Received: 13 October 2017 Revised: 19 December 2017 Accepted: 20 December 2017 DOI: 10.1002/gea.21679
R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E
Palaeolithic occupation of the Anatolian High Plateau during a
cold period: An MIS 6 aged artifact from the Avlamı¸s Valley,
Eski¸sehir, NW Turkey
Faruk Ocako ˘glu
1Berkay Dinçer
2,3Mehmet Serkan Akkiraz
4Eren ¸Sahiner
5George A. Brook
61Department of Geological Engineering, Eski¸se-hir Osmangazi University, Me¸selik Campus, Eski¸sehir, Turkey
2Prehistory Department, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Ardahan University, Ardahan, Turkey
3Prehistory Department, Faculty of Letters, ˙Istanbul University, ˙Istanbul, Turkey 4Department of Geological Engineering, Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, Turkey 5Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Ankara Univer-sity, Ankara, Turkey
6Luminescence Dating Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Correspondence
Faruk Ocako ˘glu, Department of Geological Engineering, Eski¸sehir Osmangazi University, Me¸selik Campus, Eski¸sehir, Turkey. Email: [email protected] Scientific editing by Steve Kuhn
Abstract
In the Avlamı¸s Valley, 10 km north of Eski¸sehir (NW Anatolia), an undamaged triangular Leval-lois flake was encountered in a paleosol, 430 cm beneath the ground surface. The artifact has a minimal dorsal retouch on the right margin, and there is a light beige partial patina on the ventral surface. Based on the technological investigations, this artifact was made using the centripetal recurrent Levallois technique. An observation of the trench walls revealed the triple nature of the stratigraphy: an upper gravelly sand (Unit-1), an underlying reddish-brown pebbly paleosol (Unit-2), and a lowermost dominantly pink, finer-grained deposit (Unit-3) where the artifact was retrieved. Optically stimulated luminescence ages indicate a strong influence of global marine iso-topic stages (MIS) on the trench stratigraphy, with the deposit hosting the artifact dating to 148± 20 ka (MIS 6 cold period). The available pollen data from the same stratigraphic level verified an open steppe landscape with some arboreal plant cover during deposition. This is the first strati-graphically dated Middle Palaeolithic artifact from NW Anatolia, and one of the few in the whole country, thus igniting further discussion about the ways Pleistocene hominins adapted to cold and arid environmental conditions.
K E Y W O R D S
Eski¸sehir Graben, Levallois, Middle Palaeolithic, MIS 6, OSL dating
1
I N T RO D U C T I O N
Turkey is one of the least researched countries in the Middle East in terms of Palaeolithic archaeology. Although 460 Palaeolithic sites have been reported in the online inventory of Turkish archaeological sites (www.tayproject.org), only a handful of these have been the subject of systematic research (Arsebük, 1998; Kuhn, 2002) (Figure 1). Many of these Palaeolithic sites have been found through surface reconnais-sance, and their ages are not clear. Surface assemblages have been assigned to lower, middle, or upper Palaeolithic lato sensu, according to the typology of artifacts. Reportedly, 166 of the Palaeolithic sites in the country have been assigned to the Middle Palaeolithic period.
One of the most debated aspects of the Middle Palaeolithic is its technological variability. Turkey has diverse geographic regions, and due to the current state of research in the country, it is impossible to understand Middle Palaeolithic assemblage variability across different regions. Another difficulty is the lack of well-dated Middle Palaeolithic assemblages. There are only four sites in Turkey with published
assemblage descriptions that have reliable dates corresponding to the Middle Palaeolithic: Yarımburgaz Cave (˙Istanbul), Kaletepe Deresi 3 (KD3) (Nigde), Karain Cave (Antalya), and Üça ˘gızlı II Cave (Hatay) (Figure 1).
There are very large geographic gaps between dated Middle Palaeolithic sites in Turkey (Figure 1), which makes it difficult to under-stand cultural adaptations and technological variability of Middle Palaeolithic populations. Thus, in Turkey, any dated assemblages might provide a better understanding of the technological variability in the Middle Palaeolithic period. Moreover, the current state of Palaeolithic research in the country does not permit an understanding of hominin adaptations to different climatic conditions. There are not enough data to determine whether Palaeolithic occupations in Anatolia took place during cold or warm periods. The climate of Turkey might have been very harsh during glacial periods of the Pleistocene, especially in the highlands.
Eski¸sehir lies at the conjunction of natural routes between central Anatolia and the Marmara Basin. A dated Middle Palaeolithic find from
F I G U R E 1 Geographic distribution of Palaeolithic artifacts in Anatolia (map base via Wikimedia Commons) [Color figure can be viewed at wiley-onlinelibrary.com]
the Avlamı¸s Valley, especially one located between Karain, Üça ˘gızlı II, KD3, and Yarımburgaz, might provide a better understanding of Mid-dle Palaeolithic variability in Turkey. The archaeological remains from Avlamı¸s consisted of only a single lithic artifact; however, it has been securely dated via optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating and supported by environmental and geomorphological data. As a result, the Avlamı¸s find provides important new information about the early hominin occupation of highland Anatolia.
2
P H Y S I C A L S E T T I N G
2.1
Morphotectonics
The Eski¸sehir region is located in the watershed of Porsuk Creek, which is a tributary of the larger Sakarya River, in NW Anatolia (Figure 1). North of the region, the E-W-trending Sakarya Valley is as deep as 1500 m below the surrounding landscape. Southern areas feature a tectonic depression through which the Porsuk Creek and its tribu-taries flow. This depression, called the Eski¸sehir Graben, begins to the west of ˙Inönü and remains prominent for at least 80 km to the east of Alpu (Figure 2). The width of the graben increases toward the east, reaching a maximum of 15 km in the vicinity of Eski¸sehir City. The graben floor stands at 790 m above sea level (asl), while elevations are 1100–1300 and 950 m asl in the northern and southern horsts, respectively. Within the northern horst, including the Avlamı¸s Valley, abundant metamorphic rocks (mainly gneiss, calc-schist and schist) are exposed between Gökdere and Bozüyük (Gözler, Cevher, Küçükkay-man, & Asutay, 1997; Okay, Monod, & Monie, 2002). In the Türkmen Hill area farther NE, ultramafic rocks, including harzburgite and ser-pentinite, as well as listvenite, also are extensively exposed (Figure 2). The southern horst is composed of siliciclastic, carbonate, and volcanic
rocks, ranging in age from Neogene to Pleistocene, overlying the same metamorphic and ultramafic basement (Gözler et al., 1997; Ocako ˘glu, 2007). Porsuk Creek flows in a several kilometers wide, 130-m-deep valley before entering the graben (Figure 2). Ocako ˘glu and Açıkalın (2009) and Ocako ˘glu and Akkiraz (2015) mapped some fluvial terraces in the Porsuk Valley and demonstrated that the incision history of the Porsuk Creek began in early MIS 5e times (∼125 ka).
The Eski¸sehir Graben is related to a larger intracontinental defor-mation zone whose longstanding activity has been subject of many morphotectonic studies across its surface expression (Altunel, & Barka, 1998; Koçyi ˘git, 2000; Ocako ˘glu, 2007; Ocako ˘glu, Açıkalın, Gökceo ˘glu, Karabacak, and Cherkinsky, 2009; Özden, Gündo ˘gdu, & Bekler, 2015; Seyito ˘glu et al., 2015). Despite a multitude of studies, the nature, initiation time, and rate of deposition within the graben still remains controversial. Some studies have suggested a dominant strike-slip deformation in the modern fault zone (Altunel, & Barka, 1998; Seyito ˘glu et al., 2015; Tün et al., 2010), but there is much morpho-tectonic and seismic evidence in favor of dominantly normal faulting in this relatively young deformation zone (Koçyi ˘git, 2000; Ocako ˘glu, 2007; Ocako ˘glu et al., 2009; Özden et al., 2015). The early find-ings of a recent study that relies heavily on the dating of terraces and graben fill suggested that the onset of displacement along the southern bounding fault may be as young as 70 ka (Ocako ˘glu, & Akkiraz, 2015). Before the initiation of this fault, the ancestral Por-suk Creek flowed northward across a 10-km-wide floodplain at an elevation of 940 m asl. At that time, the northern margin fault was already active, creating a several hundred meter high fault scarp (Ocako ˘glu, & Akkiraz, 2015). Seismic activity is still ongoing, as evi-denced by microearthquakes and larger, more destructive earth-quakes, such as the February 20, 1956 earthquake in Eski¸sehir Graben (Ocako ˘glu, & Açıkalın, 2010; Özden et al., 2015; Tün, Pekkan, Özel, & Guney, 2016).
OCAKO ˘GLUET AL.
F I G U R E 2 Geological map of the Eski¸sehir Graben and vicinity (revised after Gözler et al., 1997) [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlineli-brary.com]
2.2
Geomorphology of the Avlamı¸s Valley
The Avlamı¸s Valley constitutes the most southern part of a tributary drainage, called Kavaklı Creek, that flows into the Sakarya River to the north (Figures 1 and 3). Although it belongs to the same system, the Kavaklı Valley farther north is distinctly different from the Avlamı¸s Valley because it has a very steep bed profile and a deep, obvious V shape. The Avlamı¸s Valley floor extends gently northeastward for 3 km between 1170 and 1190 m asl (Figure 3). The peaks to the north-west and southeast of the valley rise as high as 1371 m asl (Tilkilik Hill) and 1282 m asl (Serçe Hill), respectively. In the vicinity of the NE tip of the valley, the flat basin floor is missing due to the headward erosion of central Kavaklı Creek (Figure 3). Headward erosion in this area is evident from an abruptly steepened creek profile and deeply incised lateral branches. In other words, the headward erosion of the Kavaklı Creek has fairly recently reached the NE edge of the modern Avlamı¸s Valley. The valley floor rises smoothly southwestward, but it is abruptly beheaded against a southerly draining (i.e., toward the graben interior) small unnamed creek (Figure 3). The color of the valley floor varies from dark gray to yellowish red (Figure 4A). In recent years, local people excavated a 3-m-deep drainage channel (straight blue line in Figure 3) in order to lower the groundwater table. By doing so, the area that was previously wetland dried and became available for farming activities.
On the hillslope of the Avlamı¸s Valley, three strath terraces have been identified at different elevations, which further signify the quite old age of this beheaded valley (Figures 3 and 4A and B). The lower terrace is found at 1180–1185 m asl and has a limited extent. The middle terrace is extensively developed along the SE hillslopes at 1200–1210 m asl and also occurs at 1210–1220 m asl along the NW hillslopes as a strath terrace and riser. The uppermost terrace stands at 1240–1250 m asl and is preserved as scattered limited risers along the NW hillslopes. Formation of all three terraces presumably required significant stream erosion, which in turn necessitates a considerable watershed for their development. Consequently, all of these planar surfaces predate the initiation of the Eski¸sehir Fault Zone (EFZ), just to the south of the Avlamı¸s Valley (Figure 2).
3
PA L A E O L I T H I C A RC H A E O LO G Y
Until recently, Palaeolithic finds from the Eski¸sehir region were limited to unsystematic studies. To the south of Eski¸sehir City, probable Middle Palaeolithic scrapers and borers were found at Seydisuyu, but these were not reported in detail (Figure 1; Harmankaya, & Tanındı, 1997). Moreover, near Alpanos, a small bifacial artifact was found; this was typologically assigned to the Middle Palaeolithic (Chaput, 1941; Tomsky, 1982). Another Middle Palaeolithic find, a triangular point, 607
F I G U R E 3 Morphological features of the Avlamı¸s Valley
Note: Note several terraces at different elevations and the pod-shape of the valley. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
was recovered at Keçiçayırı (Efe, & Türkteki, 2007; Fidan, 2007; Figure 1) in the southern part of Eski¸sehir (Seyitgazi).
A systematic survey in 2008 and 2009 of the Kuzfındık Valley, to the west of Eski¸sehir (˙Inönü), revealed many more Palaeolithic sites and assemblages (Figure 1; Türkcan, 2011). Two probable lower Palae-olithic choppers and chopping tools from Kuzfındık Valley are typolog-ically the oldest artifacts in the Eski¸sehir region. Middle Palaeolithic finds are more abundant and include flakes, side scrapers, and cores. Among the cores, it is important to note that one is a Levallois core. The Levallois core has a preferential removal. The other cores include globular and atypical types. This might reflect the use of different core reduction strategies in the region (Dinçer, & Türkcan, 2011). Study of the Kuzfındık Palaeolithic material is still ongoing.
There are many other Palaeolithic finds along the periphery of Eski¸sehir. Many Middle Palaeolithic sites in the neighboring Kütahya province are noteworthy (Dinçer, 2014; Dinçer, Türkcan, & Erikan, 2014; Efe, 1990, 1991). Recent surveys in Bursa revealed many Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites (Dinçer, 2010; ¸Sahin, Dinçer, & Zimmer-mann, 2009). Nevertheless, none of the Palaeolithic assemblages from Eski¸sehir and the surrounding region have been dated. This is the main problem limiting the ability to reach firm conclusions about the Palae-olithic populations across northwestern Anatolia.
4
M E T H O D S A P P L I E D
A 490-cm-deep trench (X: 30,428◦East, Y: 39,922◦North) was exca-vated in the narrow part of the pod-shaped Avlamı¸s Valley (Figures 3
and 4A). We relied on OSL dating and palynological analysis of trench sediments to reconstruct depositional history and former vegetation cover.
After cleaning the trench walls, steel tubes (30-cm long and 6 cm in diameter) were hammered into the wall parallel with the bedding plane at the desired stratigraphic levels. The homogenous and sandy levels were particularly of interest for sampling. The tubes were fully filled in order to prevent mixing during transportation. Following removal, the tubes were tightly wrapped using aluminum foil and a thick dark plas-tic bag to prevent light penetration and moisture loss from both ends. A separate 2-kg sediment sample from the same level was collected for annual dose measurements using gamma spectrometry and mois-ture analyses. The collected samples were sent to two different labo-ratories: Samples Avlamı¸s-1, Avlamı¸s-2, and Avlamı¸s-230/2 were sent to the Luminescence Dating Research Laboratory of the Institute of Nuclear Sciences at Ankara University (Turkey), and samples Avlamı¸s-230/2 and Avlamı¸s-255 were sent to the Luminescence Laboratory of the Georgia University (USA) for OSL analysis.
Tube samples were opened at the laboratories under subdued red light conditions. The top and bottom 5 cm of the sediment in the pipe samples were removed to eliminate material that had been exposed to light before or during collection. The potentially light-exposed sed-iment was stored in plastic bags to be used later for annual dose rate estimation. Raw samples from the central section of the pipes were treated with 10% hydrochloric acid (HCl) and 20% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to remove carbonates and organic matter, respectively. After drying, the samples were sieved to obtain grains of a suitable size range. Heavy liquids with densities of 2.62 and 2.75 g/cm3were then used
OCAKO ˘GLUET AL.
F I G U R E 4 Field view of certain landscape features in the Avlamı¸s Valley
Notes: (A) A general SW view of the Avlamı¸s Valley. Note reddish sediments on the hillslope to the left. (B) Lower and middle terraces. Houses at the top left indicate the location of the Avlamı¸s village. (C) A close-up view of the NE wall of the Avlamı¸s trench. (D) Position of OSL samples and the artifact find in the SW wall of the Avlamı¸s trench. OSL sample Avlamı¸s-230/1 is positioned out of the frame at the same level with Avlamı¸s 230/2. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
to separate out the quartz grains of the desired size fraction, ranging from 90 to 250𝜇m. The resulting quartz grains were treated with 40% hydrofluoric acid (HF) for 60 minutes to remove the outer layer irradi-ated by alpha particles and any remaining feldspar grains. They were then treated with 10% HCl for 10 minutes to remove the fluorides cre-ated during the HF etching. The purity of the quartz was checked using infrared-stimulated luminescence at 50◦C and the results showed that neither sample contained feldspar in the quartz fraction. The puri-fied quartz grains were then mounted on the center part of stainless steel disks (with a diameter of 1 cm) using silicone oil for the OSL measurements.
The OSL measurements were carried out using an automated Risø TL/OSL-DA-15 reader at Georgia University, and a Risø TL/OSL-DA-20 reader at Ankara University (Markey, Bøtter-Jensen, & Duller, 1997). Light stimulation of the quartz mineral extracts was undertaken with an excitation unit containing blue light-emitting diodes (𝜆 = 470 ± 30 nm) (Bøtter-Jensen, Bulur, Duller, & Murray, 2000). The detection optics comprised 2 Hoya 2.5-mm-thick U340 filters and a 3-mm-thick stimulation Schott GG420 filter coupled to an EMI 9635 QA photomul-tiplier tube. Laboratory irradiation was carried out using a calibrated 90Sr/90Y source mounted within the reader.
The equivalent dose (De) was measured using a routine single aliquot regenerative dose (SAR) protocol (Murray, & Wintle, 2000).
Based on a preheat plateau dose-recovery (PP-DR) test, the preheat temperature for dating in the quartz OSL SAR protocol was 260◦C and the cut-heat temperature was 220◦C.
For De determination, dose–response curves were constructed using three regenerative dose points, a zero-dose point, and a repeat point. The initial OSL signals, integrated over 0.80 seconds (one to five channels), were subtracted by the “early background” (6–30 channels) to avoid a contribution of medium and slow components (Cunning-ham, & Wallinga, 2010). For each sample, 24 aliquots were measured. Among the measured aliquots, any that exceeded the acceptable range for the recycling rate (0.9–1.1) and recuperation (10%) were excluded from any of the Decalculations. The data were analyzed using the ANA-LYST program by Duller (1999).
The dose rate was created using the radioactive elements exist-ing in the grains of the sample and the surroundexist-ing sediments, with a small contribution from cosmic rays. For all of the samples measured at Georgia University, a thick source Daybreak alpha counting sys-tem was used to estimate U and Th for the dose rate calculations. The K contents were measured at the SGS Laboratory in Canada by the ICP90, using the sodium peroxide fusion technique. Determination of the annual doses of the Avlamı¸s-1 and Avlamı¸s-2 samples at Ankara University was by gamma spectrometry using a Coaxial type ORTEC HPGe (37% relative efficiency) detector after the radioactive balance 609
occurred (at least 4 weeks). For the detector measurements, the sam-ples were dried at 110◦C for 6 hours and then reduced to< 500 𝜇m by crushing and sieving. The sediments were then put in cylindrical plastic boxes that were of the same shape as those used in the calibration of the spectrometry. All of the details about the activity determinations, dose rate calculations, and correction factors were presented in detail by ¸Sahiner and Meriç (2014) and ¸Sahiner (2015). All of the measure-ments were converted to alpha, beta, and gamma dose rates according to the conversion factors of Aitken (1985, 1998). The effect of water content and additional contributions from cosmic rays was also taken into account. The water content was mostly estimated to have been around 50± 25% for all of the samples since their deposition. The cosmic-ray contribution to the dose rate was calculated from the burial depth, longitude, latitude, and elevation of the sample location follow-ing the methods of Prescott and Hutton (1994).
From the trench in the Avlamı¸s Valley, eight sediment samples from deposits were processed according to standard procedures for paly-nological preparations (HCL, HF-acetolysis). Only two of the samples collected included a small number of palynomorphs, yet several pollen extraction trials yielded 220 individuals from Avlamı¸s-3 and 260 indi-viduals from Avlamı¸s-230. These were determined and counted under a light transmitted microscope (× 400 and × 1000) using immersion oil and converted to percentages with the help of TILIA software (Grimm, 2005).
5
R E S U LT S
5.1
Stratigraphy
The original purpose of the trench was to reach and sample the old-est Avlamı¸s Valley fill sediments in order to constrain the initiation of the EFZ. Upon reaching the depth limits of the digging equipment at 490 cm below the surface, we ceased trenching, and cleaned and inspected the trench walls. We subsequently found the artifact (the subject of this contribution) close to the base of the trench. The host sediments of the artifact were yellowish, water-logged silty mud just beneath the local groundwater table. These sediments behaved plas-tically when squeezed between our fingers, leaving a feeling of fric-tion from the silt-sized material only. The artifact itself did not dis-play any evidence of reworking such as rounding, and its fractures appeared nonweathered. Careful inspection of the stratigraphy at this level failed to reveal any natural gravel or any other artifacts such as flakes. It appears that this artifact was accidentally dropped and sub-sequently buried in place. Similarly, the surface of this area yielded no sign of archaeological remains, and no archaeological artifacts have been observed in the immediate vicinity. Aside from the uppermost modern agricultural soil, three stratigraphic units were differentiated in the trench walls (Figure 5).
5.1.1
Unit-1: Gray gravelly sands (50–190 cm below
modern surface)
The pebbles are derived from nearby metamorphic rocks, mostly gneiss and quartzite, and are very angular. The color of the soil is light
gray (10R 8/2), but varies to darker gray locally where the grain size decreases to silt and clay. Crude horizontal bedding and occasional nor-mal grading are the unique sedimentary structures encountered. The basal contact with an underlying paleosol is sharp but displays no evi-dence of erosion, such as reworked soil pebbles from the lower unit (Figures 4C and 5). The lower 20–30 cm interval appears more pebbly, with some levels featuring clast imbrication.
5.1.2
Unit-2: Reddish-brown pebbly paleosol
(190–420 cm below modern surface)
Faint stratification in this level is discernable, but vertical columnar structures are more evident, especially below 300 cm. Soil color is 5YR 5/8, and does not change considerably with depth (Figure 4D). The bulk lithology is mud with varying amounts (< 5%) of randomly dissemi-nated, generally small gneiss and quartzite granules (< 1 cm). One of the levels between 290 and 300 cm contains considerably more peb-bles and sand (but still< 20%), from which we obtained a sample for OSL dating (Figures 4C and 5). There are millimeter-sized powder-like yellowish carbonate patches disseminated in this paleosol as well.
5.1.3
Unit-3: Yellowish-pink silt with subordinate sand
(420–490 cm below modern surface)
As a whole, this stratigraphic unit is composed of yellowish-pink fine-grained sediments compared to the overlying Unit-2. The artifact was located at the top of a 20-cm-thick silt with a subordinate amount of yellowish-red (5YR 7/4) fine-to-medium sand (Figures 4D and 5). The underlying 35-cm-thick muddy sand layer is slightly more red-dish in color (5YR 6/6) and includes prominent granule-sized (3–5 mm) schist and quartzite fragments. The lowermost layer at the base of the trench is apparently pinkish (2.5YR 8/1) in color and is only made of silt and clay, excluding obvious coarser sand and granules. The con-tacts between the layers are always gradational. Unfortunately, the wet nature of the unit below the groundwater level did not allow us to observe any sedimentary structure, neither in the excavated material nor in the trench walls.
5.2
Chronology
OSL dating has become increasingly employed over the last 15–20 years in geomorphologic and anthropological research. This method produces mostly reliable ages back to 100 ka, but ages as old as 400 ka have also been reported under suitable geological condi-tions (Lian, & Roberts, 2006; Wintle, 2008). Among others, Late Pleistocene–Holocene paleosols are common geological materials that have been successfully dated using this technique (Urban, Kuz, & Gehrt, 2011). Nevertheless, quartz OSL ages extending back to MIS 5e can, in some cases, underestimate the true age at a rate of 10–15% (Murray, & Funder, 2003; Murray, Svendsen, Mangerud, and Astakhov, 2007; Wintle, 2008). The SAR dose protocol applied in this study to determine the Deof the quartz grains has proven successful in gener-ating accurate ages (Murray, & Wintle, 2000; Wintle, & Murray, 2006). The pairs of Degrowth curve-radial distribution graphs for sam-ples Avlamı¸s-1, Avlamı¸s-2, and Avlamı¸s-230/1 (measured at Ankara
OCAKO ˘GLUET AL.
F I G U R E 5 Stratigraphy of the Avlamı¸s trench Notes: Tubes depict the position of the OSL samples. [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
University, Turkey) are presented in Figure 6A–C, respectively. All of the Degrowth curves displayed an exponential distribution. The Devalues of these samples at depths of 1.5, 3, and 4.2 m were 15 ± 1, 116 ± 6, and 172 ± 3 Gy, respectively (Table 1). In the radial distributions, the central age model (Galbraith, Roberts, Laslett, Yoshida, & Olley, 1999) was chosen to calculate the representa-tive burial dose estimates. By dividing the annual doses by the dose rate conversion factors of Adamiec and Aitken (1998), the OSL dates of samples Avlamı¸s-1, Avlamı¸s-2, and Avlamı¸s-233/1 were obtained as 7.9 ± 0.5, 73.6 ± 5.0, and 148.3 ± 20.8 ka, respectively.
The growth curve for Avlamı¸s-255 (measured at the University of Georgia, Athens, GA) suggests that this sample was saturated with the estimated Devalues, falling where their growth curves started to flatten, so that the overdispersion (OD) values could not be calculated and used to determine the bleaching characteristics. However, as Gal-braith and Roberts (2012) pointed out, even a very imprecise estimate of the Demay still provide a useful lower bound on its true value. The growth curve for Avlamı¸s-255, from a depth of 4.5 m, suggests that this sample began to saturate around 2000s (159.94 Gy) (Table 1). Wintle and Murray (2006) pointed out that when using a saturating exponential growth curve, as we did here, it is prudent to ensure that the De< 2D0(i.e., that L0/T0is less than about 85% of the saturation level). Based on this recommendation, we used a Devalue of 159.94 Gy
to obtain the minimum age estimate of> 176.18 ± 20.74 ka for the Avlamı¸s-255 sample (Table 1).
Similar to Avlamı¸s-255, sample Avlamı¸s-230/2, which was analyzed at Georgia University, was also saturated (Table 1). Although the obtained Deoutcomes were compatible with each other for the pair of Avlamı¸s-230 samples, Avlamı¸s-230/2 had an early saturation point, while sample Avlamı¸s-230/1 remained unsaturated. This fact can be attributed to the grain size employed in the measurements, as indicated in Table 1. The smaller quartz mineral grains might give rise to higher saturation levels when compared to coarser ones. Moreover, the various ranges in the grain sizes could abide by various fitting functions (linear, exponential, sum of two exponentials, etc.) due to the available luminescence centers being depleted. For example, Timar-Gabor and Wintle (2013) obtained different dose–response curves for different grain sizes in the Romanian loess. The authors indicated that the growth of the signal was in accordance with a single saturating exponential function, where the signal of the coarse grains began to saturate at 100–200 Gy, while the fine grains saturated later (200–300 Gy).
5.3
Pollen
We studied the sporomorph types and their relative concentrations in two samples (Avlamı¸s-3 at 360 cm, and Avlamı¸s-230, which was 611
F I G U R E 6 FIGURE 6 Pairs of dose-response curve and Deradial plots belonging to the Avlamı¸s Valley samples: (A) Avlamı¸s-1, (B) Avlamı¸s-2, and (C) Avlamı¸s-230/1
Notes: The vertical axes in dose–response graphs show the corrected OSL signal and the horizontal axes, the laboratory radiation dose in seconds. The red lines show the Deneeded to produce the original sample OSL signal.
[Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
the artifact-holding silt layer at 430 cm). The sporomorph diversity and abundance were low, probably due to the poor preservation conditions in both samples. Avlamı¸s-3 comprised only Pinaceae (pine) and Cupressaceae (Cypress family) tree pollen, and Selaginellaceae (spore) and algae (Figure 7A). Selaginellaceae (spike-moss family) are eurythermic ferns and fern allies, and their presence may indicate a damp environment (Macphail, & Truswell, 2004; Prebble, Raine, Barret, & Hannah, 2006). They were most likely sensitive to the environment in which they lived, with respect to the pH conditions and existence of nutrients (Frederiksen, 1985; Gruas-Cavagnetto, 1978). According to Goosem (2002), their existence may indicate a considerable wet climate. The Avlamı¸s-230 sample, on the other hand, included a significant amount of Quercus (oak), Fagus (beech), and Salix (willow) (each 5–10%) along with dominant Pinaceae pollen (20%). Open vegetation elements Artemisia (mugworts) and
Chenopo-diaceae (goosefoot family) were relatively highly represented in the herb pollen (20–40%) as well (Figure 7A and B). The Sporomorph assemblage, including open vegetation elements, such as Artemisia and Chenopodiceae, verified the cold and arid climatic conditions at that time (Liu, Zhang, Jiao, & Mischeke, 2016; Out, and Verhoeven, 2014; Satkunas, Grigiene, Buynevich, & Taminskas, 2013).
5.4
Artifact
The Middle Palaeolithic artifact from the Avlamı¸s Valley came from Unit 3 in the trench. The artifact is a triangular Levallois flake with minimal dorsal retouch on right distal margin (dimensions: 6.12 × 3.64× 0.94 cm) (Figure 8). In close correlation with the local geol-ogy, the artifact is made from a pebble and bears a cortex. The raw material is brown chert, more specifically, silicified listvenite. This rock
OCAKO ˘GLUET AL. TA B L E 1 Summary of ph ysical c har a cteristics, radionuclide c oncentr ations, and O SL dating results from the A vlamı ¸st re n c h Sample name Depth (m) W a ter content (%) Gr ain size (𝝁 m) De (G y ) K (%) U (ppm) T h (ppm) C osmic dose rate (Gy/ka) Dose ra te [Gy/ a] Age (ka) B .P . Av la m ı¸s-1 1 .5 27 ± 23 90–140 14.5 ± 0.7 1 .19 ± 0.03 1.43 ± 0.18 6.76 ± 0.26 0.20 ± 0.02 1.83 ± 0.04 7.9 ± 0.5 Av la m ı¸s-2 3.0 48 ± 25 90–140 116.4 ± 5.8 0.88 ± 0.03 1.56 ± 0.18 6.31 ± 0.25 0.17 ± 0.02 1.605 ± 0.04 73.6 ± 5.0 Av la m ı¸s-230/2 4 .0 50 ± 25 150–250 > 79.97 1.2 ± 0.10 2.02 ± 0.47 9.86 ± 1.63 0.20 ± 0.02 1.16 ± 0.14 > 68.9 ± 8.4 Av la m ı¸s-230/1 4.0 50 ± 25 90–140 172 ± 3 148.3 ± 20.8 Av la m ı¸s-255 4.5 5 0 ± 25 125–250 > 159.94 1.0 ± 0.10 1.5 ± 0.26 6.43 ± 0.92 0.20 ± 0.02 0.91 ± 0.11 > 176.2 ± 20.7
type is commonly available as lenses tens to hundreds of meters in size within the ultramafic basement on the northern horst (Figure 2). On the ventral surface of the artifact, a light beige partial patina is observed. No evidence of rolling is observed on the surfaces of the arti-fact, but because the edges are very thin, there is a bit of damage on the edges in the form of very small fractures.
The cortex retained less than 5% of its entire surface and is limited only to the platform (Figure 8). However, the platform is cortical, and is also minimally faceted. The very pronounced bulb of the percussion indicates the use of a hard hammer. The main scars, two lateral and one central, are present on the dorsal surface; one from the right and two from the left, each making an angle of approximately 45◦relative to the axis of the flake. The direction of the central scar is toward the right edge of the flake. This indicates the recurrent centripetal method of the Levallois technique (Boëda, Geneste, & Meignen, 1990). Moreover, on the proximal part of the flake, there are four more scars that are much smaller in size. Their direction is parallel to the flake axis.
A preliminary traceological analysis performed by Çiler Altınbilek (˙Istanbul University, Turkey), using both stereo and metallurgical microscopes, showed that there is a very small impact fracture on the pointed part of the tool. This impact fracture is too small to be the result of the use as a projectile. Both edges of this fracture show edge rounding, which could indicate continued use after the impact frac-ture. The retouched right edge of the tip was intensively used and bears edge rounding and polish. Neither evidence of bitumen nor other residues are present on the surface of the tool. Given that there is only a single artifact from the Avlamı¸s Valley and it is a triangular flake (indi-cating its possible use as a point), the best scenario seems to be that the Palaeolithic hominins had lost this tool in this area. Due to there being only a small impact fracture on the artifact, one could claim that this point was not used.
The triangular point found at Keçiçayırı (Efe, & Türkteki, 2007) bears the closest resemblance, both geographically and typologically, to the Avlamı¸s find. In the Kuzfındık area, pointed flakes and/or points are very scarce (Dinçer, & Türkcan, 2011). The use of the recurrent centripetal Levallois method is common, especially in central Anatolia, where rich obsidian sources are present (Kuhn, Dinçer, Balkan-Atlı, & Erturaç, 2015).
The artifact also exemplifies how deeply buried the Palaeolithic assemblages may be. Comparisons with other Middle Palaeolithic assemblages are not very reliable at the moment because there is only a single artifact from the Avlamı¸s Valley. However, some aspects of the dated assemblages from the central Anatolia and the Mediterranean region show similarities to the Avlamı¸s artifact. Specifically, the high percentages of points in the Karain, Üça ˘gızlı II, and KD3 Middle Palae-olithic layers make this comparison possible. Point productions from the Göllüda ˘g area (central Anatolia), where KD3 is located, do not bear any trace of typical Levallois point production. The Avlamı¸s find fits well with the technological aspects of central and western Turkey's Middle Palaeolithic assemblages.
The most recent Palaeolithic layers at Yarımburgaz Cave were deposited between 226± 24 and 211 ± 22 ka (Koenigswald, Linde-nau, & Santel, 2010); however, the assemblage at Yarımburgaz Cave is attributed to the Lower Palaeolithic, and electron spin resonance 613
F I G U R E 7 Pollen spectra of two samples from the Avlamı¸s Valley (A) and micrographs of some pollen grains from the artifact-holding mud (B) Note: 1- Pinaceae; 2,3- Chenopodiaceae; 4- Artemisia.
[Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
F I G U R E 8 Photograph and hand drawings of the Avlamı¸s artifact (drawn by N. Kayacan) Note: Each scale division is 1 cm.
OCAKO ˘GLUET AL.
dating of the associated Ursus teeth ranges between 270 and 390± 40–60 ka. The small mammal fauna of the cave is consistent with these dates. The technological analysis of the lithic assemblage shows high investment in the flakes, which is accepted to be a characteristic of the Middle Palaeolithic, and evidence of Levallois production is abso-lutely missing in the Yarımburgaz assemblage (Arsebük, & Özba¸saran, 1999; Blackwell et al., 2010; Kuhn, 2003). The Palaeolithic occupations of the Yarımburgaz Cave took place during a cold period in the Middle Pleistocene. Most of the small mammal species that were found in the archaeological layers are extinct in the area, but they still exist in the Ukraine (Koenigswald et al., 2010).
The global average annual temperature during this period (around 8◦C cooler than today) is similar to those inferred for the latest part of MIS 6, as shown in the EPICA and Vostok ice cores. Hence, it is rea-sonable to suggest that the climate in Turkey during cold periods of the Pleistocene was similar to the Ukraine today. However, Yarımburgaz Cave is located only 18 m above modern sea level and almost 55% of Turkey's land is located at elevations > 1000 m, including the Avlamı¸s location. It is evident that conditions during glacial periods in the area were much harsher for hominins. Most of the excavated and dated Mid-dle Palaeolithic sites are located in low-lying areas such as the Mediter-ranean (Karain and Üça ˘gızlı) and Marmara (Yarımburgaz) coasts. These areas would have been available for hominin occupations, even dur-ing the very cold periods (Kuhn et al., 2015). The published dates for these sites also point to occupation during relatively cold periods. The average of ESR and thermoluminescence dates at Karain Cave archae-ological Unit F was 200–250 ka and that of archaearchae-ological Unit I was 110–120 ka (Otte et al., 1998a, 1998bb). The234U–230Th dating of the Üça ˘gızlı II Cave revealed that the archeological layers were deposited between 75 and 41 ka (Mentzer, 2011).
At higher elevations, it would have been harder for hominins to adapt to the climate. One example of this might be the KD3 Middle Palaeolithic layers, since the site is located approximately 1600 m asl. Two main layers have been excavated there. Layer I sits above a 160 ka tephra layer and the possible date of this occupation is approximately 70 ka (Tryon et al., 2009). However, the Palaeolithic artifacts of this layer are not very rich; hence, it is not possible to comment more than the presence of Levallois flakes and sidescrapers. Layer II lies beneath this tephra layer; however, its date is not absolute. In this Middle Palae-olithic layer, a variety of Levallois productions were observed. The two main Levallois techniques include the production of laminar blanks from unipolar cores and flakes from centripetal cores. The retouched tools include scrapers and points (Slimak et al., 2007, 2008; Slimak, & Dinçer, 2007).
Karain Cave has the longest Palaeolithic sequence in Turkey, and its Middle Palaeolithic sequence shows long-term evolution of lithic tech-nology between 300–350 and 60–70 ka. The lower layers of the Middle Palaeolithic sequence at Karain Cave have been defined as “Proto-Charentian,” which is characterized by denticulates and notches, along with steep scrapers on thick Clactonian flakes. At approximately 200 ka, this industry evolved into the Karain-type Mousterian. The appearance and dominance of the Levallois technique differentiates this phase from the “Proto-Charentian,” along with the appearance of Mousterian points and the decrease of denticulates and notches
in favor of sidescrapers. This industry continued with more laminar blanks by 110–120 ka and with more discoidal, less Levallois products by 60–70 ka (Otte et al., 1995, 1998a, 1998b, 1999). Archaeological layers in the Üça ˘gızlı II Cave have been dated to between 75 and 41 ka. The assemblage consists of many retouched flake tools with a high ratio of Levallois products. Unipolar, bipolar, and centripetal Levallois methods are used in the cave. Laminar production is scarce. The lower layers consist of more scrapers, while the upper layers consist of more points, including both unretouched Levallois and retouched Mousterian points (Baykara, 2013; Mentzer, 2011).
Taking into account the general picture of the Anatolian Late Lower and Middle Palaeolithic, the Avlamı¸s artifact is of great importance. First, it is the only dated artifact from the northwestern Anatolian high-lands, and second, it is dated to a Pleistocene cold period. In this aspect, it is possible to confirm that the occupation of this part of Anatolia took place as early as the Middle Palaeolithic.
6
D I S C U S S I O N A N D C O N C L U S I O N
Most of the dated Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in Anatolia come from low-altitude sites located in littoral areas. Anatolia provides a great potential for understanding early hominin adaptations to higher altitudes. Until the Avlamı¸s Valley find, there was only 1 dated Mid-dle Palaeolithic site (KD3) at high elevation in Turkey. Avlamı¸s pro-vides important insight into hominin adaptations to harsher environ-mental conditions in Anatolia. The Avlamı¸s Valley Palaeolithic find has the potential to provide a snapshot in terms of the environmental (i.e., climate and biogeography) and technological conditions of Palaeolithic hominins in NW Anatolia. Although we are talking about only one well-preserved artifact, the compatibility of successive OSL dates, the cor-relation of trench stratigraphy with Late Quaternary climate changes, and supporting sporomorph data leave little doubt about the chronos-tratigraphic position of the artifact.
Lithologically, the tripartite nature of stratigraphy exposed in the Avlamı¸s Valley trench is obvious (Figure 5). The 7.9± 0.5 ka OSL age from the Avlamı¸s-1 sample shows that Unit-1 was deposited in the Holocene. Assuming a constant sedimentation rate of 0.18 mm/a derived from this age, the onset of deposition of Unit-1 is estimated at∼10 ka. At this time (MIS 1 in Figure 9), the Middle Eastern and Anatolian climate archives recorded a radical change from a dry to a relatively wet climate (Kuzucuo ˘glu et al., 1999; Roberts et al., 2001; Robinson, Black, Sellwood, and Valdes, 2006). Locally at this time, the water level of Lake Sünnet, 30 km to the north, was at its highest and the𝛿18O values of the lake mud shifted to the most negative values of the entire Holocene record (Ocako ˘glu et al., 2013). In accordance with this climatic shift, sediment yield increased resulting in exten-sive aggradation in the Porsuk Valley to the south (Ocako ˘glu, 2014; Ocako ˘glu, & Akkiraz, 2015). As a result of the shift to wetter conditions, water erosion increased on nearby hillslopes in the Avlamı¸s Valley, trig-gering the deposition of Unit-1.
Unit 2 is composed of sandy and partly pebbly sediments modified by pedogenesis. The Avlamı¸s-2 OSL sample from a depth of 300 cm in 615
F I G U R E 9 Correlation of the Avlamı¸s trench stratigraphy with orbitally tuned marine isotope stages (Martinson et al., 1987) [Color figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
the trench indicates 73.6± 5.0 ka (Table 1). This age data strongly imply the occurrence of marine isotope stages from MIS 2 to MIS 5 in Unit-3 (Figure 9), where the boundary between MIS 4 and MIS 5 could be placed just above the pebbly level at 300 cm in the trench section when considering the analytical error of the age (±5.0 ka). This means that there was a very low average deposition rate (0.015 mm/a) during the MIS 2–4 cold periods in the Avlamı¸s Valley. Additionally, the microflo-ral content of the dated sample at 350 cm, which belongs to MIS 5, revealed poorly preserved algae and Selaginellaceae spores, indicating a damp environment. The extensive columnar peds beneath this level, down to the base of the trench, strongly suggest that this lower inter-val developed during the previous interglacial period. It is believed that columnar structure forms in soils as a result of recurring wetting and drying cycles (Retallack, 2001) and therefore requires enhanced rain-fall and seasonality.
Unit-3 is apparently finer grained and pale in color compared to overlying unit. The two OSL samples provide compatible results with respect to the stratigraphy observed in the trench. The fine-grained deposit that hosts the artifact at 425 cm depth yields an age of 148 ± 20 ka, which correlates with the upper part of the MIS 6 cold period in the global marine isotope curve (Martinson et al., 1987). In this regard, it seems reasonable to attribute the sharp boundary between Unit-2 and Unit-3 to the MIS 5–6 boundary, which stands at 132 ka. The lowermost OSL sample (Avlamı¸s-255) from the sandy layer at depth of 455 cm gives a minimum age of 176.2 ± 20.7 ka (Table 1). Accordingly, this layer would be correlatable with the
lowermost part of MIS 6. Our own sporomorph data from the Avlamı¸s-230 sample, including Artemisia and Chenopodiceae, support cold and arid climatic conditions during the MIS 6 period (Figure 7). Some previ-ous studies have shown the cold and dry nature of the MIS 6 period in the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. Shackleton, Sánchez-Goni, Pailler, and Lancelot, 2003 revealed the dominance of steppe flora and extremely low sea surface temperatures during this period in the west-ern Mediterranean. A recent study of a Black Sea drill hole close to the central Pontide Coast by Shumilovskikh et al., 2013 demonstrated that before the initial MIS 5e warming at 131.7 ka, there was a dominance of Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae pollen with the occasional occurrence of euxinian arboreal pollen.
The trench at Avlamı¸s was excavated for the purpose of geologi-cal research, and no archaeologist was present during the excavation. The Avlamı¸s trench yielded only a single but well preserved artifact. Because the archaeological study of lithics requires larger number of samples to better understand the technological features of the assem-blages, it is not possible to draw firm conclusions about the Middle Palaeolithic technology at the moment. However, this single artifact find will still be scientifically valuable if its stratigraphic position is ade-quately substantiated. A very good example of this is a single reworked 1.2 Ma quartzite artifact, a probable hard-hammer flake, which was discovered in 2005 within the Gediz River terrace sequence in west-ern Anatolia (Maddy et al., 2015). The Avlamı¸s find seems to be rather fortunate, since it was intact and found within a silty layer. At the very least, the use of the recurrent centripetal Levallois technique is
OCAKO ˘GLUET AL.
evident in this artifact. This is consistent with the general technology of the Middle Palaeolithic in Turkey.
Based on available data, the Middle Palaeolithic sites farther west in the Marmara region yield less centripetal Levallois products and more preferential Levallois products (Dinçer, 2014). Additionally, the low percentages of Levallois products in the Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in western Turkey are noteworthy. It is important to note that the Avlamı¸s artifact is a stratigraphically well-dated Middle Palaeolithic artifact and could be used for reference, especially in NW Turkey, where only a few dates are currently available. Given that the dated assemblages exhibit a technological change during the Middle Palaeolithic, this change has not yet been dated in detail. There are undated gaps in the sequences of both the Karain and the KD3 Middle Palaeolithic layers. From its date to the late MIS 6 cold period (148± 20 ka), the Avlamı¸s Middle Palaeolithic artifact might be useful for filling in this gap. This suggests the recurrent use of the centripetal Levallois technique in the Eski¸sehir region. However, another more important aspect of the Avlamı¸s artifact is that it shows hominin occupation in the high plateau of Anatolia during a cold period in the Pleistocene. Karain, Üça ˘gızlı II, and Yarımburgaz indicate occupations during cold periods; however, they are all located in low-lying coastal areas where the effects of cold climates would not have been as harsh as in the highlands. Situated between eastern and western Turkey, two techno-logically varied spheres in the Middle Palaeolithic, the Avlamı¸s Valley is a key site with a reliable date that provides evidence of the hominin occupation of Anatolian plateau during cold periods in the Pleistocene.
AC K N O W L E D G M E N T S
The authors are grateful to Engin Ba¸saran and Çelik Ocako ˘glu for their assistance with the trench studies and the OSL sampling. The comments from two anonymous reviewers significantly improved our manuscript, for which we are grateful. This study was financially supported by the Commission for Scientific Research at Eski¸sehir Osmangazi University, Turkey (project no. 2013/15009).
O RC I D
Faruk Ocako˘glu http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4619-5865
Eren ¸Sahiner http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7159-2491
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How to cite this article: Ocako ˘glu F, Dinçer B, Akkiraz S,
¸Sahiner E, Brook GA. Palaeolithic occupation of the Anato-lian High Plateau during a cold period: An MIS 6 aged artifact from the Avlamı¸s Valley, Eski¸sehir, NW Turkey. Geoarchaeology. 2018;33:605–619.https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.21679
