exert initiative? In contrast, to what extent does society exert its influencesuponus?Doweshapethecircumstancesinwhichwe live, or are we shaped by them? In this study, I turn to a reconceptionalization of human agency in which sociologists

EmirbayerandMische(1998)pointtowardthetemporal dimen-sionsofagencyasdevelopedinapractical-relationalapproachand awayfromthefreewillversusdeterminismdebate.Theyexamine howhumanactionsareinformedbythepast,whilealsooriented tothepresentandfuture,defininghumanagencyas:

the temporally constructed engagement by actors of different structural environments—the temporal-relational contexts of action—which, through theinterplay of habit,imagination, and judgment, both reproduces and transforms those structures in interactiveresponsetotheproblemsposedbychanginghistorical situations(1998,970,emphasisinoriginal).

EmirbayerandMischepositthreeelementsofagencyinsyncwith thethree dimensions of time: an iterational element draws on habits of the past; a projective element gives attention to imagination and future planning; a practical-evaluative element allowsforjudgmentofimmediatesituationalvariables.Emirbayer andMischecallthesethreeelementstogetherasthe‘‘chordaltriad ofagency,’’andassertthatallthreeareusuallypartofagencywhile one tends to be dominant. This conceptualization of agency underscoreshowhumannatureisnotstaticacrosshistory,and thatthecapacityforagencyvariesassocietieschange.

Thisconceptualizationofagencywillhelpustoconsideragency bylookingatthemetaphoricalchordthatiscurrentlybeingheard amongspecificcommunitiesofwomen.RatherthanseeingArab womenasbeingdominatedorsubjugated bytheirsociety, this paperexaminestheirpatternsofagencybylookingathowtheir own discourse about actions resonates with different ways of consideringthe past, present and future. How did theDhofari women in this study exhibit iterative, projective, or practical-evaluative elements of agency as they were learning to be teachers?Itwillbearguedthattheservice-learningprojectsthat theychoseprovidedtemporal-relationalcontextsthatsupported thepractical-evaluativeagenticorientation.

Giventherapidlychangingpoliticalsituationsofearly2011as citizens in many Arab countries (including Oman) rise up to challengetheirgovernments,combinedwiththepersistentthough oft-unnoticedadvancesofwomenintheArabworld(UNDP,2006), thisstudyindicatesthatArabwomenwillhaveanimpactontheir societyandontheirevolvingsystemsofeducation.

2. DifferentiatingtheDhofariswithinOman

2.1. GeographicandsocialcharacteristicsoftheDhofarregion Describingthesocialrelationsandidentityofwomeninasmall localvillageofnorthernOman(1982),Wikanstates:

WhatSoharlacksinphysical,natural,andarchitecturalbeauty is amply compensated by the beauty of the manners of its

people.Theirgraceanddignityareasourceofcontinualhuman andaestheticdelight(1982,28).

IncontrasttoSohar’sharshgeography,thesoutherncoastofOman prospers from a microclimate that catches the Arabian Sea’s monsoon for two full months each year, creating greenery complete with waterfalls. Wikan’s description of the Omani people does, however,resemblefrequentcomments by visitors totheDhofarregionaswell.

The only large city in the Dhofar region is Salalah, with a population of about 150,000, with many Indian and Pakistani expatriates in the labor force. Currently, Indians along with EgyptiansandJordaniansserveasschoolteachers;however,with theOmanisationprocessimplementedbythegovernment,public schoolteachingisamongtheprofessionsforwhichthehiringof expatriatesisbeingphasedout.Thesefactsinfluencethepresent research in so much as many English teachers of the past generationwerenotlocalOmanisandbroughtwiththemmany oftheirowntraditionalapproachestoeducation.

Historically,living in extendedtribal families, Dhofarishave supported themselves by trade and cultivating the age-old frankincensesapintoperfumeandincense,forwhichtheregion isespeciallywellknown.Inaddition,thereisalsomuchherding andfishingalongthecoast.Williamson(2006)distinguishesfour cultural groups living in Dhofar: The African-Omanis and the Bedouinsarethetwosmallestgroups;theBaitKathir(or‘‘town Dhofaris’’)isalarge groupof Arab-descendentswhotendtobe merchantsandbusinessmen.ThelargestgrouparecalledJebalis, oftendescribedas‘‘sharp,spirited,friendly,proud,andstubborn’’ (Williamson,2006,14).

TryingtointerpretthisstudyasthevoicesofDhofariwomenis ladenwiththeproblemthattheDhofarisarenotaunitarygroup. Althoughallyoutharenowgoingtoschoolandbeingeducatedin Arabicfromthefirstgrade,whichunitestheminsomeways,their socialandculturalrootsmakethemnotablydissimilar.

2.2. Dhofariwomenintransition

Picnics area popularsocial event heldthroughout theyear, especially during the monsoon season, often as spontaneous gatherings along rocky coasts or sandy beaches on Friday afternoons.Now,asinpreviousgenerations,picnicsinvolvethose from within the same tribe. As the university introduces new cross-tribalsocialsituations,youngwomengoonpicnicswithnew femalefriendswhotheymeetthroughuniversityprogramsaswell as in schools. These situations present lively informal social opportunities. Of course, the honor and dignity of the young womenarestillcloselyguarded,andonlywhenfathersknowthe reputation of theother womenin a group do theyallowtheir daughterstoparticipateinsuchevents.Evendaughtersintheir mid-20s,untiltheyaremarried,mustaskpermissionfromtheir fatherstodoanythingoutsideofthehome.

Thecoveringofwomen’shairandwearingoftheveil(burqa)is often discussed as a sign of repression in Western societies. However,inOman,thisissuewasrarelydiscussedaspoliticalor repressiveexceptbyforeigners;locally,itwassimplyrequiredby all tribes for feminine modesty. Plus, as one of the research participantsaddedwhen reviewingthis report, ‘‘it gives usthe feelingofsecurityandsafety’’(email,datedNovember4,2010). Whenyoungerstudentsinschoolsandatuniversitybeganwearing shaylas(scarvesaroundtheirhead)moreloosely,itwasnotseenas a political assertion so much as the youth showing their expressiveness.Thegeneralacceptanceofthelongblackabayas (blackrobesworninpublic)couldbeviewedasanexampleofhow they follow local customs while making stitching and fabric alterationstofittheirwidelyvariedpersonalities.

(4)

Asforwearingveilsinmiddleschoolsandhighschools,thereis noneedforveilsastheschoolsarerunandoperatedcompletelyby women.AninterestingtrendbeganseveralyearsbeforeIarrived; women can no longer wear veils in colleges (post-secondary institutes),universities,orgovernmentaldepartments.AlthoughI foundnonewsarticlesorofficialdocumentsontheInternetabout thismatter,whilelivingthere,IwasinformedthattheSultanhad declaredofficiallyaround2003or2004thisprohibitionofwearing veils at university. Apparently, this was a novelty in Arab countries; though, obviously seeing facial expressions makes learning and teaching much easier given the interpersonal dynamics involved in student-centered classrooms. Another consequenceofthispolicyisthatuniversitywomenaregradually becomingmorecomfortablewithbeingseenbymalepeersand male teachers. At the time that this change of policy was implemented, however, I was told that some young women showedmuchagencyintheirzealousprotestations.

AfinalcomparisonisworthnotingbetweenDhofariwomenand womenoftheHarassipastoraltribeofcentralOman.Sociologist DawnChattycharacterizestheHarassiwomenas‘‘harbingersof change’’.Withover10yearsoffieldexperienceinworkingwith socialandhumandevelopmentincentralOman,Chattyusesthick ethnographicdescriptiontoillustrateHarassiwomen’sindependent personalities,strongwills,andcollaborativeapproachestoworking with theirhusbands. Aligning with the findingsabout women’s agencyinthepresentstudy,Chattyconcludes:

Thefactthateducationnowfullyextendstobothgirlsandboys isatributetothespiritedeffortsofahandfulofwomenand theirsupportivespouses.Harassiwomen,throughaconcerted cooperative effort to help themselves and their daughters, reallyhavebeenabletodemandformalschooling.Atanother level, this action clearly reveals that women as they view themselves—andastheirmenregardthem—areactors,withthe powertodeterminetheirownneedsandthoseoftheirfamilies and the authority to control their lives and those of their children(Chatty,1996,163).

Althoughtheseexamplesmayseemasisolatedevents,thenumber ofexamplesbetweenChatty’sdescriptions(1996,2000)andmy own observations of Omani women in Salalah are plentiful, illustratinghow womenshowtheir firm resolution inensuring theirowneducationandthatoftheirdaughters.

3. Researchmethodology

3.1. Discourseanalysisofessays,withethnographicobservations The present study uses discourse analysis (van Dijk, 2008; Paltridge, 2006)to examine individuallywritten reports about groupprojectscompletedattheendofthepre-serviceteachers’ teaching practice. Some ethnographic descriptions are also includedof observations and situationaldynamics that help to interpretthesereports.

InMay2008,signedinformedconsentwasgivenby49ofthe52 pre-serviceteachersforanalyzingspecificdatasetstobeusedfor the purposes of advancing research about teacher learning in Oman. Thetwo malestudents inthe cohortwerenot askedto participateinthestudyasitwasfeltthatgenderdifferencesare stillsoprevalentintheculturethataseparatestudywouldneedto bedoneforanalyzingtheirviews.Byverballyreviewingawritten researchsummarywitheachparticipant,agreementwasobtained one-by-oneto insurethat each understood thepurpose of this potentiallylong-termresearchproject.

Totheextentpossible,exactwordsandphrasesusedbythe pre-serviceteachersareanalyzedintwoways.Wordsandphrasesare

analyzed for their intersubjective meaning with attention to contextual details of actions described; other quotations are analyzedmorebroadlytoconveyindividual,divergent perspec-tives.Astheresearcher,Ialsoexercisemyinterpretivevoiceto highlightsocialorlinguistictrendsobservedinthecohortatlarge. Researchparticipantsweregivenachancetoselecttheirown pseudonyms; however, in some cases, they expressed no preferences. A combination of Arab and Western pseudonyms areusedinanefforttohelpreadersfeelastrongersenseofboththe similaritiesanddivergencesbetweenhowtheseDhofariwomen approachtheirchoicesversushowWesternwomenwould.(Some self-selectednamessuchasDream,Moonsister,andtheDeparture ofLongingwerenotusedduetoconnotationsthatWesternreaders mightunconsciously assign—anunfortunate exampleofwhat is lostintranslationfromArabic,locallanguages,andDhofariculture toEnglishlanguageandWesternculture.)

3.2. TEFLprogramcontext

Theprogramthatthesepre-serviceteacherswerecompleting wasaone-yearteachingdiplomaspecializingincurriculumand instruction for English language teaching for middle and high school teachers. In the first semester, they completed six curriculum courses of 15 weeks each; in thesecond semester, they completed two additional 15-week courses along with supervisedteaching practiceinschools. FromFebruarythrough Mayof2008,theycompletedtheirrequiredteachingpracticewith eachassignedtooneschool,placedacrossfiveSalalahsecondary schools. This study examines essay assignments completed in coordinationwiththeirteachingpractice,whichwassupervisedby meincoordinationwithheadEnglishteachersateachschool. 3.3. Datacollectionandanalysisofschoolcontributionprojects

DuringAprilandearlyMay2008,thepre-serviceteacherswere askedtoworkinteamsandcompleteaschoolcontributionproject. Thepurposesforthisprojectweremultifold:(1)toencouragethe pre-service teachers to consider student needs beyond the classroom;(2)toencourageobservationsaboutthesocialaspects oftheirownlearningincontextsthatwerelikelytobepersonally meaningfulforthem;(3)tocompensateforthelimitednumberof teachinghoursthattheycouldcompleteineachschool;and(4)to promotebetterrelationswithlocalschools.Aftercompletingtheir schoolcontributionprojects,theywererequiredtosubmita two-pagesummaryaboutwhattheyhadlearnedfromtheprocessof workingtogethertohelpstudentsoutsideofclassrooms.

Theassignmentemphasizedsocialandemotionallearning,as wellascooperativelearning;intheprevioussemesterthesewere aspects of Westernized curriculumtheory that resonatedmost stronglywiththepre-serviceteachers.Theseschoolcontribution projectsareconsideredasevidenceofvariedtypesofagencytaken inpublicsettingsandtheelementsoftheirownactionsthatthese youngladiesarewillingtodescribeafterwards.Thechoicesmade anddiscourseusedtodiscusstheirchoiceshighlighthowtheysee their own agency and how they frame their actions as an accomplishmentfortheirsocietyand/orforthemselves.

As experiential out-of-classlearning is not (yet) a common featureofOmanischools,it wasalsonotablehowsomegroups chose projectsthat fitintocurrent conceptualizationsofschool learning,whileothersweremoreoutsidetheboxintheirapproach totheassignmentitself.

3.4. Researcherpositioningasanoutsider

Ofcourse,itisimportanttonotetheparticularvoiceandroleof myselfastheresearcher.Clearlyfrommyface,dress,name,and

(5)

lackofbasiclanguageskillsinArabicorotherlocallanguages,the DhofariswereawareofmeasaWesternforeignerimmediately. Yet,asawomanwhohadnoagendaotherthangettingtoknow them and their culture and offering what knowledge I had of constructivistapproachestoclassroomteaching,Iseemedtohave a special, non-threatening position in their society. Given my academicbackgroundcombinedwithmyinterestinlearningabit of Arabic, they held me in an esteemed position. Like other foreigners,I was not expected todress as an Omani;dressing conservativelyoutofrespect,Iworelongskirtsortrousers,and shirtsthatwereconservativeinstyle.

Still,Iwasnotoneofthem;notonlywasInotDhofari,Iwasnot Muslimeither;yettheyhadasimpleacceptanceofmethatIfound remarkable.UnlikeWesternmen,Ihadoccasionalwindowsinto the lives and homes of Dhofari women that showed their welcomingofmein theirsociety,alongwithuniqueviewsinto girls’schoolsandclassrooms.

Tocompensateformyoutsiderperspective,carewastakento sendthismanuscriptasitdevelopstoseveralformerstudentsand Omaniwomenfortheircommentsandfeedback.Theseparticipant checks pointed out where I had over-generalized about the uniqueness of the young women or policy issues, and they suggested more practical ways in which to interpret an issue (which were incorporated into the current version of the manuscript).Thelimitation ofthese participantchecks as with othersuchethnographicstudies is that participantssometimes hesitatetocommentvery muchaboutacademicwriting,which oftenfeelsoutsidetheirrealmofexpertise.Alsonotableforreasons stated in this report about the characteristics of their agency, Dhofariwomenarenotlikelytovoicestrongdisagreementastheir modeofagencyforchange;it’ssimplynottheirstyle.Perhapsin thefuture, asmasters’ degreesareofferedin this field,Dhofari womenwillbegintoconductmoreoftheirowncriticalresearch. 3.5. Limitationsofthisstudy

Inadditiontothelimitationofthenecessarilyeticviewsofan outsider(Headlandet al., 1990), two otherlimitations deserve mention.First,thestudyanalyzesarequiredassignment,which may have skewed the reports themselves and the subsequent interpretationsoftheirmeaningbecauseclearlytheyoungwomen wereaimingtopleasemeastheirinstructor/supervisor.However, evengiventhislimitation,thevariedformsinwhichtheytriedto pleaseareworthnoting. Still,ultimately, thereportsshouldbe considered from the standpoint that they were written for a required assignment to be reviewed by an outside Western woman.

A second notable limitation is that this discourse analysis reveals patterns concerning the student-teachers’ newfound agencyas theywerelearning tobe teachers;however,writing abouttheirownagencywasnotthepurposeoftheassignment. Thus,theanalysisexaminesimplicitaswellasexplicitmeaning structuresembeddedinthediscourseoftheirwritings,aprocess imbued with potential for misinterpretation. Nonetheless, I precede cautiously and with the knowledge that participant checks help ensure that their perspectives and priorities are represented,andthatfurtherdiscussionswiththeDhofariwomen willlikelyariseinthemonthsaheadasIreturninpersontotalk withthemabouttheirevolvingpracticesandproblemsinschools. 4. Analysis:Dhofariwomentakeactionineducation

4.1. Themeofagencyacrossschoolcontributionprojects

For theschoolcontributionprojects,thepre-serviceteachers put themselves into seven project groups; five groups were

self-selectedaccordingtotheschoolsinwhichtheywereworking, withprojectsprimarilyforhelpingstudentswithEnglishoutsideof classrooms. Two projects were organized for the university’s Cultural Week for consideringthechallenges of learning to be teachers;thesewereprimarilyforapublicaudience,withafocus ontheinterestsoflocalEnglishteachers.Threeofthefive school-basedprojectswereOpenDayactivities;whiletwowereprojects developedseeminglyindependentofactivitiesofferedpreviously bylocalschools.

This discourse analysis summarizes examples found across theseserviceprojectsintermsoftheirorientationstowardagency, as indicating iterative, projective, and practical-evaluative ele-ments(asdefinedbyEmirbayer andMische,1998)inhowthey describetheirowndecision-makingprocesses.AsEmirbayerand Mischepointout,thesedimensionsarenotmutuallyexclusiveas categories;butrather,thathumanactionsinvolvevaryingdegrees ofallthreeasa‘‘chordaltriadofagency,withinwhichallthree dimensions resonate as separate but not always harmonious tones’’(EmirbayerandMische,1998,972).Asawhole,thisanalysis pointsreaderstowardthecapacityoftheseDhofari teachers-in-training in the context of service learning projects toward an orientation of agency that has a strong practical-evaluative element. In addition, this practical-evaluative element weighs heavilytowarddecision-makinginwhichsocialharmonyisoften givenimplicitpriorityoverpersonalaggrandizement.Theoverall effectthatthiscreatesisthatyoungwomenarelearningtotake agencyinwaysthatarenotalwayseasilyrecognizableasthemore assertiveformsofagencycommoninWesterncultures.

Quotations in this section come from the student-teachers’ reportsabouttheirservicelearningprojectsthatweresubmitted inMay2008,andfromcitedpagesofEmirbayerandMische(1998). 4.2. Iterativedimension:agencythatdrawsselectiveattentionfrom thepast

Whenmakingroutine,unreflectivedecisionsthatarebasedon thepast,one wouldtend toregardsuchasnon-agency, hardly worthy of being called conscious decisions, due to the role of habits,pre-conceptions, and schemathat arederived frompast experiences.Thus,thetendencyistoseesuchactionsaslimiting the choices of the individual to routines and pre-established patterns.WhileEmirbayerandMischewouldnotlikelydisagree withthelimitationsofthisorientation,theynonethelesspointout thatevendecisionsorientedtowardfutureplanningorimmediate situationalfactorsare:

...deeply grounded in habitual, unreflective, and mostly unproblematicpatternsofactionbymeansofwhichweorient oureffortsinthegreaterpartofourdailylives.Wehavesettled upon the unfamiliar termiteration to describesuch activity preciselybecausethedimensionofagencytowhichitrefersis the most difficult to conceive of in properly agentic terms (EmirbayerandMische,1998,975).

Inlookingacrossserviceprojects,threepiecesofevidencestand outthatconcernthisiterationalorientationforsome,thoughnot all,student-teachers.

Thefirst pieceofevidenceis that threeofthesevengroups chose todeveloptheir projectswithin thefamiliarbackdrop of Open Days, an already well-recognized practice within Omani schools.OpenDaysinvolveafullmorningandafternoonofcultural activities, games, competitions, food sales, and creative poster displaysin which students share their learning witha broader community. The people invited to participate may include teachers,ministryofeducationofficials,universitypersonnel,or familymembers,andofcoursestudentsandteachers.Sometimes

(6)

Open Days are coordinated by administrators, sometimes by teachers,sometimesbystudents.

OpenDaysseemtolendasenseofstabilityandordertowhat teachers-in-trainingassumewillbebeneficialtostudents,somuch thatmostofthepapersaboutOpenDayprojectsdidnotevengivea rationale for why an Open Day project wasselected. Sharhath alludedabittoarationalewhenshediscussedtheimportanceof creating a ‘‘caring learning environment’’ that would benefit studentsandsupporttheminbecoming‘‘competentmembersof society.’’Farashareferencedasimilarpointwithemphasistothe broaderpurposesthat,‘‘TheschoolsofOmaningeneralneedthis sortof project.Itgivesthestudentswithtalentsin Englishthe opportunitytopresentthemselves.’’

The second piece of evidence of an iterative orientation toward agency was the inability of almost one-third of the projectreportstodescribethereporter’sownlearningwithinthe project, even though that was an explicit aspect of the assignment.Manystudent-teachersseemedunabletodescribe theirownlearningbeyondvaguestatementsthattheir partici-pationhadmadethem‘‘happyandcomfortable,’’orthatitwas ‘‘beneficial’’forlearningtoworkasagroup.Althoughtheywere abletosummarize mainideas fromthetextsaboutsocial and emotionallearningand/orcooperativelearning,theywereeither unable or unwilling to look at specific incidents withintheir experiences. In essence, I would characterize their papers as having selective attention to what they were expecting to observe,recognizingtypes oftypicalpredefinedactivitieswith aninability(orunwillingness)tosummarizenewideasorissues that may have come into their awareness as they were completingtheirserviceprojects.

In many cases thepre-service teachers who struggled most withtheself-reflectiveaspect ofwriting theirreports werethe same pre-service teachers who initially found the greatest difficultyinhandlingtheir classrooms.Theircapacityfortaking actionseemedas aninhibitingfactor, seeminglyrelated tothis refusaltoexaminethemselves,introspectivelyorretrospectively in the context of particular situations, in waysthat might put themselves at or near the center of the complex dynamics of student learning. They often labeled this phenomenon as ‘‘shyness’’,andtherewasagroupeverysemesterwhostruggled with showing enough confidence both inside and outside the classroom to be able to command the attention of the often vigorousandsometimescommandeeringteenageyouth.

The third piece of evidence was the maintenance of their expectation toward the inclusion of God/Allah within the descriptionsofaboutone-fourthoftheprojectreports.Inreference totheir Muslim heritage and customs, special service learning projects(thatwereone-timeevents,ratherthanweeklyhelpfor students)weresometimesdescribedasbeginningwitharecitation ofaversefromtheHolyQuran,‘‘oneofthesayingsoftheProphet Mohammed, PBUH’’ (Peace be upon him). Another pre-service teacherdiscussedhelping each otherforthereason ofa ‘‘good rewardfromGod.’’ReferencetoGodinDhofaristudents’writings issomuchmorefrequentthanonefinds(frommyexperience)in Americanuniversitieswhere Ihave studiedand workedthat it seemsworthnotingasaiterativeelementofagencythatstudents seemtousetoaddorderandstabilitywithintheintroductionand interpretationofnewevents.

4.3. Projectivedimension:agencythatlookstothepossibilitiesofthe future

When examining the structure of projectivity within the conceptofhumanagency,Emirbayer and Mischedescribehow itmaydrawonthepast,yetfocusesmoreonatrajectoryinwhich ‘‘thoughtandactionmaybecreativelyreconfiguredinrelationto

actors’hopes,fears,anddesiresforthefuture’’(1998,971).This elementofagencyshoweditselfwheneverthepre-serviceteachers discussedtheirbeliefsabouttheirstudents’desiresforwantingto participate,ortheirfearsofparticipation.

Inaddition,threegroupschosetocreateserviceactivitiesthat werenewfor theschools inwhichtheywereworking, sotheir reports provide a narrative reconstruction of their goals and intentionsinlightofwhattheyhadanticipated.

InselectingstudentparticipantsforEnglishOpenDayactivities, Darinaexplainsthatteachershelpedthemtochoosestudentswho were‘‘veryactive’’andhad‘‘thedesiretomakeitwithabeautiful feeling.’’Darina’schoiceoftheword‘‘beautiful’’isoneofseveral wordsinDhofariEnglishvocabularythatIfeelcertaindidnotcome fromanytextbooksattheuniversity;ratheritseemedasadistinct qualityoftenusedtoelaborateonissues,aqualitythatstoodby itself and needed no additional explanation in their decision-making.Itmaybeakintowhatwewouldcallhavingagoodattitude inWesterneducation,thoughimbuedwithotherlayersofimplicit meaningabouta goalforencouragingthesubtletiesof internal beauty.

Anothergroupofpre-serviceteachersofferedanelective lunch-timeEnglishspeakingcoursetohighschoolstudentswho‘‘have thedesiretospeakEnglishduringthebreak.’’Forthem,thedesire ofstudentswaspivotaltohowtheprojectwasdescribed.Inan extra report summarizing their project, the group members collectivelystatedthatthepurposeofthisspeakingclasswas:

toreinforceproductiveskills ofstudents,improvetheir self-confidencetospeakwellwhentheyfacedailysituations,andto bemoredaringwithanysubjects,andtalkabouttheiropinions freelywithoutanyconfusionorfear.

Withinthisproject,thereportsusedtwodistinctrationalesastheir organizingframeworks.Somestructuredtheirindividualreports intermsofstudents’needsinrelationtotheschooland/orsocial context. Twoothers examined a changing belief within them-selves, acknowledging not having understood a major issue previously—thus revealing their personal fallibility. Essentially, they wereengagedin what Emirbayer and Mischehave called ‘‘aniticipatoryidentification’’(1998,989)—evaluatingthepastin ordertocreateafutureidentificationaboutthesortofcharacter thattheywantedtohelptheirstudentstodevelop.

Asanexampleofthepatternthatemphasizedthelearningneeds ofstudentsinrelationtosociety,Sharhathconsideredindividual studentsandhowtheywere‘‘suffering’’intheclassroom.Alongwith someofherpeers,Sharhathseemedespeciallytakenbyareport aboutsocialandemotionallearningthat,

claimsbothparentsandteachersneedtoencouragestudents emotionallyandphysicallyinordertobecomegoodcitizensfor theircountry[herinterpretationofthereport].

Sharhathquotedthereportasemphasizinghoweducationneeds toteach‘‘thetestoflife,notalifeoftests’’(Stoddenet al.,2003),a quotation that had garnered much attention several months previousinacoursediscussion.Inmakingsenseoftheseissuesfor herself,Sharhathclaimed,

In Oman’s society thereare somestudents who sufferfrom socialandemotionalproblemswhetherbyexternalinfluences (teachers,familiesandpeers)orbyinternalinfluences(student himself).IobservethisinmyfamilyandintheschoolwhereI taught.

Here,Sharhathshowsawillingnesstoobservesomethinglessthan positive.Ratherthanclaimingthatschoolsorfamilysituationsare allgood,sheadmitsthat,‘‘therearesomestudentswhosuffer.’’To

(7)

giveexplicitsupporttothispoint,shethendescribesonestudent aboutwhomshewasparticularlyconcerned:

Shekeepssilentallthetime.Shedidnotdoanything;shejust putherslimhandonhercheekandlistenedtous.Actually,I didn’tknowwhyshehadjoinedthisclass!!Oneday,Iwasclose toher andI askedher,‘What’swrongdear? Whydon’t you share?’

Shelookeddownandreplied,‘Iunderstandwhatyoudiscuss, andthereisn’tanyneedtotalk.’

‘Why?Thisisyourchancetoimproveyourspeaking,’Ireplied. Shetoldmethateverybodyhatesher,andherpeerslaughather whenshespeaksintheclassbecauseshedoesnotspeakclearly. Rather than ignoring the feeling stated by the girl, Sharhath acknowledgesit;then,shedescribeshowsheattemptstocontrol hernervousnessassheasksotherstudentstostoplaughingwhile theirfriendisspeaking.Fromthatday,Sharhathclaimstonotice thatthisstudentbeginstoparticipate.

As a whole, Sharhath’s analysis of this action and its con-sequencesshowherownexperimentalenactmentoftakingonnew responsibilitiesforsupportingstudentsmoreactivelywithin the peerpressuresofaclassroom.Forabeginningpre-serviceteacherin asocietythathasstronglysupportedteacher-centeredapproaches, sucha socialrealization bystandingfirmlyinherself tochange classroom dynamics is significant to notice in her discourse. ExperimentalenactmentisdescribedbyEmirbayerandMischeas beingatacrossroadsbetweenthefutureandthepresent,where individuals ‘‘try out possible identities without committing themselvestothefullresponsibilitiesinvolved’’(1998,990).

In contrastto Sharhath’s focus on social pressures faced by students,Jamilah’sdiscourserevealsaself-awarenessofherown changingbeliefs. As withSharhath, wemay interpretJamilah’s discourseashowsheisdefiningherfutureidentityasateacher, withemphasisonhowshebeginstoseethestudentsinanewway: BeforeIhaddonemyproject,Ithoughtthatthemainproblem ofthebadlevelofstudentsinEnglishwasbecausetheydon’t wanttolearn,andthattheydon’ttaketheavailablechancesto improvetheirlevelinEnglish.Here,Iwasmistaken.Everyone saystomethatstudentsdon’twanttolearn,theyjustwantto haveafuntimeandenjoyescapingclasses.Here,theyforget thatstudentsineverypartoftheworldneedonlyahandto guidethemtowhattheyshoulddo.ThatiswhatIhavelearned; Ihavebecomemoreawareofmystudentsandtheirneedsand theirfears.HowIhelpthemisthequestionthatIthinkofallthe time. Therefore,Itriedmybesttohelpmystudentsthrough giving them open spaces to express ideas and thoughts. Moreover, I learnedthat students want tolearn, and Ihave seenthatbecauseofthebignumberofthestudentswhocame totheclasseventhoughitwasbreaktime...

Althoughtheabovepassageiswrittencompletelyinthepasttense, hereIamclaimingthat intermsof Jamilah’sdevelopment asa teacher,itisanindicatorofaretrospective-prospectiveprocess. Sheisdescribingthenearpastasatoolthatisalsobeginningto defineherownexpectationsandidentityasafutureteacher.With astartingpointofherownmistakenbelief,Jamilahsoftlypoints outthenegativepreconceptionofmanyteachersinSalalahschools aboutstudents;indeed,teachersoftenspokeofDhofaristudentsas beinglazyandstupid.Ratherthanblamingorcriticizingteachers, Jamilahalmostbrushesitasideasshestates,‘‘Here,theyforgetthat students...needonlyahandtoguidethem...’’assheclearlyprojects forward to the needs of students that should be given more attention.

In a society whereit notdeemedadmirable toquestionthe future(asthatisGod’srealm),theprojectivedimensionseemsto

bethemosttacitofthethreetemporalrelationsofagency.Also,to projectsomethingdifferentinthefuturerequiressomecritiqueof the past, and this is done only with great caution. Jamilah attributesthelesspositiveattitudeofteacherstotheir forgetful-ness;thus,shequicklyreturnsherattentiontostudents’needsand doesnotgetcaughtinadiscussionabouttheproblemsofteacher attitudes.LikeSharhath,Jamilahexhibitsaprojectivedimensionof agencyin a subtleway throughtheclarityand strengthof her rationaleforwhythesesociallyacceptedbeliefsaboutstudentsare simplynottrue,thusimplyingthatchangeisneeded.

4.4. Practical-evaluativeorientation:agencythatfocuseson situationalvariables

Intheirself-labeledrelational-pragmaticapproachtoexamining agency,thethirddimensionofagencythatEmirbayerandMische (1998)proposedisthatofapractical-evaluativeorientation.From AristotletoKanttofeministtheories,thisdimensionofagencyhas beenexaminedastheonebywhichactorsgiveforemostattention totheimmediatejudgmentsnecessaryfor evaluatingparticular situations. Emirbayer and Mische (1998, 997) consider the structureofthisdimensionintermsofproblematization,decision, and execution of the decision, along with how the actors characterize and deliberate over the problem. In terms of its significance,EmirbayerandMischeclaim,

By increasing their capacity for practical-evaluation, actors strengthen their ability to exercise agency in a mediating fashion, enabling them (atleast potentially) topursue their projects in ways that may challenge and transform the situational contexts of action themselves... (1998, 994, emphasisinoriginal).

Inthis snapshotofa shortperiodintimewhentheseyoung womenwereengagedwiththeirservicelearningprojects,manyof their project reports indicate a dominant practical-evaluative orientation.Ofcourse, thetaskofdeveloping aservicelearning projectwasarelativelyambiguousassignmentthatmaywellhave lentitselftogivingincreasedattentiontotheimmediateneedsof studentsandtheschoolinwhichtheyweredoingservice.Whatis interesting,however,isthemannerinwhichtheseyoungladies reportedtheirdecision-makingprocesses.

4.4.1. Learningfromstudents,whosespiritsaresometimeshidden Khadija frames her report around her own learning from a studentwhochosetoparticipate,whowaspoorinEnglishandnot recommendedbyteachers:

...IwasastonishedbyherabilitytoactasifsheisnotthegirlI know,evenmyfriendsfeltthesame,becauseshereallyactedas ifshewasaprofessionalactor.

WhenKhadija claimsthat,‘‘evenmy friendsfeltthesame,’’she impliesthatherobservationwassupportedbyothers,thoughnot necessarilybytheschoolteachers.Khadijareiterateshowthisgirl had volunteered,eventhoughnone oftheteachershad recom-mendedher.Then,inatypicaleloquentandgeneralizingstyleof Dhofaridiscoursethatoftenframessituationsinthemostpositive light,Khadijaexplainswhytheteachersmayhaveoverlookedthis girl:

...theyforgetthatstudentshavethespiritsthatcanchangethe wholeworldbuttheydon’tknowthatthey[thestudents]keep thesespiritshiddenbehindthewallofbeinggoodintheclass. Khadija is noticingsomething in direct contrast to thetrained teachersoftheschoolandsearchingforawaytomakesenseof that. AsJamilahhad alsodone,Khadija gentlyframes herview

(8)

aboutteachers by simply stating in a non-accusativeway that ‘‘theyforget...’’While drawing onboth futureand past dimen-sions, what distinguished Khadija’s discourse from Jamilah’s similarclaimswas thedetail withwhich Khadija characterized thepresent situationin relationtoa particularstudentand the challengingsituation thatstudent presenteddue toherunique character.

4.4.2. Minimizingreportingofagencytogiveattentiontothegroup InhelpingtofacilitateafriendlycompetitionforEnglishOpen Day,Farashawasexceptionallyactiveindevelopingthe technical-graphical aspects and content of an interactive computerized game,whichsheusedasamoderatorofthecompetition;however, shereferencesthisfactonlyinpassing.

Farasha’s discussion about social and emotional learning focusesonwhatshewaslearningfrompeerswhenangrytempers wouldoccasionallysurface.AlthoughFarashahaddemonstrated much initiative in this project, the discourse of her report minimized thesignificance of that role—a level of deliberation andexecutionofmanysmalldecisionsthatmighthaveseparated herfromherpeers.

Fatimaservedasabehind-the-sceneshelper,andshestartsher reportbydescribingtheprojectas‘‘agreatachievementthatthe university trainees did.’’ For Fatima, the day’s activities were organizingthecompetition,showingstudents’work,andhowthe traineesorganizedinvitationcards,appreciationcertificates,gifts, andabuffetforguests.Thepractical-evaluativeofFatima’sagency wasevidencedbythefocusofreportonhowguestswereinvited and treated; the ‘‘achievement’’ itself was framed foremost in termsofthewholegroup,notherself.

4.4.3. Acknowledgingintensefeelingswhileavoidingconflict DarinaandFarashadiscussedhowsomepeersbecameangry whenschooladministratorschangedtheeventdateatleasttwice, interferingwiththedesigningandprintingofformalinvitations. Forthem,theproblemwasframedasanissueofself-management; Farashastates:

Alltiredandangryfeelingswerejustbetweenus,wedidnot showthemtoothers.Westackedtogethertoaccomplishthe mission.

Here,agencyrelatestodeliberatingonwhattheyaredoingbyhow they worked together in spite of a challenging situation. This tensionwithschooladministratorswasreferencedonlybytwoof theeightworkingonthisproject,andonlyforshowinghowthey werelearning towork together. Theirdescriptions indicate an importanceplacedonconflictavoidancethroughcareful monitor-ingofemotions,showingnegativeemotions judiciouslyonly to thosewithwhomitisappropriate.

4.4.4. Discoveryof‘‘othersides’’ofself:responsibility,commitment, andpatience

MyraandMontehabothclaimthatthiswastheirfirstexperience (ever)inwhichtheywereresponsibleforcoordinatingarelatively complexsetofactivities.Myradiscussesthe‘‘senseofresponsibility andcommitment’’thatthisgaveher,combinedwith‘‘discovering othersidesofmypersonality,’’suchas‘‘havingfaithandtrustin othersand being able todepend on them,’’ as well asworking cooperatively—‘‘evenwhenweweretired.’’Thismayseemaminor detailtotheWesternreader,yetinDhofariculture,itiscommonto stopandrestwhenoneistired,nottopushonward.Suchnotionsas timelinesandschedulesarerelativelynewinthisculture.

Montehadescribeshowtheexperiencehelpedhertolearnmore patience, evenin the faceof difficulties. These commentsfrom MyraandMontehawereinteresting asI’msure thatboththese youngwomen hadmany responsibilitiesintheir homes—where

theywereoftenlearningofcommitmentandpatience,soitwasasif theywereseparatingtheirnewpublic-workselvesfromtheirfamily identity.

5. Discussion:Dhofariwomen’sagencyandpolicyimplications Giventheconfinesoftheirschoolcontributionprojects,the pre-serviceteachersinthisstudyputthemselvesintothreetypesof groups:(1)GroupsthatdesignedOpen-Dayactivities,choosinga familiarout-of-classroomlearningcontextalreadyinplacewithin theschool’ssocialstructure,(2)Groupsthatdesignedactivitiesto help students improve their English outside of the classroom, withinstructuresthatdidnotalreadyexistattheschool,and(3) Groupsthatupongentlepromptingcoordinatedadiscussionpanel or poster display for an audience of peers and public school teachers.Thisstudyuseddiscourseanalysistoexaminehowthese youngwomendescribedtheirownactivitieswithintheseschool contribution projects, as an illustration of three temporal dimensions of human agency. Emphasis is given to how they were learning to make choices as members of their local communityinwaysthatillustratetheirwillingnesstobothstay withinandmovebeyondpre-determinedsocialstructures. 5.1. Whatdothesepatternsofagencyindicate?

Again, itneedstobeemphasizedthethreetemporal dimen-sionsofagencyarenotempiricallyseparatebutthatoneoranother tendsto havedominance withinthis ‘‘chordal triad’’of agency (Emirbayer and Mische, 1998). The purpose of making this analyticalseparationof thethreedimensionsis toconsiderthe extenttowhichtheyareresonatinginaharmoniouschord,and whichdimensionappearsmostdominant.Theformoftheagency takenbytheseyoungwomenwhengivenopportunitiestohelpthe youngergenerationmaygivecluesabouthowtheywillrespondto theshiftingcareeropportunitiesaroundthem.

Assuch,it isnotablethattheiterativedimensionthat relies moreheavilyonhabitsofthepastwasnotableamongabout one-thirdofthesample.Itwasevidencedbysomeprojectchoices,by their inabilitytode-stablize their ownselfidentity toexamine more closely particular incidents of experiential learning, and frequentreferencetoGodasafamiliar,reverentelementthatthey add to theintroductions of one-time projects. In contrast, the projectivedimensionwasnotableonlyinafewreportsandthen only when examining the subtle implications that pre-service teachersmadeforneededchanges.Thechangesnotedwereinthe direction of teachers needing to understand students’ fears of speakinginclassandwillingnessofyoungpeople toparticipate whengiventheproperencouragement.

The strongest dimension among this sample of pre-service teacherswasthepresent-focused,practical-evaluativedimension ofagency.Abouthalfofthesamplereportedtheirprojectsinaway that showed a brief characterization of the problems faced in selecting and following through with a project, as well as the deliberations necessary for making choices and the emotional engagement required for understanding the difficulties faced. There wasa tendency tooftenfocus moreon theexecution of decisions rather than the problems; when problems were mentioned,itwasusuallydoneinawaythatminimizedtherole of the individual as well as conflict or disagreements, while drawingattentiontotheperceivedsuccessesofthegroup.

Oneofthequestionsforfuture researchposedbyEmirbayer andMischewas,‘‘Howdodifferenttemporal-relationalcontexts support (or conduce to) particular agentic orientations?’’

(1998,1005).Ifweconsiderservicelearninginteachereducation as a temporal-relational context, this study indicates that in rural Dhofari culture such an ambiguous and socially oriented

(9)

assignmentlendsitselftoapotentialforpre-serviceteachersto move toward the practical-evaluative dimension of agency. However,thatpotentialmayormaynotbeactualizeddepending onthestrengthoftheiterativenoteofagencyinhowtheyoung womenconceptualizetheiractivity.

Asawhole,thesepatternsofagencyshowhowyoungDhofari womenwereapproachingnewsituationsfromdistinctlydifferent positions. Asthey participate in these and other publicschool events, such patterns will likely continue to influence their participationand stylesofagency.Given theirsocial awareness inobservinghowothersarerespondingtothem,theircontinued observationsof howothersrespondmayweighheavilyin their choiceofpursuingnewandchallengingactivitiesversus expand-ingcurrentpractices.

5.2. QualitiesthatdistinguishDhofariwomenandtheiragency In addition to the three themes of agency explored, this discourseanalysisalsoindicatesvariedconceptualframeworksof howDhofariwomenapproachnewresponsibilitiesandconstrue the benefits of collaborative projects to themselves, to their students, and/or to the greater community. Their similar yet distinctlydifferentdescriptionsillustratehowtheyeach concep-tualizedaprojectinitsaftermathwhiledemonstratingtheirown agencyconcerningactivitiestowhichtheyhadcontributed.

Table1summarizescommonqualities,orpersonal character-istics,asrevealedinthisanalysis,thatmayaffectthepatternsof agencythatthesewomenwerelearningtotake.Moreover,these qualitiesmayalsoinfluencehowWesternersinterpretandmake senseof Arab women’sactions. As Westerners are continually broughtintoworkwiththeyoungOmanisforpre-servicetraining, manymisunderstandings couldbereduced by culturaltraining sessionsthathelpnewcomerstounderstandtheOmaniwomen morefullyontheirownterms,ratherthanmakingunwarranted judgmentsbasedonourownculturalassumptions.

Dhofariwomenarenotfromaculturalbackgroundofrugged individualismthatoftcharacterizesAmericans,Australians, and otherWesternapproaches toself development.Therefore, how theylearntotakeresponsibilityandexertagencydoesnotalign conceptuallywiththeactiveandindividualizeddecision-making oraction-takingbehaviorsthatarevaluedbyWesternstandards. Yet,thesewomenwereclearlytakingmanyactionswhileworking within the new social and education system, when given the opportunity.

In addition tothesomewhatmodest, perhaps evenhumble, qualitieslistedintheTable1,severalwomeninthissamplewere outspokenand ready to take action in ways that any Western womanmightdescribeasassertive,spunky,orevenforceful.Such spunkyexceptionstothenormwereacceptedgracefullybyothers,

andareaninterestinganomalyinthesociety,worthyoffuturecase studies,butbeyondthescopeofthisanalysis.

5.3. Takingresponsibilityorassumingduties?

Briefreferencingtothesignificanceof Godwasprevalentin theseand manyotherassignmentsfromstudents.Thisisworth noting insomuchas theseyoungwomen arelearning totake action, coordinate, organize, and do things that involve both individualresponsibilityandteamwork.Yet,forthem,agencywas notjustaboutthemselves,theirpeers,orthestudentswhomthey wereserving;inaddition,therearecontinualallusionstoGod,or Allah,asasourceofpowergreaterthanthemselves.

Understanding the significance of this issue by Westerners workinginArabcountriescannotbeunderestimatedwhentrying touncoverthenuancesandsubtletiesofwomenasactiveagents takingonnewresponsibilities.Indeed,aretheytaking responsibili-ty,oraretheyassuming aduty(a morecommonwordused by them) that they feel is given tothem by a higher power? An occasional conversation about such matters with university studentsusuallyinformedmethattheyfeltsomebalanceofboth involvedintheiractions.

Thisanalysisleavesuswithquestionssuchas: Howdotheir variedunderstandingsabouttheirrelationstoGodaffectthekinds ofresponsibilitiesanddutiesthattheytakeoraregiventothemin theirsociety?Isthenatureofagencychangingintheirownminds asWesternideasandtechnologyenterthisruralareaofArabia? This paper cannot answer such questions, but points to the significanceofaskingdifficultquestionsthatresearchalonemay neverbeabletoanswer.

5.4. Policytensionsforcurriculumimplementation

During the latter part of the 1990s, the Oman Ministry of Education began implementing increasingly student-centered approacheswithintheir‘‘ambitious’’BasicEducationcurriculum, ‘‘aiming to develop life skills through communication and self learning’’ that included a new English curriculum (Wyatt and Atkins, 2009). Theimplementation ofthis curriculum,however, ofteninvolves an assumptionthat new teachersneed carefully structuredguidelines,rulesand procedurestofollow.TheBasic Education teachermanuals are so detailed that they could be describedasateacher-proofedcurriculumexplainingexactlywhat todoandhowtodoit.Forsomenewteachers,thisseemsvaluable astheyarenervousintheirinitialmonthsenteringclassrooms,and thereoftenweren’tenoughexperiencedmentorstoguidethem. Still, there is some lack of allowing and encouraging young teachers to develop their own critical thinking and facilitation skillsinrelationtothecurriculum.

Table1

Qualitiesofagencythatappearacrossindividuals.

Commonquality Descriptionbasedon... Situationsinwhichqualitywasexhibited

Attentiontosocialpresentationofself Severalreportsdiscussselfpresentationandlearningtobedaring asgoalsforstudentlearning;otherstakelessvisible responsibili-tiesintheirownsocialpresentation.

Howtheyframewhatstudentsneedtolearn; choicesthattheymakeinprojectparticipation. Avoidingsocial-emotionalconflict Gentleacceptance,almostnon-questioningofcurrentpractices:

‘‘theyforget...’’;acknowledginginanon-accusatorymannerthat olderteachersmay dothingstheydon’tlike; avoidingdirect judgment.

When emotions are tense, or in a potential disagreementwithcurrentteachersor adminis-trators.

Struggletoseeselfasanindividuallearner Justoverhalfofthesamplecoulddescribetheirownlearningfrom newexperiences;otherswereexcessivelyvagueonthispointof theassignment.

Specificexperiencesinwhichtheyarelearningin relationtoothers.

Tendencytoexaggerateorovergeneralize Whentheynoticesomethingnewaboutothers,descriptionsoften showa‘‘beautiful’’or‘‘astonishing’’flare.

When emphasis or eloquence is needed to underscoreakeypoint.

Minimizationofownroleinaccomplishing atask

Minimizing personal effortsas seeming less significant than workinginrelationtostudentsandpeers;showingrealhumility.

Whentheydosomethingthatmakesthemstand outfromtheirpeers.

(10)

Missing from the discourse about policies for curriculum implementationwasacarefulconsiderationofhownewteachers could be given opportunities to exert agency and learn of responsibility.Forexample,IheardassertionsbyDhofariteacher supervisorsabouttheimportanceofinsistingthatteachersfollow themanual.Theseassertionsledtotensionsinrelationsbetween teachersandtheMinistryofEducation,withalackofclarityabout theamount of authority that the Ministryneeded toexert. As Omaniwomen weretrainedlocally, someexpresseda senseof powerlessness to question or stray from the step-by-step curriculum.Asnewteachers,theyhesitatedtovoicesuchtensions. Followingareafewimplicationsforcurriculum implementa-tionandpre-serviceteachertrainingbasedonthediscoursethat unfoldedfromtheschoolcontributionprojectsthatwerethefocus ofthisstudy:

(1)More experiential learning could be incorporated into the university years,in which students developservice projects byworkinginthecommunity.Suchhands-onlearningthrough cooperative activities develops their sense of responsibility while learning to interpret social, political, and educational issuesfromtheirownframesofreference.

(2)Within teacher education, new instructors, trainers, and teachersupervisorscoulduseexplicitencouragementtomove againstoldlecture-centeredtrendsfortrainingteachers,andto useactivelearningtechniquesforallowingwomen(especially) toexerttheiragencywhileworkingwithothers.Thiscanbe donebygivingchoiceswithinassignmentsaswellasthrough facilitatinggroupdiscussionsthatseekoutmultiple perspec-tives.

(3)Activities designed especially for cultural and intercultural awarenesscouldhelpexpatriates(hiredtoworkina culture that is unfamiliarto them)tosee more clearly howOmani womenare learningtotakepower andresponsibility,while exertingpatternsofagencythatmaylookdifferentfromthe WestorevendifferentfromotherMiddle-EasternandEastern culturestoo.

OneencouragingeventthatIattendedduringmyfinalmonths inOmanwasatrainingsessionfornewEnglishteachersinwhich theteacherswereinvitedtofacilitatemeetingsaboutwhatthey werelearning in their classrooms. Based on the resultsof this study,moreeventslikethiscouldhelptogiveyoungteachersa greatersenseoftheirownpowerandresponsibility.

6. Conclusion

Intheoverallframeworkofinternationaleducationandhuman development,whatfewformalstudiesexistofeducationinthe Arabworld(aswritteninEnglishmediumjournals)havetendedto bemoreatthemacro-levelofdiscussion.Lookingattrendsfrom

UNESCOreports(2002,2008),thereisavagueunderstandingthat improvementsarebeingmadewithinArabschools;andthatin someArabcountriessuchasTheSultanateofOman,womenare beingintegratedintotheworkforceaspartofthedrivingforceof change.How thoseimprovements arebeing implementedvary widelyfromonecountrytoanother.Furthermore,eventheArab HumanDevelopmentReportof2005(UNDP,2006)thatfocused exclusivelyonwomeninArabsocietydidnothingtoindicatewhat washappeninginschoolsbeyondabriefanalysisoftextbooks.This studyhasattemptedtobeginfillingthevoidofmicro-leveland qualitativeresearchaboutregionalareasoftheArabworldwith detailsabouthowyoungDhofariwomenareexertingtheirvoices andlearningtoexertagencyasteachers-in-training.

Thequestion ofwhether education systemsfollow tradition versuschangeismuchtoosimplistic,andasweexaminethekinds ofchangesthatareunfolding,weneedtoconsiderwhatMazawi

(2002)describedasthe‘‘multiplicityandinterwovencomplexity of voices.’’ However, while Mazawi argues for examining the ‘‘mediationofdiscontent,’’thisanalysisandmyownobservations fromthreeyearsofworkinginsouthernOman,indicatethatthe manyDhofariwomenshowlittleinclinationofvoicingdiscontent. They aresituated in a safeand securesocial environment, and seemtounderstandthatloudvoicesofcontentionarenotalways necessary;totheextentthattheyvoicediscontent,onehastolearn tolistenbetweenthelinesoftheirdiscourseandunderstandtheir uniqueformsofagency.

Evenso,theDhofariwomenshowsignsofbeingwillingand abletotakeresponsibilityforhelpingyoungpeopleandmaking clearchoiceswheretheydoexerttheirownagency.Furthermore, although thestudent-centered curriculumis being imposedon thembytheOmanMinistryofEducation,theirstylesfornoticing andhelpingstudentsindicatethattheyarelikelytobecomepartof theimpetusforencouragingevengreaterattentiontosocialand emotional sensitivity withintheir classrooms by allowingtheir studentstobeheardmoreandmore.

As moreArab women arebeing educated,their agency will likelyplayavitalroleinthesocialandpoliticalreformsthatare spawningacrosstheArabcountries.EventhelittlecityofSalalahin southern Omandidnot avoidafew citizenprotestsdemanding moreresponsive governmentpolicyduringtheearlymonthsof 2011. Withinthesocially sanctioned career choicesthat young womenenter,theagencythattheyexertmayunobtrusivelyyet noticeably create further breaks from the past. These Dhofari womenwerenotarguinginrevolutionaryvoicesfornewrolesin theirsociety,yettheyappearedtostepupwithresolutiontoward opportunitieswhen offeredthem.Indeed,theyoungwomen of Salalahshowedwillingnesscombinedwithboldnessand accep-tance for taking actions that would not draw attention to themselves but that could lead to gradual change within the socialsystemsofbothfamiliesandschools.

References

Abu-Saad,I.,Abu-Saad,K.,Lewando-Hundt,G.,Forman,M.,Belmaker,I.,Berendes, H.,etal.,1998.BedouinArabmothers’aspirationsfortheirchildren’seducation inthecontextofradicalsocialchange.InternationalJournalofEducational Development18(4),347–359.

Chatty,D.,1996.HarbingersofChange:WomenandtheQuestforEducation.Mobile Pastoralists:Development PlanningandSocialChangeinOman.Columbia UniversityPress,NewYork,pp.143–163(Chapter7).

Chatty,D.,2000.WomenworkinginOman:individualchoiceandcultural con-straints.InternationalJournalofMiddleEastStudies32(2),241–254. Clarke,M.,Otaky,D.,2006.Reflection‘‘on’’and‘‘in’’teachereducationintheUnited

ArabEmirates.InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment26(1),111– 122,doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2005.07.018.

Emirbayer,M.,Mische,A.,1998.Whatisagency?AmericanJournalofSociology103 (4),962–1023,doi:10.1086/231294.

Grigorenko,E.L.,2007.Hitting,missing,andinbetween:atypologyoftheimpactof western education on the non-western world. Comparative Education (786636097),165–186,doi:10.1080/03050060601162719.

Headland,T.,Pike,K.,Harris,M.,1990.EmicsandEtics:TheInsider/OutsideDebate. SagePublications,London.

Mazawi,A.E.,2002.Educationalexpansionandthemediationofdiscontent:the culturalpolitics ofschoolingintheArabstates.Discourse:Studies inthe Cultural Politics of Education 23 (772815468), 59–74, doi:10.1080/ 0159630022012304.

Paltridge,B.,2006.DiscourseAnalysis:AnIntroduction.Continuum,London. Peterson,J.E.,2004.Oman:threeandahalfdecadesofchangeanddevelopment.

MiddleEastPolicyXI(2),125–137.

Rassekh,S.,2004.EducationasaMotorforDevelopment:RecentEducationReforms inOmanwithParticularReferencetotheStatusofWomenandGirls.UNESCO, InternationalBureauofEducation,Geneva,pp.1–47.

Richardson,P.,2004.PossibleinfluencesofArabic-Islamiccultureonthereflective practicesproposedforaneducationdegreeattheHigherCollegesofTechnology intheUnitedArabEmirates.InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment 24(4),429–436,doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2004.02.003.

Scho¨n,D.,1983.TheReflectivePractitioner:HowProfessionalsThinkinAction. BasicBooks,NewYork.

Stodden, R., Hamada, C., Simonelli,S., Nagasako, J., 2003.Social Emotional Learning Brief. , Retrieved fromwww.sig.hawaii.edu/products/briefs/sel_ brief.pdf.

(11)

UNDP,2006.TheArabHumanDevelopmentReport2005:TowardstheRiseof WomenintheArabWorld.HumanDevelopment,NewYork.

UNESCO,2000.EFA2000Assessment–CountryReports:Oman.,Retrievedfrom

http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/oman/contents. html.

UNESCO,2002.ArabStatesRegionalReport.Statistics.Montreal,Canada. UNESCO,2008. Regional Overview: ArabStates EFAProgress andChallenges.

Changes.,Retrievedfromwww.efareport.unesco.org.

vanDijk,T.A.,2008.DiscourseandContext:ASociocognitiveApproach.Cambridge UniversityPress,Cambridge.

WeinerLevy,N.,2009.‘‘...butithasitsprice’’:cyclesofalienationandexclusion amongpioneeringDruzewomen.InternationalJournalofEducational Devel-opment29(1),46–55,doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2008.04.005.

Wikan,U.,1982.BehindtheVeilinArabia:WomeninOman.UniversityofChicago Press,Chicago.

Williamson,J.,2006.DhofarandItsStrugglewiththeEnglishLanguage.StClements University(supervisedbyLondonTeachingTrainingCenter).

Wyatt,M.,Atkins,J.,2009.Introduction.In:Wyatt,M.,Atkins,J.(Eds.),Research PerspectivesonEducationinOman.MinistryofEducation,SultanateofOman, pp.viii–xv.

Şekil

Table 1 summarizes common qualities, or personal character- character-istics, as revealed in this analysis, that may affect the patterns of agency that these women were learning to take

Referanslar

Benzer Belgeler

Şinasi, insan haklarının, cumhuriyetin, halk idaresinin emek­ çinin haklarının tartışıldığı bir ortamda, olaya en yukardan yöneticiler düzeyin­ den değil, en

Y urt dışında uzun yıllardır sanat kavgasıyla ekmek kavgasını, kimi zaman tek başına, kimi zaman can < yoldaşı eşiyle birlikte yürüten, kendilerini

We also build a prototype to encompass personalized health exam recommendations, medical interpretation and advisory, as well as clinical care recommendation processes to show

The patients were hospitalized in our clinic and cases that did not meet the SSHL definition (sensorineural hearing loss of at least 30 dB at three consecutive frequencies within 72

Öğretmen Adaylarının Çocukluklarında Oynadıkları Kültürel Oyunları Oynama Düzeylerinin İncelenmesi, International Journal Of Eurasia Social Sciences, Vol: 8,

ANOVA analysis revealed that the contribution rate of production parameters on the strength value of CaO briquettes were as follows: (i) binder amount, (ii) binder

sınıf MEB yayınları birinci ders kitabında en fazla sosyal değer millî mücadele ve Atatürk (f=7) temasında bulunmaktadır.. Bu ders kitabında bilim ve teknoloji,