knowledge practical Design Ian with McHarg’s Nature: ecological wisdom as actionableand Landscape and Urban Planning

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ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Landscape

and

Urban

Planning

jo u rn al h om ep age :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / l a n d u r b p l a n

Design

with

Nature:

Ian

McHarg’s

ecological

wisdom

as

actionable

and

practical

knowledge

Bo

Yang

∗

,

Shujuan

Li

DepartmentofLandscapeArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanning,UtahStateUniversity,4005OldMainHill,Logan,UT84322-4005,USA

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•IanMcHarg’secologicalwisdomappliedinTheWoodlandsyieldsrealandpermanentgood.

•AcomprehensivedesignprocessleadstotheexpressionandexecutionofIanMcHarg’secologicalwisdom. •IanMcHarg’secologicalwisdomhasimmenserelevancetocontemporarydesignpracticesandurbanresilience.

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f

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Articlehistory:

Received14December2014

Receivedinrevisedform27June2015

Accepted25April2016

Availableonline21August2016

Keywords: Ecosystemservices Ecologicalplanning Landscapeperformance Greeninfrastructure Designprocess Urbanresilience

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IanMcHarg’sinfluentialbookDesignwithNature(1969)synthesizesandgeneralizeshisecological wis-domininforminglandscapeplanninganddesign.Inthispaper,wesuggestthathisdesignprocessleads totheexpressionandapplicationofhisecologicalwisdomasactionableandpracticalknowledge.Key featuresofhisdesignprocessinclude:(1)multidisciplineintegrationtoprovideholisticdesign strate-gies,(2)abilitytotacklewickeddesignproblemsresidinginawiderangeofscales,and(3)targeting landscapeperformanceinaquantitativemanner.WereviewthedevelopmentofMcHarg’secological wisdominthecontextofhiseducation,teaching,andpractice,aswellastheinfluencefromscientific theoriesofCharlesDarwinandLawrenceHenderson.Then,weillustrateMcHarg’sdesignprocessusing TheWoodlands,Texas,a117-km2_town_development_that_McHarg_considered_to_be_the_most_ecologically basedintheUnitedStatesinthe1970s.Fourdecadesofempiricalexaminationsrevealtheoutstanding performanceofTheWoodlands,highlightingthecredibilityofMcHarg’secologicalwisdom.Compared withadjacentHoustoncommunities,TheWoodlandsshowssignificantlylessstormwaterrunoff dur-ing100-yearstorms,substantiallylowerpollutantloadings(e.g.,NO3–N,NH3–N,andTP),lowerlevels offorestfragmentation,anaverageof2◦Clowerlandsurfacetemperature,andhigherwalkabilityand pedestrianaccesstoopenspace.WeconcludethatMcHarg’sdesignprocessfosterstheapplicationofhis ecologicalwisdominanactionableandpracticalmannerinTheWoodlandscase.

PublishedbyElsevierB.V.

1. Introduction

Inthehistoryoflandscapearchitecture,planning,andurban design,thereisnolackofexamplesthatareprominentwithrespect todoingrealandpermanentgoodforthehumanandnonhuman inhabitants,suchastheDujiangyanirrigationsysteminSichuan, China(256BCE,byLiBing),CentralParkinNewYorkCity,United States(1857, byFrederickLaw Olmstedand CalvertVaux),and the Emscher Landscape Park in Ruhr,Germany (1988, primar-ily through the InternationalBuilding Exhibition). Designers of theseprojectstackleduniqueplanninganddesignchallengesin theirtime,withacommonthreadbeingtheadaptive strategies

∗ Correspondingauthor.

E-mailaddresses:bo.yang@usu.edu(B.Yang),shujuan.li@usu.edu(S.Li).

theydevelopedthatﬁtthesite’secologicalprocessesandcultural practices.Theecologicalwisdomandingenioussolutionsthey pre-sentedarestillrelevanttotoday’spractitioners.

However,designersoftheseearlyprojectsmaybeoverwhelmed bycurrent,increasinglycomplexsustainabilityproblems(Xiang, 2014).Today, landscape architects and planners face imposing challenges, such as providing resilient landscapesfor a chang-ingclimate,addressingrapidurbanization,planningadaptations for natural disasters, and performing ecological restoration of degradedurbanareas(Jorgensen,2014; Nassauer,Wu,&Xiang, 2014;Steiner,2014).Animportantquestionremainsunanswered: Howwouldtheecologicalwisdomresidinginearlyprojectshelp link knowledgeto action andinform contemporary design and implementation?

Thisquestioncanbeansweredthroughrevisitingthese promi-nentprojects,withrespecttotheirideas,strategies,andsuccesses http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.04.010

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22 B.Yang,S.Li/LandscapeandUrbanPlanning155(2016)21–32

andlessonslearned.Landscapearchitectsandurbanplanners ben-efitfromtheaccumulationofwisdomfromprecedents,andcase studypresentsapowerfulwaytoinformbestpractices(Deming &Swaffield,2011;Francis,2001;Steiner,2014;Xiang,2014).The beautyofecologicalwisdomliesinitsenduranceovertime,efficacy inpractice,andabilitytopredictprojectperformancedecades,if notcenturies,inadvance(Martin,Roy,Diemont,&Ferguson,2010). Inlandscapearchitectureandplanning,oneofthemostimpactful bodyofecologicalwisdomwasputforthbyIanLennoxMcHarg (1920–2001),in his seminar book Designwith Nature(McHarg, 1969), in whichhe synthesizedandgeneralized hisexperience. Asthebooktitlesuggests,followingnature’sleadinplanningand designisthewisdomofachievingsustainability.Anthropogenic usesorinterventionsshallbecomeanintegralpartofthenatural processes.

ThispaperfocusesonthreethemesproposedinXiang’s(2014) editorial:Theme2ecologicalwisdomasactionableandpractical knowledge;Theme3ecologicalwisdomasbenchmark;andTheme 4ecologicalwisdomassecret ofsustainedachievement(Xiang, 2014,pp.67–68).WeproposethatMcHarg’sdesignprocessleadsto theexpressionandapplicationofhisecologicalwisdomas action-ableandpracticalknowledge(Theme2).Keyfeaturesofhisdesign processinclude:(1)multidisciplineintegrationtoprovide holis-ticdesignstrategies,(2)abilitytotacklewickeddesignproblems residinginawiderangeofscales,and(3)targetinglandscape per-formanceinaquantitativemanner.Thesekeyfeaturesofdesign processhelpestablishlandscapeperformancebenchmarks(Them 3),andshowhowtheprocessesofMcHargcanresultinrealand permanentgood,whilenotallprocessesdoso(Theme4).We high-lightMcHarg’snature-leddesignina117-km2_town_development,

TheWoodlands,Texas,whosetownplanMcHargconsideredtobe themostecologicallybasedplanintheUnitedStatesinthe1970s.

2. McHarg’secologicalwisdomincontext

Inmorethanninetyprojects,aselaboratedinDesignwithNature (e.g.,chapter10,“ProcessesasValues”),McHargseekstheintrinsic carryingcapacityoflandthroughadesignprocessthatrespects, integrates,andfacilitatesmultipleecosystemprocesses,functions, andservices.McHarg’secologicalwisdomof“followingnature’s leadindesign,”however,doesnotemergeinvacuum.Hiseducation atHarvard University,teaching at theUniversity of Pennsylva-nia,and18yearsofpracticeatWallaceMcHargRobertsandTodd (WMRT)culminatedinthepeakphaseofhislegendarycareer.

McHargpursuedjointdegreesinlandscapearchitectureandcity planningatHarvardinthe1940s.Atthattime,therewascontinual separationbetweenthetwoprograms.Mostlandscapearchitecture facultyremainedfocusedonsmall-scalegardenandparkdesign, whereascityplanningfacultywereinterestedinbroadsocialand environmentalissues.McHarg’spassionandtraininginboth pro-gramsallowedhimtoembracediverseplanninganddesignscales whendevelopinghisownecologicalplanningtheoryandpractice, somethingthatmostlandscapearchitectsatthattimewerenot abletodo(McHarg,1996;Spirn,2000).

McHargcontinuedtobridgetheseparationthroughhisteaching attheUniversityofPennsylvania.Heintegratedregionalplanning and landscape architecture, particularlythrough his incorpora-tionofenvironmentalismintostudioteachingtoachieveamore holisticpedagogicalapproach(Spirn,2000).Emphasiswasplaced onunderstandingthenaturalprocesses.InMcHarg’sﬁrststudio project(CapeHatteras)in1956,forinstance,studentsexamined theprocessesofbeachformationanderosion,thedevelopmentof plantcommunitiesandanimalhabitats,andtheinteractionsamong them(McHarg,1996;Spirn,2000).Anumberofothercasestudies wereexaminedinDesignwithNature,includedtheDelawareRiver

BasinStudy,Interstate95inNewJersey,StatenIslandProject,and PlanfortheValleys.Thecasestudiesdemonstratedtheimperative ofinterdisciplinarycollaboration,inordertoincorporatenatural processes(biophysicalattributes)andsocialandculturalissuesin thedesignprocess(McHarg,1996;Toth,R.,personal communica-tion,July20,2014).

Furthermore,McHarg used his departmentchair positionat Penntohiremanynaturalscientistsandsocialscientists,aswellas leadingdesignersonthefaculty,topromoteinterdisciplinary col-laborationindesignstudios,suchasLaurieOlin,RobertHanna,Sir PeterFaulknerShepheard,CarolFranklin,A.E.Bye,KarlLinn,and others.In1962,McHarghiredaforesterandresourceeconomist, Dr.NicholasMuhlenberg.Sincethen,“thebiome,the physiograph-icalregion,andtheriverbasinprovideanindispensablecontextfor thecurriculumatPenn”(Spirn,2000,p.104).

McHargtaughtanothernoteworthycourse,Manand Environ-ment, throughout the1960s and 1970s, and someof themost distinguishedscholarsintheenvironmentalerawereinvitedto lecture(McHarg,2006a),suchasLewisMumford,whowrotethe IntroductiontoDesignwithNature,andEugenePleasantsOdumand HowardThomasOdum,whoheavilyinﬂuencedMcHarg’s knowl-edgeofecosystem ecology.In 1963,eightofthelecturerswere NobelPrizewinners(Spirn,2000).Basedonthiscourse,McHarg hostedaCBStelevisionseries(TheHouseWeLiveIn)from1960 through 1961, and invited leading scientists of the time (e.g., MargaretMead, Loren Eiseley,and LunaBergere Leopold). The courseandtheCBStelevisionseriesfacilitatedthedevelopmentof McHarg’stheoreticalframeworkandscientiﬁcideasforhisbook Design with Natureand hiswisdom in ecological planning and design(McHarg,1996;Spirn,2000).

AftertheCBStelevisionseries,McHargbegantogainnational recognitionsoutsidethelandscapearchitectureﬁeld.Particularly after1962,McHargplayedanincreasinglyimportantrolein devel-opingtheintellectualbaseandmethodologicalframeworkforthe NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)(McHargand Steiner, 1998).McHarg’sinterdisciplinaryapproachtoecologicalplanning andhissystematicevaluationoftheplanformedastandard prac-ticeinNEPA,andthisisparticularlyreﬂectedintheEnvironmental ImpactStatement(EIS)(Bass,Herson,&Bogdan,2001).

In1962,McHargbegantotesthisecologicalplanning meth-odsonrealclientsandprojects.Subsequently,hisstudioatPenn becameaplaceinwhichtoexperimentwiththeories,andMcHarg’s firm,WMRT,providedameanstotestthetheories.Thetypesof clientsand projects withwhich McHarg(WMRT) workedwere influencedbyseveralfederalactsenactedduringthe environmen-talera(Table1).Theevaluationandmitigationofenvironmental consequencesduetosuburbanandexurbangrowthconstitutedthe majorityofMcHarg’sprofessionalworkinthe1960s and1970s (Spirn,2000;Steiner,2011).By1969,Penn’sDepartmentof Land-scapeArchitectureandWMRTenjoyedworldwidereputationsas aleadinglandscapearchitectureprogramand firm,respectively (McHarg,1996;Spirn,2000).

Inadditiontoasuccessfulpractitioner,McHargwasatheorist. Hedevelopedhisowntheoryof“creativefitting,”whichexplained andvalidatedhisnature-leddesignapproach(Herrington,2010; McHarg,1996).Theinspirationswereattributedtothescientific theoriesofCharlesDarwin’sTheOriginofSpecies(Darwin,1859), which suggeststhat“thesurviving organismisfit for the envi-ronment”(McHarg,2007,p.23),andLawrenceHenderson’sThe FitnessoftheEnvironment(Henderson,1913),whichindicatesthat “theactualenvironment,theactualworld,constitutesthefittest possibleabodeforlife...thisfittingthenisessentialtosurvival” (McHarg,2007,pp.23–24).InadditiontoDarwin,Henderson,and the Odums, McHarg’secological ideas were also influenced by PatrickGeddes,LorenEiseley,RobertMacArthur,JohnPhillips,and JackMcCormick,amongothers.

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Table1

IanMcHarg’s(WMRT’s)primaryprojecttypesduring1960s–1970s(Spirn,2000;Steiner,2011).

Period Primaryprojecttype Federalact

1960s Ruralareasinmetropolitanregionsimpacted byfederalhighways

InterstateHighwayAct1956 Late1960s–early1970s Plannednewcommunitiesandresorts(client:

privatedevelopers)

NewCommunitiesAct1968 Mid1970s–1979 Controlanddirectgrowthforenvironmental

qualityissues(client:publicagencies)

NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct1969 CleanWaterAct1972

In accord with histheory of “creative ﬁtting,” McHarg

pro-videdhisdeﬁnitionofecologicaldesign:“Ecologicaldesignfollows

planningandintroducesthesubjectofform.Thereshouldbean

intrinsicallysuitablelocation,processeswithappropriate

materi-als,andforms.Designrequiresaninformeddesignerwithavisual

imagination,aswellasgraphicandcreativeskills.Itselectsfor

cre-ativeﬁttingrevealedinintrinsicandexpressiveform”(McHarg,

2006b,p.123).

OtherlastingcontributionsthatMcHargmadearehisdefinition ofnatureasaprocessthat“issubjecttotheforcesthatproduce andcontrolthephenomenaofthebiophysicalworld”andhis state-mentthatplacesare“onlycomprehensibleintermsofphysicaland biologicalevolution”(Herrington,2010;McHarg,1969,p.105). Fol-lowingthisdefinitionofnature,McHargstatedthatdesignprocess shouldfitinthenaturalprocessesandthat,“WehaveaskedNature totellManwhatitis,inthewayofopportunitiesandofconstraints forallprospectiveland-uses”(McHarg,2007,p.44).Becausemost ofMcHarg’sprojectsarelocatedinsuburbanandexurbanareas thatarelowdensityandlesspopulous,understandingthe natu-ralprocesses(biophysicalattributes)becomesthekeytoproject success.

Asaresult,natureas avaluesystemand theecologicaland naturalsciences(theﬁeldofecologyinparticular)providedthe the-oreticalcoreforMcHarg’secologicalplanninganddesignmethod. Hisdesignprocess isoperationalizedbythelandscape suitabil-ityassessmentframework(“layer-cake”modelformapping).The designprocessstartswithacomprehensiveecologicalinventory,in whichnaturalprocessesareintegratedintoplanninganddesign. Ecologicalfactorsaresuperimposedontothelandtodetermineits capacitytosupporthumanactivityanditssuitabilityfora particu-lartypeoflanduse(McHarg&Steiner,1998).Thisdesignprocess laysoutasystematicanalyticalframeworkthatisinstrumentalin identifyingcentraldesignproblemsofthesite,asillustratedinthe followingcasestudy.

3. CasestudyofTheWoodlands,Texas:actionable ecologicalwisdom

TheWoodlands,Texas,isa117-km2 _town_development_that

McHargconsideredtobethemostecologicallybasedintheUnited Statesinthe1970s.TheWoodlandsislocated50kmnorthof Hous-ton. It currently haseight subdivisionresidential villages with atotalpopulationof125,000(http://www.thewoodlandstx.com/ demographics/).TheWoodlandshasreceivednumerousawards, suchasaprestigiousSixthAnnualBiennialAwardfromtheU.S. DepartmentofHousingand UrbanDevelopment(HUD)in1974 foritsgreatsuccessinenvironmentalplanning(Morgan&King, 1987).Nevertheless,itsplanninginnovationswouldnotberealized withoutMcHarg’secologicalwisdom.

3.1. TheWoodlandsprojectbackground

ScopingofTheWoodlandsprojectstartedintheearly1960s,a periodwhensuburbandevelopmenthasbeencriticizedforcausing ecologicaldamageandenvironmentaldegradation.Early genera-tionsofnewtowndevelopment(Reston,Virginia,andColumbia,

Maryland)createdconsiderableinterestand wereconsideredto solveAmerica’surbanproblems(Ewing,1997;Forsyth,2002;Spirn, 1984).The1960sand1970salsomarkedapeakofenvironmental sensitivity,particularlyfollowingthepassageoftheNEPA. Environ-mentalimpactanalysiswasnotemphasizedintheaboveearlier newtowns,butitwasaheavyfocusinTheWoodlands(McHarg& Steiner,1998).

In1970,theUrbanandNewCommunityDevelopmentActwas passed,andunderitsTitleVII,theHUDwasauthorizedtoprovide loanguaranteesofamaximumof$50milliontonewtown develop-ers.AtotalofthirteenTitleVIInewtownswereapproved,including TheWoodlands,andEISwererequiredforallofthem(McHarg& Sutton,1975;Steiner,1981).DeveloperGeorgeMitchellturnedto McHargbecauseofWMRT’sreputationinenvironmentalplanning (Morgan&King,1987).

3.2. Uniquedesignchallenges

Designersfacedchallengesinlanddevelopmentanddrainage design. Thelushpine forestmadeTheWoodlandsan attractive placefordevelopment.However,aboutonethirdofthesitelies withinthe100-yearﬂoodplainsofthethreecreeksonsite,making developablelandlimited.Thepoorlydrainingsoilsandextremely ﬂattopographycauseddrainageproblems(WMRT,1973a). Dur-ingthesitevisits,McHargandhisWMRTcolleaguesfoundthatin adjacentdevelopments,concreteditcheswereconstructedto facil-itaterunoff.However,thisconventionalsolutionfurtherlowersthe groundwatertableandcausestreestodie.

TheWoodlandsliesontopoftherechargeareasforaquifers thatunderlieHouston.SomeareasinHoustonhadalready sub-sidedbyapproximately3.1mbecauseofoilandwaterextraction (Spirn, 1985). If conventional drainage solutions are used, The Woodlandsdevelopmentmayfurtherthreatenthesupportof high-risebuildingsindowntownHouston.Theannualprecipitationof Houstonareaisaround840mm,whereascostalhurricanesusually causewidespreadﬂoodingbygeneratingintenserainfallsinsingle events.Thus,ifconventionaldevelopmentwereusedinThe Wood-lands,itwouldhaveincreasedtheseverityandfrequencyofﬂoods inHoustondownstream(McHarg,1996).AsMcHargrecalled,each ofthesechallengesrequiredanovelapproachinlandplanning. 3.3. McHarg’s(WMRT)designprocessandholisticsolution

Theabove-citedplanningchallengesarewickedinnature(Rittel &Webber, 1973; Xiang,2013), because urbanizationinevitably increasesrunoffandﬂoodingpotentialanddegradeswater qual-ity.Adaptivestrategiesshouldbedevelopedtoaccommodateand minimizetheseimpacts.McHarg’sdesignprocesshasseveral inter-woven,reiterativesteps,withkeystepsasillustratedinFig.1.This processdemonstratesaninterdisciplinaryteamapproachfor plan-ninganddesign,inlieuofaplanproducedbyasingledesigner.The processstartswitha comprehensiveecologicalinventoryofthe site,followedbydatainterpretationand(re)prioritizationofgoals andobjectives.Basedonaseriesofmapoverlays,variousfactors suchasecological,economic,andpoliticalissuesaresuperimposed todeterminetheland’scarryingcapacitytosupportcertainhuman

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Fig.1.FlowchartoftheecologicalplanningprocessinTheWoodlands.AdaptedfromJohnson,Berger,andMcHarg(1979),McHargandSteiner(1998,p.244),Fig.1.

activitiesandlanduses(primarilyresidentialinTheWoodlands). Fourpolishedreportswereproduced(WMRT,1973a,1973b,1973c, 1974),andtheseinnovativestudiesbecameoneoftheearlyEISsof theNEPAprocess.

Theemphasisonprocessratherthanaprescribedplan prod-uct is important. The regional effects of land development on groundwater,inparticular,wouldnothavebeenidentifiedwith aless-comprehensiveapproachtostudyTheWoodlandssite.An interdisciplinaryteamwasessentialtothisstudyapproach.The WMRT team conducted an ecological inventory that described theexistingnaturalphenomena,includinggeology,groundwater hydrology,surfacehydrology,limnology,pedology,plantecology, wildlife,andclimatology(Table2).Thisstudyofnaturalfeatures andprocessesrevealedimportantissuesofwhichGeorgeMitchell’s staffwereunawareinitially.Asaforementioned,astudyshowed theregionalaquifersystembeneathTheWoodlandsandHouston (Fig.2),whichsuggestedthatrunofffromupstreamareasneeded toinfiltrateandpercolateintothegroundtosustaintwoaquifers thatprovide waterfor Houston. Through thisprocess of exam-iningtheregionaleffects,it alsobecameapparentthatsurficial hydrology,soils,andvegetationconstitutedacloselylinkedsystem. Thedevelopmentofadaptivestrategiesthataugmentthefunction ofthislinkedsystemiscrucial(McHarg&Steiner,1998;WMRT, 1973a).Asaresult,centralproblemsidentifiedfromthisdesign processincludedstormwaterdrainage,flooding,andgroundwater recharge.

Totacklethesecentralproblemsandtomeettheplanninggoal ofpreservingthepineforest,severalintegratedplanningstrategies weredevelopedtomaintainthesite’snaturalhydrologicbalance (WMRT,1973b,1974).Themainstrategieswereto:(1)preserve landwithhighlypermeablesoils,(2)maintainforestpreserveland, and(3)usenaturalsurfacedrainage.Inaddition,theseintegrated strategieswereimplementedthroughaholistic“natural”drainage schemetotacklewickeddesign problems(e.g.,drainagedesign, floodcontrol,andgroundwaterrecharge)residinginawiderange ofscales.Fig.3shows regional-scaleanalysisofthebiophysical featuresandtheproposeddevelopment,inwhichdensities and locationsarelargelydeterminedbysoilpatternstoallowmaximum runoffinfiltration(WMRT,1973a,1973b,1973c,1974).Atthesite level,adaptivedesignstrategiesarespecifiedforsoilsandhousing development(Table3,Figs.4and5).

As a result, the “natural” drainage scheme determined the overalllayoutandstructureofTheWoodlands.Collectorstreets, neighborhood roads, and commercialbuildings wereplaced on ridgelinesandhigherelevations.The100-yearﬂoodplainsofthree creeksonsite werepreserved,asweresandysoilsinparks and publicright-of-way.Checkdamswerebuilttoretardrunoffalong opendrainagechannels.Golfcourses,parks,andopenspacedetain

runoffoversandysoilstoenhanceinﬁltration(McHarg,1996;Spirn, 1985;WMRT,1973b).Fig.6showsthebuiltconditionsfollowing WMRT’sdesignstrategies.

Thus,TheWoodlandsdesignprocessrevealsadynamic frame-workfromdataanalysis,synthesis,andinterpretation,toplanning, design,andimplementation.Thisdesignprocessilluminates cen-tral problems, reveals interactions of issues, informs possible designinterventionswithcorrespondingoutcomes(development scenarios),and facilitates theintegrationof design solutions at bothregional-andsite-levelscales.Thesestrategiesandexamples (i.e.,Table3,Figs.3–6)showthatMcHarg’sdesignprocessforged actionablestepsinpractice,inthatlandscapearchitectsand plan-nersessentiallyneedtogivephysicalformstoalandorspaceina spatiallymeaningfulway.

Furthermore,McHarg’sdesignprocessallowsthetargetingof landscapeperformancebenchmarksquantitatively.AsMcHargand Suttonstatedina1975article,“Itisthequantitativecapabilitiesof themethodwhichdeservethegreatestattentionandrefinement. Whilethedataandthehypothesisemployedinformulatingthe conclusionsawaittesting,theyrepresentadimensionofcausality andquantificationnotheretoforeaccomplishedinanyprojectsby WMRT”(McHarg&Sutton,1975,p.90).Toitscredit,The Wood-lands’landscapeperformancehasbeenassessedinanumberof scientificstudiesconductedinthepastfourdecades,highlighting thecredibilityofMcHarg’secologicalwisdom.

3.4. ScientiﬁcproofofMcHarg’secologicalwisdom

TheWoodlandssurvivedstormsthatexceededa100-yearlevel in1979and a500-yearlevelin 1994withlittleproperty dam-age,whileHouston(50kmaway)wasseverelyﬂoodedduringboth events(Girling&Kellett,2005).Inatropicalstormin1987,two adjacentcommunities(OakRidgeNorthandTimberRidge)were awash,whileTheWoodlandssurvivedunscathed.Inadditionto thesetestimonies,Table4summarizesempiricalstudiesconducted onTheWoodlands,presentedin11metricsthatcover environmen-tal,social,andeconomicaspectsofsustainability.Theseﬁndings presentconsiderablesimilaritieswithwhatMcHargandhis col-leagueshave envisioned orforecasted, suggesting that WMRT’s plansuccessfullyachievedtheplanninggoal.

ComparedwithadjacentHoustoncommunities,TheWoodlands showssigniﬁcantlylessstormwaterrunoffduring100-yearstorms, substantiallylowerpollutantloadings(e.g.,NO3–N,NH3–N,and

TP),lowerlevelsofforestfragmentation,anaverageof2◦Clower landsurfacetemperature,andhigherwalkabilityandpedestrian accesstoopenspace(seeTable4).Forinstance,McHarg’s(WMRT) planpredictedthatpeakﬂowsinTheWoodlandswouldincrease by55%,versus180%inHoustonconventionaldevelopment(Juneja

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Table2

SelectedinventorymapsinTheWoodlandsproject.

Category Detaileditem

1 Physiography Elevation,slope

2 Geology Bedrockorsubsurfacegeology,surﬁcialdeposits,geologicalcross-sections 3 Soils Seriesorphases,drainageclasses,hydrologicgroups,capabilitygroup,depthto

seasonalhighwatertable,asapplicable

4 Hydrology Depthtowaterable,aquiferyields,directionofgroundwatermovement,recharge areas,waterquality,surfacewaters(lakes,streams,wetlands),ﬂoodzones,drainage basins

5 Vegetation Distributionofassociations,communities,andhabitatsasidentiﬁable,areasimportant asnoisebuffers,foodsupplies,forwildlife,nestingareas

6 Wildlife Identiﬁcationofspeciesandtheirhabitatsandranges,movementcorridors 7 Climate Macro-andmicroclimateparameters(temperature,moisture,wind).Ventilationand

insulationmaybedeterminedinconjunctionwithphysiography 8 Resources Mineralorothervaluablenaturalresources

AdaptedfromMcHarg&Steiner,1998,p.245,Table6.

Fig.2.RegionalstudyoftheChicotandEvangelineaquifersunderlyingHoustonandTheWoodlands,Texas.AdaptedfromSpirn(1984,p.164),Fig.7.10.Usedbypermission.

Table3

TheWoodlandssiteplanningguidelinesandadaptationstrategiesforsoils(WMRT,1973b,p.11).

Objective1 Userechargecapacitiesofsuitablesoilstoenhanceanaturaldrainage systemandevenoutbaseﬂowofstreams.

Adaptations

Directrunoffoverpermeablesoilswithexcess storagecapacity.

Useroads,berms,andcheckdamsinswalesto impoundrunoffbyblockingﬂowover permeablesoils.

Objective2 Minimizecoverageontopofpermeablesoils. Adaptations

Locatestructuresonimpermeablesoils. Locatebackyardsandintensivelyused recreationareasonpermeablesoils.

Objective3 Housesandoutdooractivityareasshouldbe locatedtobeasdrayaspossible.

Adaptations

Buildingsandpatiosshouldbeconstructedon raisedfoundationsorﬁll.

Pedestrianpathsshouldberaisedoronﬁllif locatedonimpermeablesoils.

&Veltman,1980;Spirn,1984,2000;WMRT,1973a,1973b,1973c, 1974).Usingobserveddataandcoupledwithcomputer simula-tions,severalstudiesshowthatTheWoodlandspeakﬂowsare2–3 timeslowerthanconventionalHoustondevelopment(Doubleday,

Sebastian,Luttenschlager,&Bedient,2013;Yang&Li,2010,2011; Yang,Li,&Li,2013).

Moreimportantly,severalofMcHarg’suniqueplanning con-cepts have proved to besuccessful. It is efﬁcacious tousesoil

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26 B. Yang, S. Li / Landscape and Urban Planning 155 (2016) 21–32 Table4

IntegratedplanninganddesigninTheWoodlands:metrics,strategies,andperformanceforecastsinIanMcHarg’s(WMRT’s)originalplanandempiricalexaminationsdecadeslater.Landscapeperformanceisinaccordwith WMRT’sprojections.

Metric WMRTstrategies,performance

forecast

Reference Empiricalanalysisdecades

later

Reference 1.Stormwaterrunoff Linksoilpermeabilitywith

housingdensity;would generatelowerrunoffthan conventionaldevelopment

WMRT(1973c),McHargand Sutton(1975),Junejaand Veltman(1980)

TheWoodlandslanduseplan minimizesthehydrologic impacts;lowerrunoffthan conventionalHouston communities

JunejaandVeltman(1980), Bedient,Flores,Johnson,and Pappas(1985),YangandLi (2010,2011),Doubledayetal. (2013),Yangetal.(2013)

2.Floodcontrol Predictedpeakﬂowsincrease

by55%,versus180%in Houston’sconventional development

WMRT(1973a,1973b,1973c, 1974),JunejaandVeltman (1980),Spirn(1984,2000)

Peakﬂows2–3timeslower thanconventional development;peakﬂows similartoforestconditions during100-yearstorms,and wouldbe50%lowerifstrictly followedMcHarg’sapproach

Doubledayetal.(2013),Yang andLi(2010,2011),Yangetal. (2013)

3.Waterquality Opendrainage,wetland,

permeablepavement,building constructionBMPsa_;_lower pollutantlevelsthanHouston’s conventionalcommunities

WMRT(1974),Junejaand Veltman(1980)

Pollutantloadings(NO3–N, NH3–N,andTP)are substantiallylowerthan Houstoncommunitiesb

YangandLi(2013)

4.Waterconservation Minimizeirrigationwateruse

throughlimitinglawnareas andirrigatedpublicspace

Spirn(1984,1985),Kutchin (1998)

n/a n/a

5.Forestprotection Large,permanentforest

preserve;treeprotectionat streetright-of-wayand individualparcels

WMRT(1973a,1973b,1973c, 1974),Spirn(1984)

Lowerlevelsofforest fragmentationthanNorth Houstoncommunities;25% landpreserveasopenspacein perpetual

MorganandKing(1987), GalatasandBarlow(2004), KimandEllis(2009)

6.Wildlife Preservecontinuouswildlife

corridorsatwetlandsand ﬂoodplains

WMRT(1973b,1974) Wildlifecorridorandforest connectivitywellpreserved

Spirn(1984),Forman(2002), KimandEllis,2009

7.Urbanheatisland NotafocusareainWMRTplan n/a Onaverage2◦_C_lower_land

surfacetemperaturethan Houstoncommunities

Sung(2013),Yangetal.(2013)

8.Energyconservation Solarpanelapplication;

plantingdesignandhousing orientationstrategies

Kutchin(1998),Galatasand Barlow(2004)

n/a n/a

9.Socialvalue Integrateecologicalandsocial

goals;useofﬂoodplainsand drainagechannelsasopen space

WMRT(1973b),Spirn(1984) Goodethnicaldiversityand integration;richsocialevents andcommunityemployment opportunities;goodstandof resident’ssatisfactionand well-being

MorganandKing(1987), GalatasandBarlow(2004), Forsyth(2002,2003,2005),The WoodlandsTownship(2011)

10.Transportation NotafocusareainWMRTplan n/a Betterinterconnectedness,

higherwalkabilitythan conventionalHouston communities

ZhangandYi(2006)

11.Costbeneﬁt Wouldsave$14millionfor

PhaseIalone;lowmaintenance parklandandresidentialyards

McHargandSutton(1975) Potentialavoidedcostsinclude ﬂoodingdamageandsalvation, personnelinjuries,erosionand sedimentscontrol,andwater qualitypollutantstreatment; increasedhousingvaluedueto parkandopenspace

YangandLi(2010,2011),Yang etal.(2013),TheWoodlands Township(2011)

a_BMP_(Best_Management_Practice)._Construction_fencing_is_usually_only_a_few_feet_away_from_the_building_footprint_to_ensure_minimum_site_disturbance. b _NO3–N_{(nitrate-nitrogen);}_NH3–N_(ammonia_nitrogen);_TP_(total_{phosphorous).}

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Fig.3.(1)LocationmapofTheWoodlands,Texas,USA.(2)Community-scaleanalysisofTheWoodlands(a)Designsynthesis(WMRT,1974,p.35)and(b)proposedlanduse plan(WMRT,1974,p.41).Theproposeddevelopmentlocationsarelargelydeterminedbysoilpatternstoallowmaximumrunoffinﬁltration.

permeabilityasakeyvariabletoguidelanduseplanningtoachieve thezero-runoffobjective(Yang&Li,2011).Theholistic,“natural” drainagesystemdemonstrated ﬂoodmitigationeffectiveness in

thattherunoffregimenretainsitsforestconditionsafter devel-opment.

Apparently, a holistic solution serves many purposes (see Table4),andthissolutionbeneﬁtsnotonlyTheWoodlandsbut

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Fig.4. Site-leveldesignguidelines.Housingclusterandgroupedparkingconformedtotheboundariesofsoilswithlowinﬁltrationcapacities(WMRT,1974,p.72).

Fig.5.Opensurfacedrainagealongcollectorstreets.Designguidelinepromotesimpoundmentonpermeablesoils.Checkdamsretardrunoffandincreaseinﬁltration.BOY:

mediumtowell-drainedsoil;SPH(Splendora):poorlydrainedsoil(WMRT,1973b,p.31).

alsotheHoustonregion’ssustainabilityinthelongrun.Thesumof thebenefitsbroughtaboutbyaholisticsolutionismorethanthose ofitspieces.However,aholisticsolutionisarguablyone-of-a-kind foraparticularsite—totacklespecific(wicked)designproblem(s). InTheWoodlands,itwasthedesignprocessthatledtothe iden-tificationofcentralproblems.McHargconsideredhisapproachas “diagnosisandprescription”forlandplanning(Spirn,2000).And

hebelievedthatitwasanobjectiveprocedureusedinThe Wood-landsthat couldbereplicated toproducesimilaroutcomes: “A methodwasdevelopedwhichinsured thatanyonewould reach thesameconclusions...anyengineer,architect,landscape archi-tect,developer,andtheclienthimselfwereboundbythedataand themethod”(McHarg&Sutton,1975,p.78).

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Fig.6. DrainageandlandscapedesignconditionsinTheWoodlands:(a)opensurfacedrainageswalewithtreespreservedinsubdivisions,(b)naturalvegetationwellpreserved

alongcreeks,(c)naturalbankwithwell-preservedvegetationalongponds,and(d)collectorstreetwithcheckdamsthatretardrunoffandencourageimpoundmentonsoils

withgoodinﬁltrationcapacity(AlsoseeFig.5sitedesigndiagram).

4. Discussions

Throughrevisitingone ofMcHarg’smostsuccessfulprojects, TheWoodlands,wesuggestthathisecologicalwisdompresents a knowledge/skill component, as well as a value system that embracescultural, personal, and ethicalcharacteristics. Discus-sions below elaborateon how McHarg’scomprehensive design processwouldmakehisecologicalwisdomactionableand facili-tatetheestablishmentoflandscapeperformancebenchmarks.In addition,wespeculateonwhyMcHargcandorealandpermanent good,whilesomeotherscannot.

4.1. Holisticdesignsolutionformultifunctionallandscape

EmpiricalevidenceshowsthatTheWoodlandsplanpresented multifunctional benefits. The “natural” drainage system exem-plifiedtheadvantagesofintegratingstormwaterdrainage,flood control,andwaterquality.Thissystempresentsresiliencetoflood (ordrought)becausetheWMRTplancausedlittlealterationto,and, infact,enhancedthehydrologicsystemthatexistedbefore con-structionoftheTheWoodlands.Thesolutionwasalsoalow-cost, low-maintenanceone (Spirn, 1985;Yang et al.,2013). Interest-ingly,TheWoodlandsalsodemonstratedexcellentperformancein somemetrics(e.g.,pedestrianaccessibility,urbanheatislandeffect mitigation)thatwerenotfocusareasintheWMRTplan.

Theholisticdesignstartedwithanunderstandingofthenatural processes,followedbyseekingadaptiveﬁttingoftheseprocesses (McHarg’stheoryof“creativeﬁtting”).McHarg’secologicalwisdom

wastotackletheoverridingdesignproblems,whilethesolution incorporatedotherconcernsinadditiontotheprincipalones.This created“aholisticappreciationfornatureandfostersdesignsthat transcendednarrowtemporalandspatiallimits”(Spirn,1985,p. 42).Hence,TheWoodlandshighlightedMcHarg’secological wis-dom andtheory thatplanning and design area tool of human evolution.TheWMRTplanforTheWoodlandsexpressivelyused thetermevolution,meaningcreativeﬁttingandadaptation. Plan-ninganddesignguidelinestooktheformof“adaptivestrategies” (seeTable3),andtheanalysisofecologicalprocesses“determined theformoftheWoodlands”(McHarg&Sutton,1975).

4.2. WhyMcHarg’sprojectscandorealandpermanentgood McHarg’sideaofincorporatingnatureintothedesignprocess set the premise for the planning and design professionals. His abilitytodorealandpermanentgoodcouldbeattributedtohis knowledgeandskillsetinplanninganddesign,hisbroadinﬂuence outsidethelandscapearchitectureandplanningdisciplines,and hisfacultypositionataprestigiousacademicinstitution.

McHarg presents core problem-solving skills in ecological design. Heis proﬁcientin multiple-scalesyntheticthinkingand hiscriticalthinkingskill-setsallowhimtoassembletheright col-leaguestoconsultandworkwith(e.g.,hisinterdisciplinaryteam approach).Heisalsocapableofinterpretingcomplexecological dataand (re)prioritizingdesign goalstorecast simple(r)design problems.

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Table5

SelectedsigniﬁcantprojectsofIanMcHarg(WMRT)andtheirimplicationstocontemporarypractice.

Project Centraltheme/majordesign question

WMRTdesigninnovation Impactoncontemporary theoryorpractice PlanfortheValleys(1962) Illustrateconsequencesof

uncontrolledvs.planned growth,andpotential economicproﬁtability

Integrategraphicpresentation andeconomicanalysis; visualizeimpactsofdifferent builtscenarios

Today’slandtrusts,purchase andtransferofdevelopment rights,performancezoning PotomacRiverBasin(1965) Provideaframeworkfor

development(past,present, andfuture,atmultiple landscapescales)

Firststudytocombinethe physiographicregionandthe riverbasinastheorganizing contextforecologicalplanning anddesign;usedmostofthe methods(overlayandmetrics) atthetime

Institutionalizesa comprehensivemethodfor ecologicalinventory;advances GISmethod

TheWoodlands(1973) Planataﬂood-pronesite coupledwithdifﬁcultdrainage conditions;maintainaquifer levelstopreventHouston high-risebuildingsfrom sinking

Aholisticsolutionofnatural drainagesystemintegrating stormwaterdrainage,ﬂood control,andwaterquality;link soilpermeabilityto

developmentintensity

Oneoftheﬁrstapplicationsof GIStoabuiltproject;precursor ofUSEPA’sLIDandGI initiatives;today’s “green-street”programs nationwidea

a_USEPA_(U.S._{Environmental}_Protection_Agency);_LID_(low-impact_{development);}_GI_(green_{infrastructure).}

Inaddition,McHarg“isamongtheveryfewlandscapearchitects sinceFrederickLawOlmstedSr.whohavecommandedwidespread notice, respect, and influence outside the design and planning fields”(Spirn,2000,p. 97).His1969bookDesignwithNatureis consideredasthemostinfluentialtextintheplanninganddesign disciplineinthe20thcentury.Thebookwasalsoselectedasa final-istofthe1969NationalBookAward.Histheoryandmethodology pervadedbeyondNEPAintootherfederalandstateenvironmental managementprograms(Bassetal.,2001).Besideshis1960–1961 CBSseries(“TheHouseWeLiveIn”),hissuccessfullyco-organized the1970EarthDayevent,inwhichmorethan30,000people par-ticipated(McHarg, 1996).McHarg also appeared frequentlyon televisionandinpopularpress.Forinstance,hehelpedproduce and starredin thepopular1969publictelevisiondocumentary “MultiplyandSubduetheEarth.”Hischarismaticpersonalityand superbcapabilitytocommunicateinlayman’slanguagepersuaded numerousindividualstoaccepthisideas(Spirn,2000).

AnotherimportantaspectofMcHarg’scareerwasthathehad extensiveinvolvementinactualplanningandcommunitydesign projects.Theseopportunitiesallowedhimtoconstantlylink the-orytopracticeand toreﬁne hisideasand methods(McHarg& Steiner,1998).McHarg’sfacultypositionatPennallowedhimto structurehisteachingandpracticeinacomplementaryway.During hiseighteenyearswithWMRT,thecreativetensionbetweentheory (Pennteaching)andpractice(WMRT)ledtoexcitinginnovations inecologicalplanninganddesign.Apracticinglandscapearchitect isoftenconstrainedbytheprescribedprojectscope.Incontrast, McHarg’sfacultypositionallowedhimtochooseproblemsthathe deemedimportanttoexamine(Spirn,2000).

ForTheWoodlandsproject,itisalsoimportanttomentionthat itssuccesswasattributedtoseveralotherimportantfactors,in additiontoMcHarg’s(WMRT) plan.Thesefactorsaredeveloper GeorgeMitchell’svisionofresolvingAmerica’surbanproblemsand hisﬁnancialsupport,the$50millionHUDloanguarantees,andthe relativelyﬂexibleplanningsysteminthe1970s(Yang,Li,&Huang, 2015).

4.3. Contemporaryrelevance

Table5presentsthreewidelydiscussedMcHargarianprojects andtheirimplicationstocontemporarypractice(McHarg&Steiner, 1998;Spirn,2000;Yangetal.,2013).PlansfortheValleysandthe PotomacRiverBasinstudywereconductedin Penndesign stu-dios,andTheWoodlandsplanbyWMRTstaff(mostlythePenn team).ManyinnovationsbyMcHarg(WMRT)thatwereonceseen

asradicalarenowcommonpractice.Themostnoteworthyone isMcHarg’slandscapesuitabilityassessmentframework (“layer-cake”model)thatspearheadedthedevelopmentofthemodern-era Geographic Information System (GIS) (Ndubisi, 2002,2014). In fact,the computerizedsoiland vegetation surveysusedin The WoodlandsrepresentedoneoftheﬁrstactualapplicationsofGIS technologytoabuiltproject(McHarg&Steiner,1998).

Likewise,the“natural”drainage channelsin TheWoodlands witness their contemporary applications, suchas the rain gar-densandstormwaterplanterscommonlyseeninthegreenstreets in Portland, Seattle, Philadelphia, KansasCity, and other cities. An ongoing master-planned community development adjacent toThe Woodlands,Springwoods Village(728ha), followed sev-eraloftheWMRTplanning/designstrategies(e.g.,opendrainage andforestpreservation)(Jost,2012).TheU.S.Environmental Pro-tectionAgency (U.S.EPA)’s low-impact developmentand green infrastructuredesigninitiativesfurtherpromoteMcHarg’s design-with-natureecologicalwisdom(Yangetal.,2015).

TheWoodlandsdesignteamincludedNarendraJuneja,Jonathan Sutton,MokunLokhande,AnneSpirn,ColinFranklin,LeslieSauer, andJamesVeltman.AnneSpirnwentontohaveadistinguished academiccareerandiscurrentlya professoroflandscape archi-tectureandplanningatMIT.MembersfromtheWMRTteamalso founded two prominent professional firms. Colin Franklin and LeslieSauerfoundedAndropogonAssociatesin1974,andRobert HannaandLaurie OlinfoundedHanna/Olinin1976(nowOLIN) (Spirn, 1985). Currently, both firms enjoyinternational reputa-tionsandhaveinfluentialpractices.Andropogon,inparticular,uses “designingwithnature”asthefirm’scredo,whosemanyprojects featurecreativestormwatermanagementtechniques(Yangetal., 2015).

Last, although McHarg applied his design process and ana-lyticframeworkprimarilyinsuburbanandexurbansettings(see Table1), theprocessand framework canbeextended tourban settings. McHarg’sfollowers inherit his ecological wisdom and furthercontributetourban/metropolitansustainability( Bunster-Ossa,2014; Hough,1995; Spirn,1984).Otherscholarsbuildon McHarg’senvironmentalfocusand strengthensocial, economic, aesthetics,andpublichealthdimensionsofsustainability,while advancingtheoreticalframeworksandactionable agendas,such as Lyle’s regenerative design (Lyle, 1999), Nassauer’s “cues to care” (Nassauer, 1995;Nassauer, Wang,&Dayrell,2009), John-sonand Hill’sand Steiner’s frameworksfor ecologyand design (Johnson&Hill,2002;Steiner,2008,2011),Ndubisi’sustainable regionalism(Ndubisi,2008),Musacchio’ssixEsforlandscape

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sus-tainability(Musacchio,2009),PlinyFisk’sbiophilicdesign(Kellert, Heerwagen,&Mador,2011),andtheLadyBirdJohnsonWildﬂower Center’sSustainableSitesInitiative(SITES)(Calkins,2012;Steiner, Simmons,Gallagher,Ranganathan,&Robertson,2013). Practition-erscontinuetoapplyMcHarg’secologicalwisdomtoactionable agendasinordertotacklemanysustainabilityissuesaroundthe world.

5. Conclusions

We concludethatMcHarg’secologicalwisdomis actionable, defensible,andmeaningful,asevidencedinTheWoodlands’ out-standing landscape performance which is in accord with the benchmarksthatMcHarg(WMRT)forecasted.McHarg’secological wisdomofdesigningwithanddwellinginnatureallowsthe per-formanceofrealandpermanentgoodforthebuiltenvironment.It isalsoimportanttonotethatthe“secrete”ofMcHarg’secological wisdomisanchoredinhisinterdisciplinarytrainingandpractice, hisloveofMotherNature,hiscreativeblendingofscientiﬁc theo-rieswithlandscapeplanninganddesign,andhisstrongcapacityto pervadetheideaofdesign-with-naturetothegeneralpublic.

Finally,thesigniﬁcanceofTheWoodlandsdesignsolutionneeds tobe understoodin its historical and site contexts.Its holistic solutionislikelyaone-of-a-kindplanthattackledwicked prob-lemsspeciﬁctothisparticularsite.Therefore, thissolutionmay notbedirectlyreplicatedinanotherprojectduetotheinherent differencesin thedesign problem(s).Although theplan forThe Woodlandsiscontextdependent,awell-articulated, comprehen-sivedesignprocesswouldleadtotheexpressionandexecutionof McHarg’secologicalwisdom.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the four anonymous reviewers for their constructivecommentswhichgreatlyimprovedthis paper.This researchwassupportedbytheCaliforniaLandscapeArchitectural Student Scholarship Fund (CLASS Fund), the Utah Agricultural ExperimentStation, UtahStateUniversity (approvedas journal paper number 8690), and the NSF EPSCoR grant EPS 1208732 awarded toUtah StateUniversity, as partof the State of Utah ResearchInfrastructureImprovementAward.Anyopinions, ﬁnd-ings,andconclusionsorrecommendationsexpressedarethoseof theauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreﬂecttheviewsoftheCLASS Fund,theUtahAgricultural ExperimentStation,or theNational ScienceFoundation.

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BoYangDr.BoYangisanAssociateProfessorintheDepartmentofLandscape

Archi-tectureandEnvironmentalPlanningatUtahStateUniversity.Dr.Yangreceivedhis

Ph.D.inUrbanandRegionalScience(2009)andMasterofLandscapeArchitecture

(2009)fromTexasA&MUniversity,MasterofArchitecture(2004)andBachelorof

Architecture(2002)fromHuazhongUniversityofScience&TechnologyinChina.

Hisareasofinterestaregreeninfrastructuredesignandlow-impactdevelopment,

landscapeperformanceassessment,environmentalplanningandtechnology,and

landscapehistoryandtheoryinChinaandEastAsia.

ShujuanLiDr.ShujuanLiisanAssociateProfessorintheDepartmentofLandscape

ArchitectureandEnvironmentalPlanningatUtahStateUniversity.Shegraduated

withaPh.D.degreeinGeographyfromTexasA&MUniversityin2009.Shereceived

amaster’sdegreeinecologyfromPekingUniversityandabachelor’sdegreein

geog-raphyfromBeijingNormalUniversityinChina.SheworkedattheNationalDisaster

ReductionCenterofChinabeforeshecametotheUnitedStates.Herresearch

inter-estsincludetheintegrationofspatialanalysisandmodelingwithGISforurbanand

environmentalstudies,environmentalconsequencesofrapidurbanization,