SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
İNGİLİZ DİLİ VE EDEBİYATI ANA BİLİM DALI
İNGİLİZ DİLİ VE EDEBİYATI BİLİM DALI
TEACHING READING SKILLS TO THE STUDENTS OF
THE SECOND AGE AT PRIMARY SCHOOLS
THROUGH USING CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH
(8
thGRADE)
Sefa Burcu HAYDAROĞLU
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
Danışman
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yasin ASLAN
T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
BİLİMSEL ETİK SAYFASI
Bu tezin proje safhasından sonuçlanmasına kadarki bütün süreçlerde bilimsel etiğe ve akademik kurallara özenle riayet edildiğini, tez içindeki bütün bilgilerin etik davranış ve akademik kurallar çerçevesinde elde edilerek sunulduğunu, ayrıca tez yazım kurallarına uygun olarak hazırlanan bu çalışmada başkalarının eserlerinden yararlanılması durumunda bilimsel kurallara uygun olarak atıf yapıldığını bildiririm.
T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ KABUL FORMU
Sefa Burcu Haydaroğlu tarafından hazırlanan “Teaching Reading Skills To The Students Of The Second Age At Primary Schools Through Using Constructivist Approach (8th Grade)” başlıklı bu çalışma ……../……../…….. tarihinde yapılan savunma sınavı sonucunda oybirliği/oyçokluğu ile başarılı bulunarak, jürimiz tarafından yüksek lisans tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.
Ünvanı, Adı Soyadı Başkan İmza
Ünvanı, Adı Soyadı Üye İmza
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yasin ASLAN, the supervisor of my thesis, for his useful comments on the draft version and encouraging efforts and constant support throughout the study.
I would also like to thank to Aytaç Torun who teaches at the American Testing Academy and Dr Ersin Vural for their unstinting support and help. This volume has profited from their suggestions and keen insights.
My sincere thanks to my instructors for their enthusiastic help and advice for which I am most grateful. Special thanks must also go to my friends who shared their time with me lending support to overcome the number of intellectual and psychological challenges during the completion of this thesis.
Finally, I want to thank my longsuffering husband for his patience,
understanding and invaluable support throughout this long process and I dedicate this work to my baby son who may one day benefit from the findings of this study. I thank them both for being there for me.
T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
Adı Soyadı Sefa Burcu Haydaroğlu Numarası: 084208001006 Ana Bilim /
Bilim Dalı İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı / İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı Danışmanı Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yasin ASLAN
Ö ğr enc ini n Tezin Adı
Teaching Reading Skills To The Students Of The Second Age At Primary Schools Through Using Constructivist Approach (8th Grade)
ÖZET
Bu çalışmanın amacı yapılandırmacı yaklaşım teorisine dayalı okuma becerilerinin işlenmesi 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin İngilizce ders müfredatı içerisindeki simple past tense konusunu anlamalarına yönelik etkisini araştırmaktır. Aynı zamanda öğretim yönteminin öğrencilerin İngilizce dersine yönelik tutumlarına etkisi de araştırılmıştır.
Bu çalışma Konya Çumralı İlköğretim okulunda 2010–2011 bahar döneminde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu çalışmaya aynı İngilizce öğretmeninin iki ayrı 8. sınıfındaki 50 öğrenci katılmıştır. Sınıflar kontrol grubu ve deney grubu olarak rastgele seçilmiştir.
Kontrol grubunda geleneksel yöntem kullanılmış, deney grubunda ise yapılandırmacı yaklaşım teorisine dayalı reading becerilerini ölçerek kullanılmıştır.
Öğrencilerin simple past tense konusunu anlama düzeylerini ölçmek için simple past tense ile ilgili alıştırmalar verilerek reading parçalarında uygulamaları gözlenip ve her iki gruba ön test ve son test olarak uygulanmıştır. Uygulanan testlerin sonuçları Microsoft SSPS 10.00 programında istatiksel olarak değerlendirilmiştir. İstatistik tekniği olarak Independence Sample Test ve TT Test yöntemi kullanılmıştır.
Sonuç olarak, yapısalcı yaklaşım, geleneksel yönteme göre öğrencilerin başarısı ve İngilizceye karşı tutum ve algılamaları daha olumlu yönde etkilediği görülmüştür.
T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
Adı Soyadı Sefa Burcu Haydaroğlu Numarası: 084208001006 Ana Bilim /
Bilim Dalı İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı / İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı Danışmanı Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yasin ASLAN
Ö ğr enc ini n Tezin İngilizce Adı
Teaching Reading Skills To The Students Of The Second Age At Primary Schools Through Using Constructivist Approach (8th Grade)
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this study was to discover the rate of success in teaching reading skills (understanding stories in English) to 8th grade students using the constructivist approach and what effect this would have on their attitude to English.
Fifty 8th grade students from two different classes instructed by the same teacher in Konya Çumralı Primary School during the spring semester of 2010-2011 were used in the study. One class was used as the control group and the other as the experimental group.
Students in the control group were instructed using a traditional approach, while students in the experimental group were taught using reading activities. Multiple choice tests and exercises about the simple past tense were given to both groups as pre-reading and post reading checks in order to assess the students’ understanding of concepts relevant to the simple past tense. The results of the tests were evaluated with Microsoft SPSS 10.00 programme. The Independent Sample Test was used to process the statistics
The results show that reading activities using the constructivist approach had a more positive effect on students’ success when compared to traditional methods and this in turn had a positive effect on students’ confidence and interest in English.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BİLİMSEL ETİK SAYFASI...ii
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ KABUL FORMU... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...iv
ÖZET ...v
ABSTRACT ...vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...vii
LIST OF TABLES... x
LIST OF FIGURES...xi
LIST OF FIGURES...xi
CHAPTER ONE...1
INTRODUCTION ...1
1.1. Background to the Study ...1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ...4
1.3. Significance of the Study ...6
1.4. Purpose of the Study ...7
1.5. Research Hypothesis ...7
1.6. Method ...8
1.7. Scope and Limitations...9
1.8. Organization of the Study...9
CHAPTER II ... 11
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE……….. 11
2.1. What is the Constructivist Approach? ... 11
2.2. A Brief History of Constructivism... 24
2.3. The Characteristics of Constructivist Learning and Teaching ... 26
2.5 How is The Constructivist Lesson Different?...34
2.6. Teaching Strategies of Constructivism ... 35
2.7. Teaching Techniques Of Constructivisim... 40
2.8. The Role Of Constructivism In Language Teaching ...41
2.8.1. The Role Of Teachers And Students in Constructivisim... 58
2.9. The Characteristics Of A Constructivist Class ...67
2.10. What Reading Means ...72
CHAPTER III... 108 METHODOLOGY ... 108 3.1. Introduction ... 108 3.2. Research Design ... 108 3.3. Subjects ... 109 3.4. Materials ... 110
3.5. Data Collection Procedure... 111
3.5.1. Before the Study... 111
3.5.2. During the Study ... 112
3.5.2.1. The Experimental Group ... 112
3.5.2.2. The Control group ... 113
3.5.3. After the Study... 114
CHAPTER 4 ... 115
DATA ANALYSIS... 115
4.1. Restatement of the Purpose ... 115
4.2. Analysis of the Pre-Test Scores... 116
4.3. Interpretations and Discussions of the Pre-test Results ... 117
4.4. Analysis of the Post-test Scores... 118
4.5. Interpretations and Discussions of the Post-test Results... 118
CHAPTER V ... 119
5.1. Introduction ... 119
5.2. Discussion ... 119
5.3. Pedagogical Implications ... 121
5.4. Suggestions for Further Studies... 123
5.5. Conclusion... 123 REFERENCES ... 124 APPENDICES ... 128 Appendix A ... 128 Appendix B ... 132 Appendix C ... 133 Appendix D ... 134 Appendix E ... 135
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Experimental Design... 108 Table 2: Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores Of The Experimental And The Control
Group ...116 Table 3: Independent Samples Results For Experimental And Control Group’s
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Pre-test scores of groups ... 116 Figure 2: Post test scores of groups... 118
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the Study
Technological developments, especially in the field of communication, have made it possible for people to communicate with others anywhere in the world. The frequency and volume of this communication is so huge that it could never have been imagined even twenty years ago. For this international communication to take place, it follows that people need to know at least one foreign language. Many countries now attach significant importance to foreign language education to equip their citizens with this ability.
Speaking a foreign language is essential today. In trade, in education, in international relations at least one foreign language which is universal needs to be spoken. This language is English. Therefore in our country foreign language education, especially that of English, is very important. Although this need is widely acknowledged, there are deficiencies in applying the system and errors in following procedures, so that generally the results do not correlate with the aims of English language teaching and learning. We may explain why these differences between the aims and the reality are so great as follows: most students who learn English, have little or no exposure to the language and use it only in the classroom. So to use this language, individuals need to go other countries where people use it as a native language, or they need to use TV, internet or other visual equipment to improve their English level.
The other reason is that in the education system it is compulsory for students to learn English especially in public schools, so because they see English as a must, they consequently are reluctant to go to class. This creates a lack of motivation. A lack of resources and insufficient qualifications of many teachers in public schools are two other reasons for the failure of language teaching/learning. For example, there aren’t enough English teachers in schools so teachers from different branches try to teach English. This means that the required methodology, particularly what is
referred to as ‘best practice’ based on theory and supported by research, is lacking.. For instance, students rarely or never hear or use English even in English lessons. So, because of insufficient language guidance, students don’t attach much importance to English. Also many students try to learn English in the same way they learn Turkish or Mathematics and are met with a lack of success and consequently, they quit studying. It is a general truism also that after some time teachers who graduated from English departments, begin to think that English lessons are like other lessons and they lose their enthusiasm for teaching English owing to insufficient resources and time for lessons. For instance, teachers in the 8th grade are constantly stressed about keeping up to schedule (according to the yearly plan) and have to skip some subjects which means continuity is broken.
Consequently students cannot connect between subjects. The other, and probably the most significant reason is focused on incorrect teaching techniques and approaches. First of all, although younger teachers are provided with lots of methods and techniques during university courses, they don’t use them in the classroom because of the reasons explained above. Besides this, many older teachers are reluctant to change and even resist it continuing to use old methods and approaches even though they are not effective. As explained above, teachers attempt to teach English using old methods like those used in history and philosophy lessons or others, and because of this, instead of student-centered education, teacher- centered education is still the norm, a serious demotivating factor for the student. The main reason then, for failure in English teaching is the continued application of ineffective methods, techniques and approaches in the classroom.
According to traditional teaching approaches the human mind is pictured as an empty sheet and learning is something that happens as a result of reaction to the stimulus given by the teacher. In this scenario the students are passive receivers who don’t ask questions about why they are learning or how learning happens and individual differences like personality traits, abilities, cognitive ability or development or learning style preferences, even gender or socio economic factors are not taken into consideration.
Over the past sixty years there has been much research into the nature of the teaching and learning process and these studies about how we acquire and retain knowledge have brought about different approaches to learning and particularly language learning.
More recently, after new research in the field of psychology there has been interest in teaching language skills through the constructivist approach which follows on from the behaviorism theories of Skinner and later, cognitivism. In the traditional approach, knowledge is regarded as independent of the individual. Teachers, are the transmitters of this knowledge. According to the constructivist approach, however, knowledge is not independent of the individual.
Constructivists see learning as a mental formation. Students learn by synthesizing new knowledge onto previous knowledge. They accept the new knowledge by making it simpler and change their understanding in the light of this knowledge. Constructivism is not so much a teaching approach as a learning approach. Constructivist learning is also influenced by content, beliefs, attitudes and the behaviors of the student. It encourages learners to produce their own solutions and develop self- confidence to express their own ideas and hypotheses which in turn create new constructs in an on-going process of acquisition, understanding and change.
Real learning is a process in which knowledge isn’t taken in passively but an active effort in which learners always build upon their concepts. In this process, students try to form meaning from the knowledge in their mind and try to appropriate this formed meaning for themselves. They themselves form the learning, not as presented to them by someone else, but as the shape they form in their mind.
This is not passive acquisition of knowledge: it requires effort. Constructivist learning is peculiar to individuals, and depends on many other factors such as prior learning and existing schemata, their social and physical environment and how they react with it are important factors. Although there are some similarities among individuals, when each individual is regarded as a world, their own construct of the knowledge is different. The aim of education then, is not to create similar worlds but
to help learners to make their own formations. Hence, constructivist learning differs significantly from behaviorist (traditional, objective) learning.
The constructivist approach, which demands student- centered teaching instead of teacher-centered teaching can also be used in English lessons This approach needs students’ active attendance both in class and out, and in the learning process students realize the significance of taking responsibility and attending to the process of decision making. This approach then, creates autonomous learners.
Individuals provide new information to be formed by sharing their experiences and knowledge. This may be done through speaking or writing. The gaining of knowledge isn’t a result in itself, it is a source for forming new knowledge. The teaching of reading skills is one of the most effective models in the constructivist approach, and one of the most convenient in the teaching of English. It also enables students to improve their skills and conceptual development leading to the feeling of success and in turn, their attitudes to English have been changed positively.
This study examines the efficacy of the constructivist approach related to the acquisition of reading skills with 8th grade students in the upper primary school by comparing the results of this group against a control group from the same population using a common set of tests and by taking feedback.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
One of the main problems in the traditional approach to the teaching of English is that the knowledge taught to the students is temporary, that is; knowledge is memorized and is then forgotten easily or is misunderstood by the students so cannot be retrieved later.
Unfortunately, in primary school English lessons, the students are passive because teacher-centered methods are usually employed. In this situation the teachers are more active than students, and they have little or no idea about whether the students understand the subject or not due to this teacher-centered approach. Therefore, some subjects are ‘taught’ without ascertaining if there is previous knowledge or not or how well this knowledge is understood. In other words the
needs of the students are not considered at all. Teaching is reduced to ‘giving information’ which negatively influences the learning of the new subjects leading to decreased success and motivation of the students.
Ideally, the aim of education should be to familiarize students with the social environment and for this reason education must support the students’ social and cultural background with activities suitable for their cognitive development. Instead of external obligation, education must allow the students to direct their own efforts. Students have more difficulties in English than any other subject in the school curriculum. In the fourth grade of the primary school the students only memorize topics in English lessons. Consequently, when they come to the fifth grade they have a lot of problems leading to a lack of success and these problems compound each successive year. As a result, student are filled with negative feelings and develop a dislike of English. These problems certainly need to be addressed beginning with teachers who need to find more effective, productive and attractive teaching methods. The key principle arising out of education studies is to create an environment where the students can learn more easily, more permanently and in a short time. And relevant to this, the productivity of learning increases when the students are more active and when they can use the knowledge they have learnt. Thus, many countries question their present educational system. The goal is to train individuals who can engage in higher order thinking and who can solve the problems on their own.
Recently, some teaching models have been informed by the constructivist approach. One of the most effective forms of this approach is the 5E model developed by Bybee. Bybee suggests that knowledge cannot be transferred directly in the constructivist approach. In the learning process the students must be active: the students must experience mental activities and then internalize the knowledge. In this process the teachers must create an environment where students can build on their knowledge and they must give students opportunities to discover their own knowledge. In other words, teachers must be facilitators, directing and guiding the students to become responsible for their own learning rather than just transmitting information for students to memorize.
To sum up, many studies have been published proposing and examining different learning models to increase the success of the students. The question posited in this study is whether the teaching of reading skills informed by a constructivist approach has a positive effect on 8th grade students learning .
If this model is used in the teaching of reading skills in English lessons, it should be much easier to observe and understand the students’ level of proficiency related to skills acquisition. Hence, many of the problems related to the lack of success –motivation cycle currently experienced by students can be reversed.
1.3. Significance of the Study
The results of the study were obtained from the teaching of a reading sub-skill basing on the constructivist approach. The activities employed in this approach are more creative, more practical and more engaging for students than those generally used in traditional teaching. By learning new things, students gain creativity and most importantly, avoid memorization. The constructivist approach contributes to the development of a student centered system.
With the results of the activities that are student-centered, it is hoped to: 1- Enlighten English teachers.
2- Contribute to the development of more productive and more practical English teaching.
3- Transfer the application of the study to other fields. Besides the above, this study is important in two respects:
The first, is to demonstrate the suitability and practicability of teaching reading skills using the constructivist approach in English teaching.
And the second is to show that the teaching of reading skills based on the constructivist approach can be adapted and transferred to the other subjects in the school .
1.4. Purpose of the Study
The aim of this study was to determine how teachers can apply this approach in their English classes and examine the effects of the constructivist approach on reading skills for this group of students. The interactive atmosphere focuses on the constructivist approach of this study. It aims to encourage active participation of the students and in so doing, to observe the extent of its influence on the students’ learning process.
In this study, the effects of the constructivist approach when applied to the teaching of reading skills and traditional approach on students’ understanding of reading activities were studied. The question posed was whether there was a statistically significant difference between the experimental group to the whom constructivist approach was applied, and the control group to whom the traditional approach was used in the teaching and learning of reading skills .
The research question can be expressed as follows: “Does the teaching of reading skills through activities based upon the constructivist approach have any effects on the achievement of students and their attitudes towards English?” By providing an atmosphere where interaction is encouraged, this study aims to investigate the effects on students’ learning levels, offering activities, which involve active participation of students, designed according to the English curriculum focused on the constructivist approach, then comparing the results with the learning level of the group of students who are taught by traditional methods.
Reading skills acquisition based on the constructivist approach results in greater achievement in English, better retention of concepts, improved attitudes toward English and English learning, improved reasoning ability, and superior processing skills than is generally the case with traditional approaches. This study then, will provide information on the on reading skills learning model and its application into the classroom situation.
1.5. Research Hypothesis
Students who engage with the text by making connections, inferring, asking questions and synthesizing the materials that they read in activities informed by the constructionist approach will score significantly higher on the post-test than the students who learn these skills by traditional methods.
In other words, it is hypothesized that the students who are taught target subjects through reading skills based on the constructivist approach are more successful when compared to the students taught the same target subject through traditional methods.
1.6. Method
In this study, an experimental design with a ‘pre-test’ and a ‘post-test’ was employed.
The research was conducted over a four-week time period in the spring term of 2010-2011 year. The research sample comprised two groups; a control group and an experimental group, 25 students in each group. The students in both the experimental group and control group were all in the 8th grade of Çumralı primary school in Konya and were selected according to the results of their pre-tests.
The data of the research were analyzed by means of the Independent Sample test.
The data obtained from the Independent Sample test which were given to the experimental and control groups, were analyzed using the SPSS 10.00 packet programme. The average achievement scores of students were calculated and comparisons were made between the control and the experimental groups by administering the Independent Sample test, and then the obtained data were transferred onto tables or charts. The tables and charts showing the findings of this study obtained from the responses of the Control and the Experiment group students are presented in the sections of findings and comments.
1.7. Scope and Limitations
The first limitation of the study was that the sample was very localized: only 8th grade students at Çumralı primary school were used in this study.
The second limitation of the study was the limited number of the students in both experimental and the control groups because the number of the students in each class was limited to twenty-five The data obtained from a larger group of students would possibly have indicated more reliable results.
The third limitation of the study was that it concentrated on a limited range of reading skills while other aspects such as decoding skills and fluency building skills were almost ignored.
1.8. Organization of the Study
This experimental study is divided into five chapters.
Chapter 1 states the research problem, the purpose of the study and the research hypotheses, the significance of the study, and its limitations.
Chapter 2 reviews the literature focusing on constructivism. The introduction considers and explains some of the terms related to the topic. A brief history of constructivism follows, and then the features of constructivist learning and teaching, basic principles of constructivist learning, the teaching strategies of the constructivist approach, teaching techniques of constructivism and the role of constructivism in learning a foreign language are discussed. Afterwards, the acquisition of reading skills is studied. The rest of the chapter deals with the role of reading in the teaching of English. It includes the advantages and purposes of teaching reading skills. Chapter 3 explains the research design, the participants, the materials used in both the experimental and the control groups and the data collection procedure of the study.
Chapter 4 explains the data analysis procedure in detail and presents the analyses of the pre-test and post-test test results.
Chapter 5 summarizes the findings of the study and discusses these findings in terms of the research hypotheses stated in Chapter 1. This is followed by a description of the pedagogical implications of the results of the study, the suggestions for further studies and final concluding remarks.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature focusing on constructivism. First the , introduction clarifies some of the terms related with the topic. This is followed by a brief history of constructivism, the features of constructivist learning and teaching, basic principles of constructivist learning, some teaching strategies of the constructivist approach, teaching techniques of constructivism and the role of constructivism in learning a foreign language. Afterwards, the learning of reading skills is reviewed. The rest of this chapter deals with the importance of reading in English teaching .
2.1. What is the Constructivist Approach
Constructivism indicates the formation of knowledge as a term by the learner in the context of learning. In the constructivist approach, knowledge doesn’t exist in nature independently from the cognizant individual. Knowledge isn’t free from or independent of the subject, rather the subject forms the knowledge during interaction with the other subjects, and both he and his environment are affected by this knowledge (Piaget, 1973; Vygotsky, 1978; Moll, 1992).
The approach of constructivist learning presents as a learning approach that aims to explain the students’ observation of new knowledge through present knowledge, forming specific knowledge. According to Bodner (1986, 1990), one of the most important exponents of the constructivist model, knowledge is configured in the mind of the learner and the chance of transition of knowledge from the mind of the teacher to the mind of the learner is quite limited. In other words, the knowledge that the students obtains in the school environment depends on the available related information and the accessibility of it in that environment.
For that reason, if the related information is defective, the knowledge that is built upon it can be defective too. (Hewson and Hewson, 1984; Üstüner and Sancar, 1999).
Jonassen (1991) states constructivism as:
A function of learners’ beliefs from which they form their own actuality or, at least, they interpret the meaning in terms of their previous experiences and perceptions, thus the knowledge of an individual is a function of their mental structures and their beliefs that they use to interpret the meaning of the objects and events.
The idea that in the constructivist approach knowledge cannot be thoroughly transferred to the students by the teacher but should be actively configured by the student, is rather successful in explaining why the students have alternative concepts and provides significant traces about what to do to produce conceptual changes in the students.
Çepni and others (2005) gathered basic constructivist components that are inseparable with definite borders under five topics.
1. Activating the previous knowledge: Research shows that everything
students learn is related directly to the prior knowledge that they have already obtained and the definition of this previous information is highly eminent. For learners, being conscious of the information entity that they have is valuable for both educators and learners.
2. Preparation of the new knowledge: Teachers need to project and
implement teaching techniques and get the students cover the matter they want to teach. In this period, it must be determined whether there is a harmony between the newly given information and the current available information. The teacher should assist the students in learning new information.
3. Understanding the Knowledge: The students compare and contrast the
knowledge they gain with their existing knowledge which starts the process of comprehending. Within this period, new knowledge that doesn’t conflict with the
existing information is easily accepted, and a mental process is started in case there is a conflict.
4. The Application of the Knowledge: The indicator that newly obtained
information has been comprehended in the desired levels is the capability of the learner to solve new and different problems, in other words, having the capacity to transfer and use the knowledge for different targets.
5. Recognizing Knowledge: The activities that will enable the students to
comprehend the knowledge they own are the activities which allow them see how and in what ways the knowledge is used. The activities such as sample case examination, acting, project-based activities, or teaching the obtained knowledge to others all help students to understand the structure of the knowledge they have; the level and type of the knowledge. Newly obtained knowledge is configured depending on the individual so according to this belief, students compare the newly obtained information to previous knowledge which is then configured in the mind, enabling the student to make sense of the world around him. Namely, the core of constructivist approach is based on the fact that the knowledge doesn’t passively exist outside of the individual; it isn’t transferred to the brain after being organized outside; on the contrary, the individual actively configures it in his mind and makes it meaningful. Cultural and social content also play an important role besides the current available knowledge of the individuals in learning. The approach of constructivist learning generally looks for the answers to these questions: “How does the knowledge obtained from outside hurtle into our minds?”, “How do we process this knowledge and arrogate it to ourselves?” and “What kind of changes occur while the newly obtained knowledge that conflicts with the previous knowledge is configured in our minds?” Constructivism implies the following three principles which Von Glasssersfeld set forth:
1- Knowledge is not passively received either through the senses or by way of communication. Knowledge is actively built up by the cognizing subject.
2- The function of cognition is adaptive, in the biological sense of the term, tending towards best fit or viability.
3- Cognition serves the subject’s organization of the experiential world, not the discovery of an objective ontological reality.
(Von Glasssersfeld ,E. An Exposition of Constructivism: Why some like it radical 1990.pp.22-23)
The constructivist approach points out that the learners are managed to understand the new situations they confront to their prior experiences and knowledge. The constructivist learning is a procedure of interpretation of the world and the knowledge that reaches at the mind. In the learning process, the learners explain the situations they have newly encountered with respect to their prior experiences and knowledge. Although the learning appears individually configured in the mind of the learner, social interaction is rather significant in the constructivism because students frequently interact with other individuals during the learning process and perform the peer learning (Taber, 2001).
One of the basic principles that are agreed on in different constructivist learning types is that knowledge is configured in the mind of the student and it happens with active participation of that student The theory of constructivism can be accepted as the continuation of the other theories in the context of interpreting life. In this context, it comprises various aspects of the real world and life. For instance, individualism and sociability, mind and environment, communication and culture, development and learning, knowledge and experience, radical and critical thinking etc. As may be seen, the ideas that exist in the constructivist approach are the ones that familiar with our lives. When the constructivist approach is examined, it is clear that it can embrace a multidirectional point of view and the opinion that more than one answer may be available for a single question. The development of technology has made information readily available and accessible so there are many different types of authentic texts available for the teacher to choose from. Comprehension skills in language teaching should be multifunctional.
The Constructivist approach has a different philosophical base than the objectivist theories relevant to knowledge and the meaning of knowing something. On the basis of this approach; there is the opinion about the nonexistence of
knowledge or the existence of knowledge outside the individual. Knowledge must be actively configured in the mind of the individual (Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi Güz 2007, 5(4), 609–635).
In the Constructivist approach knowledge is thought to be produced by the existing standards of judgment and life of the learner. Real knowledge doesn’t occur outside the life of the individual. The mind isn’t a blank blackboard. The individual doesn’t receive knowledge passively; the learner actively processes it, gets in touch with his previous knowledge, and appropriates for himself. Learning doesn’t depend on memorizing, it is a process of reinterpreting existing knowledge in the light of newly acquired knowledge (Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi Güz 2007, 5(4), 609–635). Constructivist learning theory which has been a topic of debate is a somewhat new and radical departure from the traditional approaches still in use in the education system in our country. It has blazed a trail which has led to the rethinking of how knowledge is acquired and used. This means that teachers need to be aware of their obligations and responsiblities.
Rapid, widespread changes in the world mean that the roles of individuals and the qualifications demanded of them are changing, too because information is constantly changing, being questioned, reinterpreted, up-dated and reconfigured.
Basic Characteristics of the Constructivist Approach
Learning angles Explore the change in the meaning depending on the previous knowledge and experiences according to individual comprehension.
Types of Learning Based on problem solving and cooperation.
Strategies of learning: the optimization for self-compensative and reflective learning beginning with a problems and challenge, a strategy based on cooperative work and the use of multiple approaches in the presentation of the context.
Strategies of communication: mutual and multiple environments, multiple communication, multiple tools and equipment.
Key Terms Intrinsic motivation, constructivism, experience, real-life based learning activities.
In contrast to traditional learning theories, “making mistakes” has a place in these learning types that is dependent on self-organization. Discussions within small groups become meaningful only in case occurring problems are inspected and corrected. Finding the reason for the mistake increases the learning capacity of the individual, it allows the knowledge to be understood better and built upon. This confused learning field is established based on relevant to the fields of interest. Such a content challenges the students to schedule the experiences and interests they receive from real life (Terhart, 2003).
Besides, constructivism enables individuals to learn real knowledge through actively interacting with their environment. Constructivism forms a general framework according to individual differences, social structure and knowledge obtaining types (Joyce, Weil, 1996). Since constructivism is a theory of knowledge, it consists of cognition, knowing the known, the process of configuring the knowledge, and numerous explanations impacting this. Constructivism refutes the ideas such as the truth exists in the outer world outside of the knowing, the knowledge should be realistic to be true and should mirror the truth. The constructivist approach has been developed as an alternative to the existing traditional theories (behavioral and cognitive) in order to respond to the needs of technological age. In this approach, “the student doesn’t directly learn the given knowledge but he learns by reconfiguring it.” In this context, learning isn’t a duplicate but a direct activity of the student. Constructivist education demands critical thinking and forces the development of motivated free individuals.
The basic principle that underpins constructivism is learning through practicing. When students initiate a new topic, they will configure the knowledge for themselves in the light of their foreknowledge. The expression of their remarks and reevaluation process they will carry out in this way will continue until they show that they have contained the matter. Constructivism frequently uses cooperation and the critiques of friends as a forcing power to educate students to a higher level of comprehension . Active experiences are the keys of Constructivist Learning.
“Constructivism” describes interactive, inductive and cooperative gains in the learning environments where the questions are evaluated and various points of view are exhibited (Brown, Collins and Duguid, 1989).
Piaget accepts constructivism as a communication between the cognitive processes of the individual and knowledge. Cognitive processes of the child develop in a gradual order. These are the phase of sense-movement (0-2), pre-process period (2-7), concrete processes period (7-11) and abstract process period (12- ---).
Piaget emphasizes the significance of thinking proper to the rules of logic and points out its relationship to language developments.
According to Vygotsky, knowledge is configured based on social interaction of the individual and experience. Both the child and the environment are active. Configuration is executed through the cooperation of both.
Types of Constructivism
1- Simple Constructivism (Cognitive (Realist) Constructivism 2- Radical Constructivism
3- Social (Communal) Constructivism 4- Cultural Constructivism
5- Critical Constructivism (Erfidan, 2005: 18).
In the constructivist model where the learner is active, knowledge is acquired through actively participating in the learning processes such as discussing, defending an opinion, hypothesizing, interrogating and sharing the ideas. The interaction of individuals is significant in this model. The learners don’t receive the knowledge as is, but they make or re-explore it. (Perkins, 1999: 7).
All newly acquired knowledge is a basis for the configuration of the next knowledge because new knowledge is built over the previously configured knowledge.
Thus, constructivist learning is a process in which a connection is constituted between existing learning and new learning. If the individual has really configured
the knowledge, he will make his own comment and configure the knowledge from the groundwork.
Constructivism isn’t the collection and memorizing knowledge but thinking and examining it and processing it to form new constructs.
The truth in constructivist learning isn’t the approval of the knowledge by the students but the interpretation of the knowledge by the student. Knowledge is produced by the existing standards of judgment and lives of the learners. All the efforts in constructivism are donated to the development of top level cognitive skills.
Education programs based on constructivist principles are designed to encourage continuous learning both inside and outside the classroom and to develop top level cognitive skills in the learner. In such a system , the student is in the centre.
Constructivism teaches learners how to learn and makes the knowledge more meaningful for them. The new target of education is to create an individual who knows how and where to use the knowledge, who knows his own learning methods and use them effectively, use his previous knowledge while forming new knowledge. The constructivist approach plays an important role in reaching this target Yapıl (Abbott, 1999: 68).
In the constructivist approach, the important matter is not whether there is content in the education program or not, but the existence of interaction between the learner and the content in the process to make it meaningful. The aim in the constructivist approach is not the predetermination of what the learners will do but to give opportunities to them to direct learning upon their request through tools and learning materials (Erdem, 2001: 58). According to the constructivist approach, all the learning occurs as a result of a configuration in the mind.
These aspects are basic to the constructivist approach: 1) Research, interpretation and analysis of knowledge.
2) Development of that knowledge and higher order thinking. 3) The combination of past life experiences and current ones.
It encourages the students to research.
It encourages students to be natural and curious. It is based on creativity and analysis.
It keeps students and their teachers in communication with each other. It supports cooperative and collaborative learning .
It provides students with new ideas and understanding as a result of their own experiences.
What does a Constructivist Education Provide the Individual? It gives an opportunity to form knowledge.
It gives opportunity to develop knowledge. It provides the ability to interpret that knowledge. It helps to configure knowledge.
There is no single true in constructivism.
Constructivist learning is a decision making period which comprises the student’s personal abilities, motivations, attitudes and the things they obtain from their experiences. The individual is selective, constructive and effective during learning.
The control of learning is the responsibility of the individual. He directs learning in company with the teacher. In this directing process, the student’s past experience, point of view, readiness levels are effective.
The constructivist approach is an approach that can guide new developments. It aims to improve the student from every aspect, the students see the learning as a mysterious world expecting to be explored not a too high wall to jump over.
The principal in constructivist learning is not the idea that the students take and accept information but the meaning they infer from the knowledge based on from existing value judgments and life experience of the learner. All the efforts in constructivism are donated to the maintenance of learning and establishment of high
level cognitive skills. The learners configure the knowledge through researching and exploring, interpreting and forming and interaction with the environment. Thus, they learn both the content and process at the same time. (Demirel, 2000)
Constructivist learning theory features critical thinking, interrogating, problem solving and entrepreneurship of the individuals. (Brook & Brooks, 1993¸ Marlowe &Page, 1998). Learning activities should be carried out within the scope of realistic activities that support active learning. (Wilson, 1996).
Constructivist access regards the conversation and discussion with other individuals as a base for the formation of knowledge. Vygotsky (1994) emphasizes that interactions are more effective when they are shaped next to individuals with a higher level of knowledge. This has the effect of enhancing students’ learning and developing their critical faculties to encompass higher order thinking abilities.
The constructivist approach is a theory in which learning occurs when an individual forms meaning from experience. Human beings actually form the knowledge in place of taking it directly. This means that learning can only happen depending on prior knowledge and experiences. However new knowledge may be presented, the students will not really learn so long as they don’t personally use this knowledge and identify it with past experiences.
According to this approach, learning can be defined as the meaning acquired as a result of comprehension, processing, evaluating and judging of the events in the external world. In other words, knowledge is a meaning that he attributed as a result of interaction of the individual with the things, events and existences around him. Since the past experiences of individuals are not all the same, their interpretation related to the concept and new knowledge cannot be the same. Past experiences, knowledge and learning all influence how we should clarify our new lives. In addition, these interpretations are effective on the configuration of the knowledge and new learning.
The important matter is not whether the learners interpret or not but the actual way they interpret it . When an aim is externally forced to be received, the activities of teachers and learners become mechanical. The learner’s making connections with
the outer world, using his ability, reflecting his experience and critically seeing the facts is very important in long-term recalling and knowledge transfer (Erdem and Demirel, 2002).
THE KNOWLEDGE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
The idea of constructivism postulates that real knowledge cannot be transferred from one individual to another.
The individual should be active within the period of learning to produce knowledge. He needs a chain of experiences and needs to carry out a number of mental processes to internalize the knowledge. (Kabaca, 2002: 56)
THE CONSTRUCTIVIST IDEA
Knowledge has personal meaning, it is nominative. It is shaped by the students. Learners form their own knowledge. They interpret what they hear, read according to their previous learning, habits and experience.
The learning is successful so long as the students demonstrate conceptual meaning.
THE CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH
Learning happens as a result of configuration of both old and new knowledge. The student is the internalizer of the stimulus and the active performer of attitudes.
In conventional education programs students are instructed through the inductive method, concentrating on basic concepts, which are shaped by the teacher according to the programs of work set down by the Ministry.
However, in the constructivist approach, teachers are also part of the learning process. They interact with the students and they arrange and prepare the learning environment together.
The students are responsible for their own learning; they explain the knowledge they acquire from the environment in their minds and thus they are active in learning.
The activities related to the education programs are extensively based on primary sources.
Evaluation is an important part of the teaching process. It is carried out through the observation of the teacher and collection of students’ activities during teaching.
Approximations are significant in the constructivist approach since they reflect the learner’s point of view and way of thinking at a given time. Constructivism can be supposed as a cognitive-development approach that is influenced from philosophical approaches since it is a way of thinking related to the function of cognition and correlates among the cognitive-related developments (Ashgar, 1995).
Constructivism is a social activity.
The use of constructivism for the learner has been given as follows: 1) It develops the individual’s ability to think and make plans, 2) It develops entrepreneurship,
3) It provides a better understanding of the learning experience, 4) It improves the relationships between the learner and the teacher, 5) It provides motivation,
6) It increases the interest of the learner for school, 7) It allows individual expression.
8) It has higher success levels than the classical methods related to the matter (Marlowe & Page, 1998).
The process of dimension and mental configuration of the knowledge by the learner is more dominant in the constructivist approach. It is student-centered. The teacher is the guide, not the one who serves up the knowledge.
The dominant factor in the center of this type of learning is the process and production of the knowledge not the knowledge itself. The main principle is that learners learn to think creatively. The basic philosophy isn’t learning, but learning to learn using the cognitive, affective and material abilities of the student.
The important matter is how and why the learning is carried out not how much has been learned.
The learning-teaching process is performed through the activities that the students can carry out and develop so constructivism isn’t a single learning model as such,, but an “eclectic” model that centralizes the individual, knowledge based production which is participative and interactive.
Thus, this is also a reflexive model that allows the individual and the teacher decide where to use inductive methods and where to use deductive methods. Standardizing this model through various methods and strategies is against its structure. For example, the notion that teacher presentations do not occur in constructivist teaching is wrong and dangerous.
Constructivism isn’t “self-learning of the individual” but “his learning in company with the teacher”. Thus, the role of the teacher has not been reduced, in fact it is often increased, but different.
The constructivist lesson is not centered around the teacher ‘giving information’ but is student centered based on activities designed to facilitate and enhance learning. The cognitive, affective and physical abilities and competences of the students determine the direction of the lesson. For that reason, there is no ‘standard lesson’. There is the lesson which changes according to the students and physical positions. However, the achieving of targets through the synthesis of student activity-teacher-infrastructure opportunities is common.
The constructivist lesson can not be planned in detail and shouldn’t be planned because, the way the process functions and the speed at which it will continue cannot be decided previously. The only known reality is the activity to be done. The development process of the activity will happen in the lesson within the bounds of the quality of the teaching and opportunities. The constructivist lesson cannot be delineated with predetermined teaching methods. Instead of traditional teaching methods, the methods and techniques such as collaborative learning aimed at developing affective behavior, drama, and brainstorming.
Nor is the lesson restricted to a single physical environment, namely the classroom. According to the activity and the conditions, spaces other than classrooms (school yard, library, cafeteria, museum, street etc. ) can be used. Concerning the choice of space, it is thought that the teacher should be fully authorized to make use of these spaces as required and there should be no bureaucratic barriers. Of course, to do this, learning activities need to be previously decided and planned with regard to safety of the students and learning outcomes and the school management should make this process easy. The location of the activities may be changed according to the socio-cultural and economic environment of the school. For that reason, the decision regarding such activities should be left to the teacher.
2.2. A Brief History of Constructivism
The history of contsructivism goes back to Giambatista Vico (Yager, 1991; Sewell,2002). When constructivist learning is examined in theoretical philosophy, we can say that it has been shaped on the ideas of the philosophers such as John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Thomas Kuhn, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and Ernst Von Glasersfeld. (Çalık, 2006) Although the psychological side of constructivist learning is based on Piaget’s incorporation approach, Bruner’s ideas regarding independent learning and Ausubel’s theory of focusing on the ideas of the students have also made significant contributions to the development of constructivist learning. (Köseoğlu and Kavak, 2001; Rezai and Katz, 2002; Çalık, 2006; Özsevgeç, 2007: 63).
Hawkins (1994) attributes the history of constructivism to Socrates. In his dialogue, The Meno, Socrates asks graduated questions to an illiterate slave which enable him to manifest the theorem of Pythagoras. Much later in the seventeenth century, Immanuel Kant showed that scientific knowledge has been actively formed as a result of their testing and observation. According to Hawkins, “Hegel, a successor and critic of Kant, accepts the equality of mental schemas and the contradiction among them is a source for more researches and learning.” Among the eighteenth century philosophers, Giambattista Vico, said that, “People only can understand what they form”. (Hawkins, above-mentioned book, page 8.) In 1901
William James published The Principles of Psychology establishing psychology as a science; then he examined the cognitive world of the individual stream of awareness, feelings and willpower, and this makes him a contributor to the ideational development of constructivism (Fancher, 1997: 129-145).
In the early 1960s Bruner systematized the constructivist approach although the epistemological history of constructivism goes back to the eighteenth century. However, two and a half millennia earlier, the notion that knowledge is configured by the knowing was debated by the Sceptics around 5 or 6 B.C.E (Phillips, 1995).
The roots of constructivism that discuss what knowledge and teaching are, the possibility of the existence of objectivity, and the philosophical explanation for the nature of knowledge are attributed to the philosophy of Kant and the ideas of Giambattista Vico, an Italian philosopher in the eighteenth century, (Glasersfeld 1995; Tynjälä, 1999), and American pragmatists of the early twentieth century such as William James and John Dewey and other names such as F. C. Barlet, Jean Piaget and L. S. Vygotsky (Driscoll, 1994; Duffy, Cunningham 1996; Tynjâlâ, 1999).
The second half of the twentieth century is seen as the breakthrough with the work of the researchers such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Asubel, Bruner ve Glasersfeld.
Constructivism formed a base for the improvement of other applications at the beginning of twentieth century. For example, William James and John Dewey criticized “the concept of exhibiting knowledge” and they formed their own concepts on this (Philips, 1995). Bartlett determined that the meaning was transformed and that reading and writing were the products of the constructivist process. (Wood, 1995). In this context, the empirical research project, began by Hall in the early 1900s and in which the ideas of children on nature were analyzed and Dakes’s fieldwork related to topic in 1947 attracted attention (Açıkgöz, 2004). However, the real breakthrough occurred after the work of scientists such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Ausubel, Bruner ve Von Glasersfeld in the second half of the twentieth century. We can state that contemporary constructivist learning approaches began with Vygotsky. In the systematization of the constructivist approach, we can mention educational theorists such as Bruner, Wund, Ausubel and Titchener and philosophers such as
Saussure, Jakapson, and Levi-Srauss. We can assume then, that the constructivist learning approach is mainly related to cognitive learning theories.
2.3. The Characteristics of Constructivist Learning and Teaching
Some activities should be arranged to make the learners more active in the classroom and learners should evaluate their knowledge gains , the content and the power balance in their class through working together. The students should have a part in the learning process voicing their ideas. This allows greater opportunity for a more democratic and pluralist education.
The opinions on which constructivist learning is based may be summarized as follows:
Research, interpretation and analysis of the knowledge.
Development of this knowledge and the stimulation of the thinking process. Unification past and present life experience. (Atam, 2006: 61)
1. Complex learning environments that contain authentic activities should be created so that students can be exposed to challenging situations related to daily life and they should learn how to solve these problems.
2. Social interaction that is an important complementary of constructivist learning should be formed.in this way, the students will share the ideas of each other and peer learning will occur. Thus, each of the students will see the event from different aspects and a better understanding will occur.
3. The content of the lesson should be graduated in a definite order to provide opportunities for different and various presentations. In this manner, partial understanding will be prevented since students will process the content via different methods and techniques and tools and equipments and a complete comprehension will be provided.
4. Students’ metacognition should be developed by providing activities such as discussion to allow them to develop an awareness of their own understanding and
learning. In this way, they will be able to defend their ideas and they will have multiple points of view.
A student-centered learning outline should be shaped. Thus, the students will be able to actively decide what and how to study or understand and form new knowledge through reflective abstraction.
The learners/Individuals form their own understanding .
Meaningful learning occurs as a result of real learning activities/tasks (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001: 294). Learners should be able to question class content and activities. Especially, their charting the learning processes will help them to examine the content more easily. This way, their learning is personalized and their sharing these schemas with their teachers and other learners in the class makes learning social construct in the context of the classroom. If such elements are a part of the classroom culture, this culture will support the forming of new knowledge in a social context.
Knowledge is a social, cognitive and one-sided concept. (Richardson, 1997: 7) The constructivist approach postulates that learning doesn’t happen with the transfer of information alone , but must be carried out through activities such as asking questions, researching and problem solving.
Driscoll, (1994) summarizes the main principles of the approach as follows: It has adopted a learning and teaching model that is based on a complex
environment that requires real effort.
Responsibilities, social interaction and communication have an important role in this learning.
There are multiple presentations about the content.
Understanding the configuration of knowledge is important. Education is student-centered. Driscoll (1994)
Accordingly, problems cannot be solved through recalling (remembering) the correct answers. In order to solve a problem, the individual has to see it as one of his own problems. In other words it must be personalized by the learner Moreover, individual should be motivated to obtain the target. Doing research to reach a target and to access the next step using the acquired data motivates the student for further stages. He also claims that this process is more pleasurable than using ready-to-use knowledge.
Because students are engaged in the activities and the process, the teacher is free to provide individual attention to the students where and when needed more effectively (Von Glasersfeld, 1990). The aim is to enable individuals to direct the learning according to their desires through tools and learning materials, not to previously determine what the learners will do. In order to encourage intrinsic motivation during the education process, teachers need to provide students with appropriate opportunities and give them various strategies to help them learn effectively. This may take place in the classroom or outdoors: anywhere that enriches the teaching/learning process and increases the sustainability of learning in order to accomplish the targets. The learners participate in the various activities that have been arranged to touch on every topic or field enabling the learner to configure the new knowledge.
The personal characteristics of the students, their intellectual and personal differences are all considered in the constructivist approach contrary to traditional conceptions. This means the roles of teachers and the students alternate. The teacher leads the student to discover the knowledge that they need to acquire in a series of steps to enable students to process this knowledge. The teacher is merely he guide and the student takes responsibility for his or her own part in the learning process. In constructivist learning, the main concern is the students. The student enters into an interactive communication with objects and events; he acquires the ability to understand these objects and events. In this way, the student constructs his conceptions and solutions to problems. The autonomy and entrepreneurship of the students are developed and supported in this way. In constructivist learning, the students are motivated to invent their own ways for solution and try their own
hypothesis and ideas. They are given intervals to construct new knowledge over the old ones (Scheurman, 1998).
The learning process can contain following stages for the effective learning that is based on this approach;
Planning,
Research and exploring, Analysis and deepening,
Sharing and adapting the knowledge to real life
In this approach, the teacher provides situations to encourage and develop the autonomy of the student.
The teacher uses real knowledge and current sources.
The teacher allows the students to direct the lessons, apply new methods and suggest alternative topics.
The teacher tries to elicit the way the students understand the topics before he shares his own knowledge.
The teacher supports the students to enter into a dialogue with their teachers and other friends.
The teacher supports the students to ask appropriate, thoughtful open-ended questions among themselves.
The teacher supports the student to develop the feeling of responsibility by himself.
The teacher encourages students to form discussion groups so that they can create a discourse and gain experiences to develop hypotheses.
The teacher gives time for the students to formulate answers after a question is asked.
The teacher provides an atmosphere where students can develop themselves and make connections among the topics and he gives enough time for this.
