Teaching vocabulary through cooperative learning

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T. C.

SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ

YABANCI DİLLER EĞİTİMİ ANA BİLİM DALI İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRETMENLİĞİ BİLİM DALI

TEACHING VOCABULARY THROUGH COOPERATIVE LEARNING

YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ

DANIŞMAN

YARD.DOÇ. DR. ECE SARIGÜL

HAZIRLAYAN EMİNE EDA ERCAN

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost I would like to express an immense gratitude to my supervisor Assist. Prof. Dr. Ece Sarıgül for her support, guidance, and patience and valuable academic advice throughout my research study. I could have never achieved this without her encouragement.

I am also very grateful to all my teachers at the ELT department for their valuable support and comments. I would like to express my great thanks to Associate Professor Dr. Hasan Çakır, Assistant Professor Dr. Abdülkadir

Çakır, and Assistant Professor Dr. Abdulhamit Çakır, who were my instructors during my undergraduate study.

I wish to thank to Assist. Prof. Dr. Ali Meydan for his comments and invaluable help with the statistical analysis.

I am deeply thankful to my colleagues especially who helped me during my study for their cooperation and friendship.

I am very grateful to my dear mother Ferişte Ercan and my father Mehmet Ercan and my brother Hüseyin Ercan for their support, help and patience throughout my study. It would not be possible to finish the study without their help, support and love.

EMİNE EDA ERCAN Konya, 2009

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ABSTRACT

This study aims to investigate whether a vocabulary learning method through cooperative learning or a traditional one with a gloss leads to better results. This was a study, in which a pre-test and a post-test were used.

The study was carried out on two groups – experimental and control – each of which consisted of 18 students. The students were freshmen at Selcuk University School of Foreign Languages (SOFL). Both experimental and control groups learnt the same target words. Throughout the study, the experimental group was taught vocabulary through Cooperative Learning (CL) and the control group was taught through traditional methods- the gloss and the use of a monolingual dictionary. The comparison of the pre- test, and post test scores of the two groups demonstrated that those students taught vocabulary through Cooperative Learning led to better results than the other students taught through the traditional method.

The first chapter introduces some background to the study. The problem, purpose of the study and research hypothesis, significance of the study, scope and limitations are also presented in the same chapter.

The second chapter: “Review of Literature” introduces vocabulary, teaching vocabulary and its importance in language teaching. Moreover, different vocabulary teaching techniques and detailed information about the cooperative learning are presented.

The third chapter introduces the method of the study.

The fourth chapter gives information about the data analysis. Data analysis procedure and results of the study are explained.

In the fifth chapter; conclusion part, findings and suggestions are presented.

KEY WORDS: vocabulary teaching, vocabulary learning, vocabulary acquisition,

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ÖZET

Bu çalışma kelime öğretmede işbirlikçi öğrenme metoduyla kelime öğretiminin mi, geleneksel yöntemin mi daha etkili ve başarılı olduğunu incelemiştir. Ön test ve son testin kullanıldığı nicel, sözde- deneysel bir çalışmadır.

Çalışma, her biri 18 öğrenciden oluşan deney ve kontrol grubu olmak üzere iki grup üzerinde yapılmıştır. Bu öğrenciler, Selçuk Üniversitesi Yabancı Diller Yüksekokulu’nda hazırlıkta okumaktadır. Hem deney, hem de kontrol grubu aynı bilinmeyen kelimeleri öğrenmişlerdir. Çalışma süresince deney grubu İşbirlikçi Öğrenme Metodu’yla çalışırken, kontrol grubu kelime listesi ve İngilizce-İngilizce sözlükten yararlandı. Grupların ön test ve son test sonuçlarının analizi İşbirlikçi Öğrenme metoduyla öğrenen öğrencilerin geleneksel yöntemle öğrenenlere göre daha başarılı olduklarını göstermiştir.

İlk bölümde, bu konuda yapılan çalışmalar tanıtılmıştır. Ayrıca problemin tanıtılması, çalışmanın amacı ve araştırmanın hipotezi, araştırmanın kapsamı ve sınırlılıkları sunulmuştur.

İkinci bölümde; kelime, kelime öğretimi ve dil öğretiminde bunun önemi anlatılmıştır. Ayrıca, değişik kelime öğretimi teknikleri ve işbirlikçi öğrenmeyle ilgili detaylı bilgi verilmiştir.

Üçüncü bölümde, çalışmanın metodu anlatılmıştır.

Dördüncü bölüm, çalışmanın deneysel sonuçları ile ön test/ son test sonuçlarını kapsamaktadır.

Beşinci bölümde; sonuç, bulgular ve önerilere yer verilmiştir.

ANAHTAR KELİMELER: Kelime öğretimi, kelime öğrenme, kelime edinimi, işbirlikçi

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Independent Samples T-Test Analysis for Pre-Test Scores ……...…50/53 Table 2. Comparison of the Pre-test with Post-test Results within the Control

Group ………....50 Table 3. Comparison of the Pre-test with Post-test Results within the

Experimental Group .……….51 Table 4. Comparison of the Experimental and the Control Group for the Post-

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2.4.1. Positive Interdependence ………32 2.4.2. Individual Accountability ………...34 2.4.3. Simultaneous Interaction ………35 2.4.4. Equal Participation ……….36 2.4.5. Heterogeneous Grouping ………37 2.4.6. Social Skills ………37 2.5. Teacher’s Role ……….38

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CHAPTER III METHOD 3.1. Introduction ………40 3.2. Research Design………...40 3.3. Subjects ………41 3.4. Instruments ………...……..42

3.5. Data Collection Procedure ………...43

3.5.1. The Experimental Group ………...44

3.5.2. The Control Group ……….………47

CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS 4.1. Data Analysis Procedure ………...…49

4.2. Results of the Study……….……49

4.2.1. Pre-test ………..49 4.2.2. Post-test ……….50 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 5.1. Discussion ………53 5.2. Pedagogical Implications ……….…54

5.3. Suggestions for Further Studies ………...55

5.4. Summary………...…56 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….58 APPENDICES ………...62 Appendix A ...62 Appendix B...66 Appendix C ... 69 Appendix D ...71 Appendix E... 73 Appendix F ... 76

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Appendix G ...77 Appendix H...80 Appendix I... 82 Appendix J... 84 Appendix K...87 Appendix L...89 Appendix M...91 Appendix N...93 Appendix O...95 Appendix P...98 Appendix Q...101 Appendix R...104 Appendix S...105 Appendix T...106 Appendix U...107

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Teaching strategies and methods are designed to teach particular things in class and help the teachers and the students as well in the teaching and learning process. The important thing to keep in mind when choosing the techniques, methods, and strategies is that they should meet the needs of the students.

There have been many techniques, methods and strategies through the history of language teaching and learning. The academic findings and data are updating day by day and getting stuck in the traditional strategies, techniques and methods is of no use.

Traditional methods used to focus on a teacher- based technique and dwell on the authority of the teacher in the learning and teaching process. However, through many research and data analysis, it has been proved and emphasized that to get an effective and permanent learning, the learner himself/herself should be the active one in their own learning process.

The importance given to vocabulary has varied through the years. Different teaching methods emerged and came into use. However, these traditional teaching methods neglected vocabulary and gave almost no importance to vocabulary and its use.

Recently, a considerable amount of vocabulary research has been conducted and in some ways, the importance that should be given to vocabulary has been understood.

Scrivener (1994) summarizes all the research findings about the importance of vocabulary with a few sentences:

“Vocabulary is a powerful carrier of meaning. Beginners often manage to communicate in English by using the accumulative effect of individual words. A student who says Yesterday. Go disco. And

friends. Dancing. will almost certainly get much of his message over

despite completely avoiding grammar – the meaning is conveyed by the vocabulary alone. A good knowledge of grammar, on the other hand, is not such a powerful tool. I wonder if you could lend me

your… means little without a word to fill the gap, whereas the gapped

word- calculator- on its own could possibly communicate the desired message: Calculator? (73)”

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Thus, vocabulary is an indispensable part of language learning and language teaching process. Traditional methods in teaching vocabulary fail as they underestimate the importance of vocabulary. These methods consider vocabulary as something that should be memorized in groups so they dwell on translations and word-lists as techniques.

However, the main point here about vocabulary items is that they should be coded properly and sent to the long-term memory because memorizing a vocabulary item doesn’t mean that it is ready to use until it is transferred from short-term memory to the long-term memory.

(This model was adapted from Maximize Your Students’ Learning by S. Jones (2002) in Spencer, Tina (2004) at http://web.wm.edu/ttac/packets/practiceandhomework.pdf)

A modern method for teaching and learning vocabulary is cooperative learning. Cooperative learning focuses on the cooperation of the students and in this way enables the students study together in a warm atmosphere and not memorize but put the words in the long-term memory.

The researcher examines the empirical evidence for the supposed superiority of the cooperative learning method over the traditional methods.

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1.2.PROBLEM

Every year, at the beginning of each academic year, new university students at Selcuk University take a proficiency exam in order to be exempt from the preparatory school program. Although the curriculum is very intensive, preparatory classes are only for one academic year. Vocabulary teaching is generally introduced through traditional ways and this is definitely not enough for preparatory students at Selcuk University (SOFL). These methods do not meet the needs of the students at all. They need more both at the preparatory classes and in the following years at their own departments. When the students cannot meet their needs even at the preparatory class, they have too much difficulty later at their own departments. Of course they need more vocabulary and also vocational terms and vocabulary at the departments. In order to be able to make all the students reach the standard levels of English, the students need easy ways for the acquisition of new vocabulary items. Cooperative learning is one of them. Therefore, the implementation of cooperative learning method at SOFL may help students grow their vocabulary.

1.3. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

This study proposes a research question that will be answered by testing hypothesis: “Is there a significant difference between the vocabulary learning performance of the students who received teaching regarding cooperative learning method and traditional method?”

Hypothesis : The students whose teachers use cooperative learning method will score significantly higher on the post-test than the students whose teachers use traditional methods.

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1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to find out whether students’ vocabulary could be enriched through an instruction which emphasizes the role of cooperation rather than competition among students in teaching vocabulary. In short, this study tries to find out the difference between two distinct vocabulary teaching methods-cooperative versus traditional.

The above given aim of the study appears to prove the thesis, the study may have a contribution toward vocabulary teaching offered at SOFL and it may lead to research on other skills. Students can get socialized and learn in a warm atmosphere helping and teaching each other. The instructional goals may be achieved more easily by making use of teaching vocabulary through cooperative learning method. The study may also suggest new ways of language teaching and learning experience at Selcuk University School of Foreign Languages.

1.5. LIMITATIONS

1) This study is conducted on early pre-intermediate level young adult students at Selcuk University, School of Foreign Languages. At the beginning of the academic year, the students were put into groups in classes according to their placement test results. So, the level of the students might have varied. This variation may have effects on the measure.

2) All the students are generally from the same or similar departments although they are at the same level group of English, they have also some different educational backgrounds. This may have effects on measure as well.

3) Another limitation may be the number of the students in the experimental and the control group. As there are nearly 18 students in each class, the number of subjects is limited- only 36 (18 from the experimental group + 18 from the control group). As a result of the limited number of subjects, the results will be limited to the subjects under study. A larger group of subjects would provide more reliable results.

4) The study only covers 35 content vocabulary items such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs. The number of the items is limited and also the items don’t include technical terms.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

In this part, detailed information is given on the definition and importance of vocabulary. Vocabulary means the words and their use in a language. Without them, a language is nothing.

2.1.1. DEFINITION OF VOCABULARY

Vocabulary can be simply defined as the word knowledge of a language. It’s one of the vital points in a language so many different definitions can be given easily. E. H. Hiebert and M. L. Kamil (2004) in Aksoy (2005) define vocabulary as “the knowledge of words”. According to Penny Ur (1996:60), “vocabulary can be defined, roughly, as the words we teach in the foreign language.” Vocabulary is the words and the meanings, the knowledge of structures. In fact, vocabulary is the language itself. “A vocabulary is a set of words known to a person or other entity, or that are part of a specific language” (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocabulary).

We can simply divide vocabulary into two categories as Passive vocabulary and Active vocabulary. Passive vocabulary is the vocabulary understood, that we can recognize in a text or in speech. We know these words but we don’t use them in our sentences. However, active vocabulary is the vocabulary actually used, that we use in our speech or written texts. Passive vocabulary can also be named as “receptive” and active vocabulary can also be named as “productive” vocabulary. “At beginner level most new words learned by students have obvious immediate practical uses; they quickly become part of the learners’ everyday English- their productive vocabulary” (Scrivener, 1994:74). Nevertheless, passive vocabulary includes more words than the active vocabulary.

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2.1.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

Now, it’s for sure that vocabulary is indispensable with language teaching. However, it wasn’t the same years ago. The importance of vocabulary has varied through the years in different language teaching approaches and methods. Vocabulary has recently gained that much importance.

“The teaching and learning of vocabulary has never aroused the same degree of interest within language teaching as have such issues as grammatical competence, contrastive analysis, reading, or writing, which have received considerable attention from scholars and teachers” (Richards,1985:176). Leech(1974) and Anthony (1975) in Richards (1985:176) explain that “the apparent neglect of vocabulary reflects the effects of trends in linguistic theory, since within linguistics this issue has only recently become a candidate for serious theorizing and model building”.

The importance given to vocabulary within the curriculum has varied much over the years. At different time periods, linguists and teachers gave more importance to grammar, reading, speaking or other skills. Vocabulary was only seen as a supporter of any other skill. For example, Grammar Translation Method neglected the importance of vocabulary and minimized it to word lists. Vocabulary teaching is not as important as grammar. Larsen-Freeman, (1986) explain that the grammar translation method requires learners to memorise lists of words. In addition to Grammar Translation Method, neither Direct Method nor Audio-lingual Method gave vocabulary enough importance. “For a long time, teaching approaches such as the Direct Method and audiolingualism gave greater priority to the teaching of grammatical structures” (Thornbury, 2005:13/14). The number of the vocabulary presented in these approaches was so low or limited. Direct Method emphasized the acquisition of language and vocabulary through oral communication. Direct Method supported the idea of importance of vocabulary but only up to a point. “Vocabulary is required if students use it in full sentences, rather than memorizing word lists” (Larsen-Freeman,1986:23). It was a step further than Grammar Translation Method. However, that wasn’t enough as the vocabulary items were too simple or familiar. During the World War II, Audio Lingual Method came into use. Vocabulary was introduced through dialogues; however, as drills were the most important part of the method, the vocabulary had to be kept simple. “The major objective of language teaching should be for students to acquire the structural patterns; students would learn vocabulary afterward” (Larsen- Freeman, 1986:41).

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Communicative Language Teaching was almost a relief for vocabulary. “It suffered significant neglect during the 1950s and 1960s when audio-lingualism had a dominant influence on methodology, but made something of a comeback during the 1970s under the influence of communicative language teaching” (Nunan, 1998:116). Communicative Language Learning dwelled upon authentic contexts. Vocabulary was thought to be indispensable with it. Still the main objective was to make the learners be capable of communicating properly in the target language. The idea was that there was no need for specific teaching of vocabulary as the students can pick up or “elicit” vocabulary through reading or speaking. “The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from the function, situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors” (Larsen- Freeman, 1986:130).

“The advent of the communicative approach in the 1970s set the stage for a major re-think of the role of vocabulary” (Thornbury, 2005:14). For example, Wilkins (1980:109-112), clearly indicates that learning vocabulary is as important as learning grammar. “These days, then, the consensus of opinion seems to be that the development of a rich vocabulary is an important element in the acquisition of a second language” (Nunan, 1998:118).

“The study of vocabulary is the most neglected area of all in language teaching, yet there is increasing evidence both from first and second language acquisition studies that the semantic relationship is more important than the syntactic for receiving messages” (Paulston& Bruder, 1976:168).

For many years, language teaching focused on the teaching of grammar. “It was believed that if learners were able to internalise these basic patterns, then building a large vocabulary could come later” (Nunan, 1998:117). In Nunan (1998:117), “Hockett (1958), one of the most influential structural linguists of the day, went so far to argue that vocabulary was the easiest aspects of a second language to learn and that it hardly required formal attention in the classroom.”

“For years language teaching placed heavy emphasis upon early and extensive vocabulary learning. With the more recent change in emphasis, fewer articles have dealt with vocabulary acquisition and its problems” (Allen, 1965:207). However, still many linguists go on dealing with the importance of vocabulary and still vocabulary keeps its importance. “Nowadays it is widely accepted that vocabulary teaching should be part of the syllabus, and taught in a well-planned and regular basis” (Moras, 2001).

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learning” (Thornbury, 2005:13). In Nunan (1998:117), “Rivers (1983:125) has also argued that the acquisition of an adequate vocabulary is essential for successful second language use because, without an extensive vocabulary, we will be unable to use the structures and functions we may have learned for comprehensible communication.”

“The ability to refer to concrete and conceptual entities is as fundamental to language as is the capacity provided by the grammar to relate such entities to one another. Knowledge of a language demands mastery of its vocabulary as much as of its grammar” (Wilkins, 1981:19).

“It is clear that the knowledge about the structures of the language is not enough for efficient communication. Certain amount of vocabulary is essential to everybody learning a second/foreign language. Without the knowledge of vocabulary, it would be impossible to talk, read and understand written and oral material.” (Gürsoy,2001:182)

In Moras (2001), “Some authors, led by Lewis (1993) argue that vocabulary should be at the centre of language teaching, because ‘language consists of grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar’.” We express ourselves via the language, so we need words and their meanings. So we need the vocabulary. Vocabulary is indispensable for the meaning. Without the knowledge of vocabulary one cannot understand the message or give the meaning of his/her message. “The more words I have, the more precisely I can express the exact meanings I want to” says Scrivener (1994:73). “Words enter into meaningful relations with other words around them…” (Sinclair 1996 in Aksoy,2005).

As vocabulary is this much valuable for language teaching, the needed importance should be given to finding and applying better ways to teaching vocabulary. Teaching vocabulary thoroughly means teaching the language successfully.

2.2. VOCABULARY TEACHING TECHNIQUES

Techniques are the ways used in classrooms to achieve the learning aims. “A technique is a procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technique). Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.

Learning the vocabulary is very important for language teaching. Learners need vocabulary to express themselves. However, there isn’t a consensus on whether an implicit or

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explicit learning of vocabulary is better. According to Carter (2001) in Gürsoy (2001), “explicit vocabulary teaching requires the use of word lists, paired translation equivalents, related semantic sets and etc. Implicit vocabulary teaching is exposing learners to new vocabulary while reading real texts.” “It seems undeniable that extensive reading or substantial contact with the target language will improve vocabulary, but both of these approaches require unrealistic amounts of time for most language learners” (Mercer,2005). “This indirect teaching of vocabulary assumes that vocabulary expansion will happen through the practice of other language skills, which has been proved not enough to ensure vocabulary expansion” (Moras, 2001). Even though some linguists don’t agree wholeheartedly, they agree limitedly. “Deliberately teaching vocabulary is one of the least efficient ways of developing learners vocabulary knowledge but nonetheless it is an important part of a well-balanced vocabulary programme” (Nation, 2005). In Mercer (2005), it’s explained in the research done by Coady (1997), Oxford and Scarcella (1994), and Nation (2001) which indicates that vocabulary learning can be enhanced when the learner’s attention is directed consciously to vocabulary items or strategies. So in some ways, it’s crucial to make explicit vocabulary teaching.

About what and how much to teach, there are different views. Some think that how many words to teach at what time isn’t so important. “Neither is it important whether we teach a few more words on one level and a few less on the next level” (Dixson, 1960:64).

“The two major concerns in teaching vocabulary are what to teach and how to teach it. The criteria for selection of vocabulary differ depending on whether the vocabulary is taught for productive or receptive use. For productive use the two most cited criteria are frequency of occurrence and degree of difficulty” (Paulston & Bruder,1976:168) .

Nation (2005) thinks that it’s important first to decide “whether the word is worth spending time on or not.” He divides the words as high-frequency words and low-frequency words and supports the idea that the importance given to them should be decided accordingly. “If the word is a low frequency word and is not a useful technical word and not one that is particularly useful for the learners, it should be dealt with as quickly as possible” (Nation, 2005). So, it’s important first to decide the importance of the vocabulary items.

Penny Ur (1996:60) summarizes “what needs to be taught” in six headings: “1. Form: pronunciation and spelling 2. Grammar 3. Collocation 4. Aspects of meaning (1): denotation, connotation, appropriateness 5. Aspects of meaning (2): meaning relationships 6. Word formation.”

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Finocchiaro (1965:69) gives several premises and comments related to the teaching of vocabulary as follows:

Not all of the words a student hears during any lesson need become a part of his “active” vocabulary during that lesson or even in later lessons.

Vocabulary should always be taught in normal speech utterances. New vocabulary items should always be introduced in known

structures.

Whenever possible, the vocabulary items should be centered about one topic.

Also, Nation (2005) writes the principles:

Keep the teaching simple and clear. Don’t give complicated explanations.

Relate the present teaching to past knowledge by showing a pattern or analogies.

Use both oral and written presentation- write it on the blackboard as well as explaining.

Give most attention to words that are already partly known.

Tell the learners if it is a high frequency word that is worth noting for future attention.

Don’t bring in other unknown or poorly known related words like near synonyms, opposites, or members of the same lexical set.

Thinking them as a whole, the teacher first should decide on these subjects or main points above before deciding on the technique.

There are many ways, techniques and strategies to teach vocabulary. It depends on the teacher, learners and the vocabulary items about which technique to choose. There isn’t always a “best” one but, all the conditions should be kept in mind to find the most appropriate one.

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According to Doff (1998:11) there are some techniques for teaching new words: Say the word clearly and write it on the board.

Get the class to repeat the word in chorus.

Translate the word into the students’ own language. Ask students to translate the word.

Draw a picture to show what the word means.

Give an English example to show how the word is used. Ask questions using the new word.

Gairns and Redman (1986:73) divide teaching techniques into three categories: “visual techniques, verbal techniques and translation.” Visual techniques include “visuals, mime and gesture. Verbal techniques include use of illustrative situations, use of synonym and definition, contrasts and opposites, scales, examples of the type.” Gürsoy (2001) studies the techniques in two categories: “Visual techniques include the use of realia, pictures, body movements, gestures, graphs, diagrams, flashcards, blackboard drawings, plastic replicas, models, etc. Verbal techniques include the use of antonyms, synonyms, dictionary, verbal explanations, context, translation, definitions, examples of the type (eg: using apples, pears, strawberries as an example when teaching fruits.), etc.” Also in his paper, Gürsoy (2001) gives an example of a rare form of vocabulary presentation of Cross (1995): “using sounds, for example when teaching the meaning of wind, sea, thunder, etc. one can have the students listen to their sound from a tape.”

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Scrievener (1994:79) suggests different ways for a list of words:

In teaching vocabulary; techniques may vary as the level, the interest and the need of the students differ. The success of all these techniques depends on their consistency with the method and approach. They should be effective and appropriate for the students, classroom atmosphere and etc. as well. So, which technique to choose is the real duty for the teacher.

2.2.1. VISUAL TECHNIQUES

Visual techniques are the techniques that appeal to eyes. These techniques include visuals and mimes & gestures. These techniques are thought to be helpful for the retention of the vocabulary.

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In Çilenti (1988:35), according to T.C. Cobun:

ORGANS THINGS WE LEARN

Seeing %83

Hearing %11 As seen above, visual materials are much more affective than the other materials that appeal to only hearing.

2.2.1.1. Visuals

These are realia, flashcards, posters, graphs, models, etc. “They are extensively used for conveying meaning and are particularly useful for teaching concrete items of vocabulary such as food or furniture, and certain areas of vocabulary such as places, professions, descriptions of people, actions and activities (such as sport and verbs of movement)” (Gairns & Redman, 1986:73). Ur (1996:63) uses the term “illustration (picture/object)” for visuals. Visuals are most appropriate for visual type of students. As students hear the word and see the visuals at the same time, we can simply say that this technique appeals to eyes and ears at the same time. So the words can be longer lasting in this way.

Examples of this technique can be seen below from McCarthy& O’Dell (1995:4) :

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(Picture B)

Doff (1998:13) gives an example in his book:

“T: Look-this is a watch (pointing to his or her watch) A watch. A watch.

Ss: A watch.

T: (gesture) What is it? Ss: A watch.

(and so on)”

If visuals are supported by another technique, it would be easier to make the vocabulary items more permanent/ longer lasting. As visuals appeal to eyes; when another technique appealing to any other sense is used together with the visuals, it would be more effective.

2.2.1.2. Mime and Gesture

Mime is the technique of conveying the meaning with the facial movements. Gesture is the technique of conveying the meaning with the body movements. These are often used by the teachers to convey the meaning of the vocabulary items. These are easy to use and you only need yourself for the technique. Demirel (1999:139) mentions mime and gesture as one of the ways of teaching vocabulary in another language.

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However; it’s not always possible to convey the meaning in this way. “When teaching an item such as ‘to swerve’, a teacher might build a situation to illustrate it, making use of the blackboard and gesture to reinforce the concept” (Gairns & Redman, 1986:73-74). For acting and mime, Ur (1996:63) uses the term “demonstration”.

2.2.2. VERBAL TECHNIQUES

Verbal techniques contain the use of speech in vocabulary teaching. These include illustrative situations, use of synonyms, use of antonyms, definitions, hyponyms, descriptions, collocations, etc.

2.2.2.1. Illustrative Situations

This is generally used when the vocabulary items are more abstract. To convey the meaning of the vocabulary item, the teacher gives explanations and examples. Gairns & Redman (1986) give an example of the use below:

“To illustrate the meaning of ‘I don’t mind’ the following context may be useful.

Ali likes Dallas and Upstairs, Downstairs equally. Unfortunately, they are both on television at the same time. It doesn’t matter to him which programme he watches.

Teacher: Do you want to watch Dallas or Upstairs, Downstairs? Ali: I… (74)”

2.2.2.2. Use of Synonym

“Teachers often use synonymy with low level students, where inevitably they have to compromise and restrict the length and complexity of their explanations” (Gairns & Redman, 1986:74). This technique is also useful because the students have the chance of revising the vocabulary learnt before.

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Demirel(1999:139) mentions the use of synonym as a way of teaching vocabulary in foreign language. Use of synonym is the sub-heading of “making explanations in the target language”.

However; it should be kept in mind that the learners tend to use these synonyms in the place of each other regardless of thinking whether they are perfect synonyms or not. Perfect synonyms are words that have the same meaning and can be used in the place of each other. So the teachers should be aware of these facts and make sure that the learners understand the difference thoroughly.

2.2.2.3. Use of Definitions

Defining the words isn’t generally appropriate for low level students who have limited knowledge of the second language. The definition should be appropriate for the levels of the students. Giving definitions would be better if a detailed one is given. The teacher should make sure that the students totally understand the vocabulary item. According to Gairns & Redman (1986):

“Definition alone is often inadequate as a means of conveying meaning, and clearly contextualised examples are generally required to clarify the limits of the item. For example, “to break out” in “a fire broke out” has the sense of “to start”, but this would be a misleading definition for a learner and might encourage him to think that “the lesson broke out” was acceptable English. (74)”

So, in a way definition only by itself is not enough. What’s more, it may lead to some misunderstandings and inappropriate uses for the students. To prevent this, teachers should provide the students as many examples of the vocabulary item in sentences as possible.

2.2.2.4. Contrasts/Opposites/Antonyms

Antonymy is the relation between the two words that have the opposite meanings. Using antonyms is another technique in conveying the meaning of the vocabulary items. It’s sometimes easier to give just the opposite of the word than using the other techniques. “A new item like ‘sour’ is easily illustrated by contrasting it with ‘sweet’ which would already be known by intermediate level students.” (Gairns & Redman, 1986:74).

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Even when the students know or understand the meaning of a word, if the teacher provides them with the antonyms, they will be learned easily.

“Male χ female Dead χ alive hot χ cold open χ close”

can be all given together when the students know one of the items. However; as explained above, the collocations and the appropriate uses should also be given too.

2.2.2.5. Scales

Gairns & Redman (1986:74) use this technique in their book to teach the gradable vocabulary items as seen below:

never

hardly ever

I occasionally go to the cinema on Sundays. sometimes

often always

It’s good for the learners to see all the vocabulary items in the same group at the same time in a graded way.

2.2.2.6. Grouping

When the vocabulary items are taught in meaningful groups, it’s good for the

retention of the vocabulary. The vocabulary items can be easily grouped by size, shape, color, function, or likes/dislikes. Especially language teaching books unit by unit and dictionaries use this technique. The use of the technique can be seen as follows taken from Success Intermediate Students’ Book by Mc Kinlay & Hastings (2007:14):

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The use of the technique can be seen as follows taken from Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006): -Containers- (336) -Fruit- (650)

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It’s easy for the mind if the related items are grouped together.

.2.2.7. Examples of The Type/Hyponyms

When the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is desc

this example, “flower” is the upper/superordinate/umbrella term. “Rose”, “tulip”, “narcis

t” and “tr

yponyms” saves time and makes the students underst

.2.2.8. Descriptions

In addition to the definition, for concrete things, a detailed description of the vocabu

2

ribed as “hyponymy”. To convey the meaning of “flower” for example, the hyponyms or the types of flowers can be given. As in the example below:

In

sus”, and “daisy” are hyponyms/lower terms. They are co-hyponyms of one another. “To illustrate the meaning of superordinates such as “furniture”, “vegetables”, “mea ansport”, it is a common procedure to exemplify them e.g. table, chair, bed and sofa are all furniture.” (Gairns & Redman, 1986:75).

The use of “Examples of the Type/H

and the meaning easier as they see it in relation to one another grouped in a meaningful way.

2

lary item (appearance, qualities, etc.) can be given. It may also be said that description is a detailed definition in a way. When teaching types of houses description can be given as follows supported by some visuals:

rose

Flower tulip

narcissus daisy

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The more information given, the better students understand the meaning of the

.2.2.9. Associated Ideas/Collocations

Words are nothing on their own. They are generally not found in isolation. They make sense t

In addition to the other techniques, this technique should support the vocabulary teachin

n example of associated ideas or words can be as in the example of McCarthy & O ‘Dell (1

icture C)

A detached house is a kind of house that stands alone without any other building. These kind of houses are often seen out of the cities….

vocabulary items.

2

ogether. Collocations are the words that are used together. To teach a vocabulary item better, the collocations should also be taught. Collocation means “the use” of the vocabulary. So, to use the vocabulary properly and appropriately, learners should know the collocations too.

g.

A 995:4)

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Scrievener (1994) gives the idea of the “word spider”:

“A similar idea is to build a word spider (or memory map, as it is

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these diagrams on the board and writing them togther with the students as sugges

sometimes called) where connections in meaning or use between different words are visually indicated in the structure of the diagram. Obviously a completed word spider could be presented to the students, but it is probably more useful for the students themselves to think through the connections and to decide where each new word fits on the plan; thus the learning of new words and the recording of them are part of the same activity.” (90)

Drawing

ted by Scrievener (1994:90) could also help the students feel more responsible and active in class.

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2.2.2.10. Using Context

Using the context to convey the meaning is another useful technique. Researches show tha

öredi (1997:37), “Nation and Coady argue that learning vocabulary through context m

text is indispen

.2.2.11. Word Part Technique

The word is broken into parts that can help the learners understand and get the eanin

t vocabulary teaching in context is far more successful than vocabulary teaching out of context.

In T

ust be the major way of increasing vocabulary knowledge.” Also they find out that “good learners can guess a very high proportion of unknown words, perhaps 60 per cent to 80 per cent, providing the density of unknown words is not too high.” (Töredi, 1997:37).

Vocabulary is meaningful only with the words around. Therefore , con

sable in vocabulary teaching. Words may have many meanings and uses at the same time. The word “back” for example, has more than 40 meanings at the same time. In Longman’s Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006:91), the word “back” has got 12 meanings as an adverb, 24 meanings as a noun, and 6 meanings as a verb. The only way to distinguish all these meanings is to use the context for each.

2

m g if the word is appropriate for this technique. The prefixes and the suffixes can be separated and the vocabulary could be better understood. To give the meaning of “insufficient” for example, the word can be separated into two parts: “in” and “sufficient”. To convey the meaning of “sufficient”, a synonymy can be used: “enough”. Then the next step is adding the meaning of the prefix. It’s useful and the learners feel that they have the power and they do the job.

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2.2.3. TRANSLATION

ranslation of the unknown vocabulary is another technique. However this is genera

“Words live within their own languages and though a dictionary tra

ord? How do they differ

So, unfortunately they have to face the problem of L1 interference. However, in some langua

agree that the overuse of the translation technique will affect the langua

a conclusion, translation can be a helpful technique to be used, however; the frequency of using this technique has much importance as its overuse can cause some problems for the students as they turn to their mother tongues whenever they feel get stuck.

T

lly not used by the teachers as it affects the target language use in the negative way. Also the learners tend to think and try to find the equivalence of almost every word in the other language. They don’t want to agree on the fact that languages have their own speciality.

nslation can give an introduction to the meaning of a word, it can really never let us into the secrets of how that word exists within its language. Instead, we are left with questions:

W at words have a similar meaning to this wh in meaning?

Is this word part of a family or group of related words? What are the other members? How do they relate to each other?

What other words typically keep company with this word (often coming before or after it in a sentence)?

What other words can be formed by adding to or taking away bits of this word?

What are the situations and contexts where this word is typically found or not found?” (Scrievener,1994:73)

ge classes it’s still used by the teachers. There are also linguists that support the use of this technique. “It can save valuable time that might otherwise be spent on a tortuous and largely unsuccessful explanation in English, and it can be a very quick way to dispose of low frequency items that may worry the students but do not warrant significant attention” (Gairns & Redman, 1986:75).

However, they

ge use negatively. “If teachers rely too heavily on the use of translation and deliver most explanations in the mother tongue, their students are surely losing some of the essential spirit and atmosphere of being in a language learning classroom” (Gairns & Redman, 1986:76).

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2.2.4. OTHER TECHNIQUES

ther techniques can be listed as mnemnotechnics / mnemonics, use of dictionaries,

Mnemonics is a memorisation technique. It helps the learners remember thing easily we often use without realizing in our daily lives.

vocabulary by associating them with incongruous images or sounds in

In th otechnics

is based on otechnics

is a kind of finding appropriate stories about those similarities to stick them into mind. In this way, st

ue.

a context

ying images and sounds: using imagery, semantic mapping, using keywords and representing sounds in memory

O and games.

2.2.4.1. Mnemnotechnics / Mnemonics

through clues. It’s in fact, a technique that

“A traditional teaching technique was the memorising of the word-lists. But a recent variant is the psychology-inspired ‘mnemnotechnics’. In which students acquire second language the first language or inventing different stories for each word to stick it in mind. The French word ‘herisson’ – hedgehog is remembered through an image of the English sound- alike “hairy- son”. (Cook, 1996:56)”

e paper of Sarıgül & Ercan (2007), they describe the technique: “Mnem the similarities in saying of the words in two different languages. Mnem udents get rid of the ‘fish memory’ situation.”

In this technique, the words are coded in the memory and they are decoded later to be used easily. It is easy and enjoyable because the mind remembers things that are peculiar. However; it takes time to get prepared for this techniq

Also in Moras (2001), Oxford (1990) suggests memory strategies to aid learning, and these can be divided into:

Creating mental linkages: grouping, associating, placing new words into

Appl

Reviewing well, in a structured way

Employing action: physical response or sensation, using mec nicaha l techniques.

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2.2.4.2

Using a dictionary is another technique in which the learners feel free and eacher should support the learners check the meaning from the other side of the dictionary too (for bilingual dictionaries), this is especially for beginner levels.

common sentence patterns, pronunciation, relationships with other words, etc. learner

wrong with the bilingual dictionaries (or electronic translators) of course. When they work well they provide just what the students are looking for. But all too often they fail to show students how words are used in the foreign language, providing simple answers

So,

Taking all these into consideration, gradually, the learners should be motivated to use

monoli rom the beginner levels.

s longer term use. That’s why, rather than depending on dictionaries so much, teachers should encour

. Use of Dictionaries

independent. However; the t

Scrievener(1994:73) suggests the use of monolingual dictionaries to prevent L1 interference problems: “Such dictionaries usually offer sentences exemplifying typical usage, notes on

training in the effective use of dictionaries gives students a valuable skill that they can in and out of the classroom.”

“There is nothing

for what is, in effect, considerably more complex. Sometimes, for example, a word in the L1 may have six or seven equivalences in the L2; if these equivalences are just offered as a list of words they provide the student with no information about which one to choose- and when.” (Harmer,2001:168)

a similar problem as in “Translation” technique occurs.

ngual dictionaries in the target language if possible, starting f

Using dictionary may be a way to learn new vocabulary items. Still, it is only a short time relief. Inferring the meaning from context is more recommended. At least, it provide

age students to make inferences.

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Games are interesting and enjoyable for teaching vocabulary. The learners learn the vocabu

any published exercises on vocabulary. These include: matching pictures to words;

her parts, eg beginnings and endings; new words from given words; ete a specific task;

owever the games are not always appropriate for every level. The young learners are happy

2.3. COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN VOCABULARY TEACHING 2.3.1. WHAT IS COOPERATIVE LEARNING?

ith the needs of the new century, cooperation has gained importance. Although compu

2002:ix); Johnson, Johnson, and Houbec (1993:9)define CL as “the

Inn (2002:ix) agree with the definition but change it a little bit: “Princi

udents work in sma

lary items without realizing it, unconsciously. Some kinds of game activities are given by Scrievener (1994):

There are m

matching parts of words to ot

matching words to other words, eg collocations, synonyms, opposites, sets of related words, etc;

using prefixes and suffixes to build classifying items into lists;

using given words to compl

filling in crosswords, grids or diagrams; filling in gaps in sentences;

memory games (83)

H

to use this technique, but the older groups feel a little bit disturbed. So all these should be kept in mind before using the technique.

W

ters and technology have invaded our lives, we still need cooperation. “Along with the traditional role of providing students with basic skills and information, increasingly schools must produce students capable of higher-level thinking skills, communication skills, and social skills” (Kagan,1994:2:1).

In Jacobs, Power & Inn (

instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning”

Jacobs, Power and

ples and techniques for helping students work together more effectively.” “Cooperative Learning refers to a variety of teaching methods in which st

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students are expected to help each other, to discuss and argue with each other, to assess each other’s current knowledge and fill in gaps in each other’s understanding” (Slavin, 1995:2).

“Cooperative Learning (CL) is a body of literature and research that has examined the effects of cooperation in education. It offers ways to organize group work to enhance learning and increase academic achievement” (Kessler, 1992:1).

Cooperative Learning is summarised at a website as follows:

“Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it. (http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm)”

In Djiwandono (2006), according to Fitzgibbon (2001) “the approach principally aims to enhance the quality of learning by having learners cooperate in small groups or pairs”.

As mentioned in the history section, cooperative learning is not a new method. It’s based on the idea that learning should be student centered and students should help each other while learning. Cooperative learning is a method that enables students learn together, helping each other. In such a learning method, students help each other, comment on things and make a whole.

In Gillies & Ashman (2003:13), cooperative learning is described as follows according to Cohen (1994): “Cooperative learning is well recognized as a practice that promotes learning, higher level thinking, prosocial behaviour, and a greater understanding of children with diverse learning, social and adjustment needs.”

“In cooperative learning method, students work together in four-member teams to master material initially presented by the teacher” (Slavin, 1995:4). The difference can be easily seen as the appearance of a cooperative learning class is so much different than the traditional classes. They sit together to work better.

Cooperative learning can be simply defined as group work and the method in which students helping each other; however, it’s not that much simple. In Kessler (1992:1), the difference is explained simply: “CL is not general, free discussion; nor are all types of group work necessarily cooperative. Cooperative learning is carefully structured-organized so that

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each learner interacts with others and all learners are motivated to increase each other’s learning.”

McDonough & Shaw (1998:227) compares a pair work and a group work as follows: “A group, on the other hand, even though it can have a comparable range of functions, is by its very nature a more complex structure which will probably require greater role differentiation between individuals as well as a certain amount of physical re-organization of the classroom.”

However, in a group work some students may feel they do the whole work so they quit easily or do less than they can. Cooperative learning, in a way, prevents this. In cooperative learning, the group will be successful if all the members are successful. So all of the students work and nobody feels exploited.

In cooperative learning, students are grouped in a heterogeneous way. Otherwise there will be a big gap between the groups and one of the aims of cooperative learning –to minimise differences in class- would fail. In heterogeneous groups of cooperative learning, the problems and the missing points of the learning process would be eliminated.

Students sometimes feel shy and nervous when they want to ask about something or when they don’t understand. So, it’s wise to ask them to turn to their friends, as well. The students will form groups and help each other while the teacher observes, controls and helps them if they need. Student- student interaction, rather than student- teacher interaction is preferred as the former one is thought to be more encouraging for the student. In this way, students feel comfortable and a positive interdependence is organized. “One for all and all for one” type of interdependence makes students feel important as an individual and as a group.

The aim of this face to face group work - cooperative groups - is to make sure that all the members understand the academic content at the end of the activity.

2.3.2. HISTORY

Cooperation has always been needed. People have nearly always coped with the difficulties with the help of cooperation. We need each other in every part of our lives. So it’s wise to use cooperation in education and teaching too.

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In Gillies & Ashman (2003) the following is given about the history of the cooperative learning:

“One of the most influential educators of the early twentieth century was the philosopher, John Dewey. He believed that education was a process of living and that schools had a responsibility to capture children’s interests, to expand and develop their horizons, and assist them in responding appropriately to new ideas and influences….Dewey’s ideas were quite revolutionary at the time and had a profound influence on education, particularly as the effects of developments in the field of group dynamics began to be realized. (1)”

In fact, Cooperative Learning dates back to years ago. In Kessler (1992): “It’s described in the Talmud, by Quantilian in the first century, and by Comenius in the seventeenth century. During the late eighteenth century in England, Joseph Lancaster and Adrew Bell developed schools with Cl groups. In 1806, a Lancantrian school opened in New York City and the “common school movement” emphasized cooperative procedures. CL is associated with Colonel Francis Parker, superintendent of public schools in Quincy, Massachusetts, 1875-80, and with the work of John Dewey, whose group “project method” dominated American education through the turn of the century (Dewey,1957)…. In the 1960s, during the early days of forced integration of public schools, interest in cooperative learning was reawakened by concern that minority students would fall farther behind when placed in schools with higher-achieving, “majority” students. (3)”

The beginning of the Cooperative learning in U.S. was in 1906 according to Armsby (1954)

“In 1906 the University of Cincinnnati inaugurated, under the inspiration and leadership of Prof. (later Dean) Herman Schneider, a new type of program for the education of engineers- the “cooperative

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plan”, in which students alternate between class attendance and industrial or governmental employment under the supervision of the engineering college. (vii)”

Later on, other colleges and institutes applied cooperative learning, too. “During the academic year 1953-54 cooperative education programs were conducted in 35 colleges and 8 technical institutes” (Armsby, 1954:vii).

According to Açıkgöz (1990) “cooperative learning has been one of the most attention taking and studied subjects especially after 1970s”. Sharan (1990:285) mentions the interest for cooperative learning as follows: “Within this relatively short period of time, cooperative learning underwent a renaissance and has generated considerable interest among educators responsible for the daily work for instruction, as well as among researchers concerned with a wide range of educational, psychological, and social issues.”

Of course, there are some fears about the Cooperative Learning; according to Kessler (1992:130), some North American schools are still reluctant to use the method as they are not used to it. However, cooperative learning is more commonly used and has gained popularity nowadays.

Even though there are hesitations about the use of cooperative learning, the advantages and the positive views about the cooperative learning go beyond them.

2.4. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Only grouping the students, reorganizing the classroom plan and making the students sit and work together aren’t enough or only this doesn’t mean Cooperative Learning. There have to be some principles, too.

With the researches done, the positive effects of cooperative learning in education and learning can be clearly seen. So, teachers tend to use this method as the results are gained. Sharan (1990:285) mentions the reasons why cooperative learning appeals to teachers: “Foremost among these issues are the improvement of student academic achievement and promotion of high-level thinking as well as positive interpersonal and inter-group relations among students in school.”

“Equally important is the fact that one of the aims of education is to assist students to achieve a high degree of language competence so that they may achieve personal fulfillment,

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reach their potential, and participate in society in a meaningful way” (Kessler, 1992:51). These are possible with the help of principles of cooperative learning.

According to Kagan (1994:4:5) there are four basic principles to Cooperative Learning: “Positive Interdependence, Individual Accountability, Equal Participation, and Simultaneous Interaction”. Kagan (1994) explains the importance of the basic principles as follows:

“When any one of the four principles is not implemented, we do not have cooperative learning. For example, simply giving a task to a group with no structuring or roles is Group Work, not Cooperative Learning. Group work does not hold each individual accountable for his or her contribution (it lacks individual accountability) and group work almost always results in some students doing most or all of the work while others do little or none (it lacks equal participation). (4:5)”

To Kagan’s list, Heterogeneous Grouping, and Social Skills can be added as well.

2.4.1. POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCE

Interdependence is one of the key principles of Cooperative Learning. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006) describes it as “a situation in which people or things depend on each other”; in other words “Sink or swim together”.

“Achievement is a we thing, not a me thing, always the product of many heads and hands” ( Atkinson 1964 in Gillies& Ashman 2003:142).

There are two types of interdependence: positive and negative. Negative interdependence is simply competition. An example of negative competition by Kessler (1992:9) can be “calling on only one student when several raise their hands”. This type of interdependence has nothing to do with cooperative learning. Our main concern here is positive interdependence. Positive interdependence is simply cooperation. “Positive interdependence occurs when the gains for one individual are associated with gains for others; that is, when one student achieves, others benefit, too” (Kessler1992:8).

Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec (1990) describe positive interdependence in Putnam (1993:17) as follows: “Positive interdependence is the essence of cooperative learning- it is achieved when students think in terms of ‘we instead of me’”. “Positive interdependence is the most important factor in structuring learning situations cooperatively. If students do not

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believe that they “sink or swim together”, then the lesson is not cooperative” (Sharan,1990:28).

“A team environment where learners celebrate each others’ successes and provide assistance to each other is likely to promote more positive peer relationships, social support, and, partly for that reason, higher self-esteem and academic achievement” (Nunan, 1993:34). And this is possible with positive interdependence.

In the figure above, the achievement of group work versus individuals can be easily seen and understood (Lazarowitz & Miller, 1992:184).

Only grouping students can’t be enough for cooperative learning. A positive interdependence way of thinking should be taught first. When the students have the idea of being a group and being a meaningful whole, all together; the cooperative learning is achieved.

In Lazarowitz & Miller (1992:175), “Lewin stated that the essence of a group is the interdependence among members (created by common goals), which results in the group being a “dynamic whole” so that a change in the state of any other member or subgroup; and an intrinsic state of tension within group members motivates movement toward the accomplishment of the desired common goals”. So, they understand that they reach their goals if all the members are successful.

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It is important to set a strong positive interdependence among the cooperative group members. Kagan (1994) explains it by giving an example:

“For example, if our team rewards depend on all of us scoring 80% or better, we will work hard to make sure everyone performs above 80%. In contrast, if the team has to average 80% to receive the reward if we have two students who usually get around 100%, we won’t be too worried if some of our teammates fall below 80%. Thus, if the success of each member depends on the success of every member, strong positive interdependence is created.” (4:7)

Kagan (1994:4:8) suggests that “positive interdependence can be created by task structure (giving a task to complete) or by reward structure (giving a reward to the students who reach the predetermined criterion)”.

“Cooperation is not effective under all conditions…One of the key mediating variables is the degree to which participants perceive they are independent in that they share a mutual fate and that their success is mutually caused” (Lazarowitz & Miller, 1992:174). So, without positive interdependence, we can’t talk about cooperative learning.

So, creating positive interdependence among the students makes them think that “One for all, all for one” is just the right saying for them.

2.4.2. INDIVIDUAL ACCOUNTABILITY

Making a group work, using cooperative learning may be sometimes risky. Some of the students may feel that they do all the work but the others only take a free ride.

The difference between group work and cooperative learning is that in cooperative learning, all the students in the group have the same degree of responsibility, which is individual accountability, and there is positive interdependence among the members. Sometimes in group work, all the work is done by some leaders of the group and the others take a free ride. This is a big handicap for teaching, because the hardworking ones don’t want to study more and share the success with the others, so they study less than they can do. Büyükkaragöz (1997: 102) calls it some kind of an “exploitation effect”. However, in cooperative learning all the members do something for the group. In this way, all the students feel responsible and successful for the work done.

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“Research shows that both individual and group accountability is important for achievement in CL settings, and most scholars (e.g. Slavin,1990) consider this to be a defining characteristic of CL” (Kessler,1992:13).

To avoid the exploitation effect, it’s wise for the students to be held individually responsible for the work done. “All students should be held individually responsible for learning the material and contributing to the group. Insisting on individual accountability discourages “coasting” or “hitchhiking”, in which one or a few of the students do the bulk of the work and the others take a free ride” ( Putnam, 1993:17).

Testing the students is essential to ensure accountability. Putnam (1993:17) supports the idea: “Individual evaluations are essential in determining whether each student has mastered the material. Teachers can test each student individually or randomly select a student from each group to respond to questions or demonstrate or explain the material to the class.”

According to Kagan (1994)

“Students can be made individually accountable by having each student receive a grade on his or her portion of the team essay or project; by having each student responsible for a unique portion of a team learning material, presentation, or product; or by instituting the rule that the group may not go on to another learning center until everyone finishes his/her task at the present learning center. Whatever the form of individual accountability, the contribution of each individual is made known to the team.” (4:9)

So, as a summary, the key fact of individual accountability is to make all the group members work together and equally so to create the spirit of “No hitchhiking here!”.

2.4.3. SIMULTANEOUS INTERACTION

Simultaneous interaction is another principle of cooperative learning. Putnam (1993:18) refers to the principle as “face to face interaction”. Generally, in traditional classes, most of the time the teacher speaks. In Kagan (1994:4:6), “in the largest study of schooling ever conducted, John Goodlad (1984) demonstrated that teachers on the average do almost 80% of the talking in a classroom”. However, the modern view of education prefers student-centered classes. So, simultaneous interaction among students helps students to be effective in class. Kagan (1994:4:6-7) suggests that simultaneous interaction helps students more than the

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traditional methods. In simultaneous interaction, students have more opportunity to speak and to be active and being active means learning.

“Thus, knowledge of and ability to apply the simultaneity principle is another key to maximizing positive outcomes in cooperative learning. Essentially, when all else is equal, pair work is better than teamwork, team work is better than whole-class work, and smaller teams are better than larger teams” (Kagan, 1994: 4:7).

“Students should interact directly with one another while they are working. They may communicate verbally and/or nonverbally. Interaction should take place among students, rather than between students and materials or machines” (Johnson et al., 1990 in Putnam, 1993:18).

In short, simultaneous interaction means face to face interaction of students. This makes a traditional classroom into a student- based one which is the goal of modern language teaching.

2.4.4. EQUAL PARTICIPATION

This principle suggests that every student is an individual and can succeed something for himself/herself. Each student has the right to be successful and can do something for the team.

Putnam (1993:20) refers to this principle as “Equal opportunity for success” and he explains the importance of adapting the criteria and finding different roles for different level of students.

“In general, equal participation may be created by: 1)turn allocation and 2) division of labor. Turn allocation establishes a participatory norm. Students are not only given the opportunity to participate, but they are expected to contribute during their turn” (Kagan, 1994: 4:10).

“All the students should have a chance to contribute to the success of the group and to improve themselves. For students who experience learning or behavioral difficulties, teachers should individualize the criteria for success and adapt the expectations or task requirements in a manner appropriate to the student’s ability and needs” (Putnam, 1993:20).