T.R.
SELÇUK UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
REFLECTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES ON
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
NESLİHAN PARLAK
POSTGRADUATE THESIS
SUPERVISOR
ASST. PROF. DR. YAĞMUR KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ
Department of English Language and Literature
...dedicated to the memory of my unborn son...
TABLE OF CONTENTS
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ KABUL FORMU ...VII BİLİMSEL ETİK SAYFASI ... VIII ÖZET ... IX ABSTRACT ... X
INTRODUCTION ...1
CHAPTER I ...4
COMMUNICATION AND THE COMMUNICATION FACTORS ...4
1.1THEDEFINITIONOFCOMMUNICATION ...5
Fig. 1.1.1 ... 6 1.1.2 Elements of Communication ... 8 1.1.1.1 Sender: ... 8 1.1.1.2 Receiver ... 8 1.1.1.3 Channels of communication ... 9 1.1.1.4 Message ... 9 1.1.1.5 Feedback ... 10
1.2.THETYPESOFCOMMUNICATION ...10
1.2.1 Intrapersonal Communication ... 11 Fig. 1.2.1 ... 12 1.2.2 Interpersonal Communication ... 12 1.2.2.1 Verbal communication ... 13 1.2.2.2 Non-verbal communication ... 14 1.3.BARRIERSOFCOMMUNICATION ...14 1.3.1 Physiological Barriers ... 16 1.3.2 Cognition barriers ... 17 1.3.3. Perceptual barriers ... 17 1.3.4. Cultural barriers ... 18 1.3.5. Language barriers ... 18
1.3.6. Emotional barriers ... 19
1.3.7. Gender barriers ... 19
1.3.8. Interpersonal barriers ... 20
1.3.9. Need barriers ... 20
1.3.10. The Unconscious mind ... 21
1.3.11. Poor Listening Skills ... 22
1.3.12. Information Overload ... 23
1.3.15. Semantic Barrier ... 24
1.3.16. Linguistic Barriers ... 24
1.3.17. Past Experience ... 25
1.3.18. Time Pressures ... 25
1.4.THEFACTORSTHATAFFECTTHECOMMUNICATION POSITIVELY ...26
1.4.1. Key Elements for Effective Communication ... 27
1.4.1.1. Gentle eye contact ... 27
1.4.1.2. Kind facial expression ... 27
1.4.1.3. Warm tone of voice ... 27
1.4.1.4. Expressive hand and body gestures ... 28
1.4.1.5. Relaxed Disposition ... 28
1.4.1.6. Slow Speech Rate ... 29
1.4.1.7. Brevity ... 29
1.4.1.8. The appropriate words ... 30
CHAPTER2 ...31
PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION ...31
2.1PSYCHOLOGY ...31
2.2. LANGUAGE AND PSYCHOLOGY ...32
2.2.1 Language and Mind ... 32
2.2.2. Psycholinguistics ... 40
2.2.4. The Topographic theory ... 44
2.3. LANGUAGEANDCOMMUNICATION...48
2.4.COMMUNICATIONANDPSYCHOLOGYRELATIONSHIP...49
CHAPTER 3 ...52
SLIPS OF TONGUE AND THEIR REASONS, RELATIONS AND EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION ...52
3.1SLIPSOFTONGUE ...52
3.1.1. Types of Slip of Tongue ... 55
3.1.1.1 Sound errors ... 56
3.1.1.2 Morpheme errors ... 56
3.1.1.3 Word errors ... 56
3.1.2. Slips of Tongue and Their Relations with Communication ... 63
3.1.3. Slips of Tongue and Their Effects on Communication ... 65
3.1.4. The Results of Slips of Tongue on the Daily Communication ... 95
3.2THE DEFENSE MECHANİSMS ...97
3.2.1. Defense Mechanisms- Denial ... 99
3.2.2. Defense Mechanisms - Repression ... 99
CHAPTER 4 ...101
DETERMINING POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FACTORS THAT EFFECT THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS ...101
4.1THEDEFINITIONOFEFFECTIVECOMMUNICATION ...101
4.2.THENECESSARYFACTORSFOREFFECTIVECOMMUNICATION ...101
4.2.1. Effective Listening ... 102
4.2.2. Empathy ... 103
Empathy is not sympathy ... 104
4.2.3. Patience ... 105
4.2.4. Tolerance ... 106
4.2.5. Trust ... 107
4.2.7 Use of Feedback ... 109
4.3THENEGATIVEFACTORSTHATAFFECTTHEQUALITYOFTHE COMMUNICATION ...109
4.3.1 Prejudgment ... 111
4.3.2 Sympathy ... 112
4.3.3 Language and Cultural Differences ... 112
4.3.4 Indifference ... 113
4.3.5 Noisy Environment ... 115
4.3.6 Mockery ... 117
4.3.7 Anger ... 118
4.3.8. Anxiety ... 120
4.4.ELIMINATINGTHENEGATIVEEFFECTS ...121
4.5. SUGGESTIONS ...125
5. CONCLUSION ...131
T. C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
Öğ
renci
ni
n Adı Soyadı Neslihan PARLAK
Numarası 104208001008
Ana Bilim / Bilim Dalı İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı
Programı Tezli Yüksek Lisans Doktora Tez Danışmanı Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ
Tezin Adı REFLECTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES ON INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
ÖZET
İletişimde, psikolojinin konuşma diline olan etkileri yadsınamaz. Bu etkiler iletişim açısından hem olumlu hem de olumsuz sonuçlar doğurabilir. Günlük yaşantımızda hemen hemen herkesin zaman zaman yaşadığı bir olgudur dil sürçmeleri. Konuşma anında pek çok kez bizleri zor durumda bırakan, yanlış anlaşılmalara ve dinleyici açısından ön yargılara neden olan dil sürçmeleri, uzun yıllardır hem dil bilim hem de psikoloji alanlarının araştırma konusu olmuştur. İletişimde konuşmacıyı zor durumda bırakan, dinleyici olumsuz algılamaya iten dil sürçmeleri psikolojik açıdan ele alındığında; istem dışı ortaya çıkan, asıl nedenlerinin geçmişe dayalı olduğu psikolojik bir olgu olarak değerlendirilecektir.
Bu çalışma, psikolojinin iletişim üzerindeki olumsuz etkilerinden biri olan dil sürçmelerini ve buna bağlı olarak geçmiş yaşantıların, bilinç dışına ötelenmiş ve bastırılmış duyguların iletişim aracı olan dile nasıl yansıdığını ve iletişimi nasıl etkilediğini açıklamaya çalışmaktadır.
Bu doğrultuda sözü edilen alt faktörler değerlendirildiğinde, dil sürçmeleri konuşmacının kontrolünün ötesinde gerçekleşen bir olgu olduğu için,sağlıklı bir iletişim; dinleyicinin konuşmacıya karşı hoş görülü ve ön yargılardan uzak durmasına bağlıdır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: İletişim, Dil sürçmeleri, Dilin Psikolojisi, Bilinç Dışı,
T. C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
SUMMARY
The affects of the psychology on the language use can not be ignored in communication. These affects can cause both positive and negative results with regards to communication. Slips of tongue is a phenomena that almost everybody experiences in the daily life. The slips of tongue that sometimes leaves us in a difficult situation, cause misunderstandings and cause prejudice by the listeners have been among the major research subjects of linguistic and psychology fields. When it is taken into consideration psychologically, the slips of tongue, whose real reasons dates back to background experiences and that comes into being as involuntary actions and that leave the speaker in a difficult situation and drive the listener into a negative perception will be evaluated as a psychological phenomena.
The aim of this study is to explain the slips of tongue as one of the negative affects of psychology on communication and accordingly, how the background experiences and repressed feelings into unconscious level of mind reflect on and affect the language and communication.
In this direction, when the mentioned sub-factors are evaluated, a healthy communication depends on the tolerance and staying away from prejudices of the listener against the speaker as the slips of tongue(slip of tongue) occur far beyond the control of the speaker.
Key Words: Communication, slip of tongue, psychology of language, unconscious
mind, psychoanalysis. Öğ renci ni n
Adı Soyadı Neslihan PARLAK Numarası 104208001008
Ana Bilim / Bilim Dalı İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı
Programı Tezli Yüksek Lisans Doktora TezDanışmanıYrd.Doç.Dr.Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ
Tezin İngilizce Adı REFLECTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES ON INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
The term psychology brings into mind many different fields as human psychology, social psychology, political psychology, and etc. Of course, there is a psychological dimension of communicative language and this has been among the research subjects of many scientific fields. Psycholinguistics is the scientific field that research especially the relationship between language and psychology and its affects on communication. Many thing from background experiences to the psychological situation at the time of communication, from the affects of dreams on the life and psychology and thus on the communication language to slip of tongue and speech errors are included in the research field of psycholinguistics.
The term communication also brings into mind many terms which are the factors that affect the communication in the communication process. Among these, the psychology has a very big importance for both the receiver and the source of communication. For example, if there is a dissatisfactory situation between the source and the receiver( that is probably experienced before), this may cause the source utter a negative word unconsciously(slip of tongue) and cause the receiver have a negative perception(prejudice) about the source either consciously or unconsciously. The negative utterance of the source to the receiver and in return, the negative perception of the receiver against the source will affect the communication process negatively and increase the tension between the speaker and the listener.
The existence of slip of tongue and/or prejudice either one of them or both in the same process will have negative effects on the communication process, as they will cause the interlocuters to lose their intimacy and trust towards each other. In a healthy communication, the contend and the intend should be in the same direction.If there are differences between the two, these leave both the speaker and the listener in a difficult situation in the communication process.
On the other hand, besides the slips of tongue and their psychological reasons, there are many factors that have effect on the communication process either positively or negatively. In this study, I will try to focus on both of these factors and
give some suggestions in order to explain how to develop a healthy communication process.
In this study, in order to explain and clarify the reasons of the slip of tongue and their relationships with the unconscious level of mind, many works and theories of especially Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud and Nanda Poulisse will be used. The articles and books of psychologist Victoria Fromkin, Semmal Syed Meerasa, Jena Pincot and many other’s will be benefited for explaining the psychological reasons of slip of tongue and the works of Prof. Dr. Binnur Yeşilyaprak and Prof. Dr. Yaşar Özbay will be used in order to explain the language and language development, and Mehmet Çelik, Judith Greene, Stacy Huish, Danny Steinberg, and many others to explain the relationship between the language and the cognitive enhancement of the language use. On the other hand, in order to explain how to achieve a healthy communication and the necessary things to be done to have a healthy communication, the studies of Yağmur Küçükbezirci, İsa Kayaalp, Saundra Hybels, Erhan Eroğlu, Üstün Dökmen, and many other’s are used. In addition, the teachings of Mawlana and many articles, journals, internet and encyclopedias and dictionaries are reviewed for explaining all the necessary terms and samples. In this study, different from all those researches about slip of tongue, Psychology, Psycholinguistics and Psychological dimension of language, the slips of tongue will be evaluated among the factors that have negative effects on the communication process, and the slips of tongue will be analyzed together with their psychological reasons and so, the necessary things to be done by the speakers in order to have a healthy communication.
After making an analysis and evaluating the results of many factors as structure of language and its psychological base, conscious and/or unconscious behaviors in the communication process, as Freud(1901) also says, I have reached such a conclusion that the slip of tongue occur far beyond the control of the speaker and sometimes create a humiliating situation for the speaker and can cause a tension between the speaker and the listener.
This study will analyze the necessary factors for a healthy communication, the slip of tongue that have negative effects on communication, the reasons of slip of tongue and the necessary things to be done and will give clear examples and explanations and in order to maintain a healthy communication, it will reach an important conclusion, that is being tolerant to the others in the communication process.
CHAPTER I
COMMUNICATION AND THE COMMUNICATION FACTORS
Fig. 1.1
Fig.1.1
Communication is an important process and includes many variables that are related with either physical, psychological, organizational factors. As it is shown in the figure 1.1, the variables of the communication process are all related with the elements of the communication as source, recipient, feedback, message, etc. For a healthy communication process, all the variables of the process should be well organized. In this chapter, I will analyze the communication process and the elements, the barriers of the process with the necessary definitions and the types of the communication process.
Message
ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
MESSAGE
1.1 THE DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is one of those human activities that everyone recognizes but few can define satisfactorily. Communication is talking to one another, it is communication, it is spreading information, it is our hair style, it is literary criticism: the list is endless. Communication is not a subject in the normal academic sense of the word, but is a multi-disciplinary area of study. It is under the study field of many areas such as linguistics, sociology, psychology, etc.
Communication is the the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood by both sender and receiver. It is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods.
Doğan Aksan describes the term communication as “Communication is the event of transferring the information, thought, wish, warning and demands from one center to another and getting feedback according to the time and place” (Aksan,2003:28).
In its simplest form communication is the use of words to describe and convey a message or give information to another person. We communicate using language as a code to share information, ideas and feelings.
Everything in the nature have a communication system. Among the communication systems, the most complicated communication system is that of the human being’s language.
The following diagram was developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949 The mathematical theory of communication) to explain how communication works:
Fig. 1.1.1
When one person sends a message to another, as the diagram shows, the person sending the message (represented as the circle on the left) has to encode their thoughts and feelings. They have to find some words or actions that will be a code for their meaning. The person receiving the message (represented as the circle on the right) can’t read the sender’s mind; they have to decode the words or actions to understand what the sender meant.
We can define communication shortly by saying that it is the discourse of ‘creating, transferring and giving meaning to information.’In this way, many acts will fall into the definition of communication. For example,according to this definition, we can argue that the speech between two people as well as the information exchange within bees regarding the location of place where there is honey are both acts of communication. In an general sense, two systems are necessary for communication to take place. These system can be two humans, animals, machines, or a human and an animal, a machine (such as a computer). It’s quite possible to expand the number of pairs. Whatever the characteristics, we can accept the information exchange between two systems as a ‘’combination’’.
As it is clearly seen from the word “exchange” in the preceding paragraph, the flow of information is expected to be mutual. In cybernetic, the transmissions of one
way-data from its source is called “information,” whereas the reciprocal exchange of data is “communication”(Akman, 1982). This means that there is a tendency to describe the correlative interchange of information as “communication, ” and the transmission of the same information non-reciprocally as something else. When we take this point into consideration, we can say that not every conversation is communication. For example, when parents or bosses give certain types of orders to their children or workers without acknowledging their reaction, it is not so inaccurate to claim this as “information”, rather than “communication”. Information sometimes evolves into communication, and sometimes not. For example, if you see an add that says “FOR RENT” - tree bedroom apartment,” and then turn the page this remains as information, whereas if you call the broker and ask how much is the rent is and such, then it turns out to become an act of communication (Aktaran, Dökmen,1996:21-22).
In relation with our subject, we can say that interpersonal communication is the process in which the source sends his/her message by encoding via the channel and the receiver’s delivery of this message by encoding and giving feedback to the source. However, it is not that easy as it is mentioned as theorically. There is the factor of human being in the communication process and every person has a different psychological situation and accordingly, while a message is welcomed by a person, the same message may have negative effect for another person. Even the same person himself with whom we communicate may show difference from time to time, so we can say that the psychological situation of a person is changeable. A message that is sometimes welcomed by the receiver may have a negative effect on the receiver at another time even if the contend of the message is the same. In such situations, changing the time will be more appropriate to have a healthier communication the next time or it may cause some results that will completely stop communicating(Küçükbezirci, 2013:23).
We have been communicating all of our lives and communication in our lives help us become a more confident communicators. In this study, the communication and the ways of how to improve our communicative abilities and in addition the psychological basis of the subject matter are tried to be explained. Some people have a natural aptitude for playing basketball and they become even more effective,
however, if they study theories of offensive and defensive play and if they practice their skills(Wood,2012:2). Similarly, some of us have a natural ability to communicate and if we study the theories and practice our skills, we become more effective too. That is why in this study, the subject matter comes from the communicative quality.
Communication, is not a field that only psychologists study. It takes up a major area of importance in many disciplines from engineering to law, from biology to political science. However, we will study communication strictly within the field of psychology in the following chapters.
1.1.2 Elements of Communication
On the basis of Figure 1.1.1, the elements of communication are as follows: Sender
Receiver
Channel of communication Message
Feedback
1.1.1.1 Sender: The sender is someone who engages in a process of
encoding and delivering a message to produce some effect(Redmond, 2000:11). The sender is the person who initiates the process of communication. Whenever the sender feels that there is a need to communicate some information to the other person (receiver), he/she starts the process of communication. The sender must be aware of the purpose of the communication and the receiver's abilities to understand the message in terms of language, interest, etc.
1.1.1.2 Receiver: The receiver is the person who receives the message. The
receiver may be a single person or a group of persons. The receiver understands the meaning of the message and provides feedback to the sender. The receiver should have the same language ability, comprehension, and cultural background as the
sender. If not, it may lead to distorted understanding of the meaning of the message by the receiver.
1.1.1.3 Channels of communication: Communication channels are the
medium through which the message is communicated to the receiver. Channels of communication play an important role in the process of communication. If the sender selects an appropriate medium or channel of communication, there are more chances that the receiver will receive the same message; or else, there are chances that the message may get distorted. In this hi-tech era, there are a number of channels that can be used to communicate message, e.g., mobile, e-mail, voice mail, person, radio, TV, Internet, blogs, etc. “Through proper channel” is a common phrase used among the nurse administrators/managers that signifies the importance of communication channels. For example, a student of B.Sc nursing, II year, wants to communicate hostel problems to the director of the institute. In order to reach to the intended receiver first, s/he should communicate his/her message in the form of written application to the class teacher; the class teacher will forward the application (message) to the principal and finally the principal will forward the application to the director. That is how communication through proper channel takes place. In this case, the class teacher and principal were the channels of communication through which the message was communicated to the receiver (director) (Patidar, 2012).
1.1.1.4 Message: The term messages is used to refer to what it is that we send
and receive in communication. More formally, messages are the units of information that we intentionally convey to one another. Messages involve the creation of the patterned and ordered set of verbal and nonverbal behaviors (Redmond,2000:11). The message is created by the sender to convey the information, facts or opinion to the receiver. The message should be clear and simple so that the receiver can understand it in the same way as the sender desires. While creating a message, the sender should take care of words, language, and meaning of the message if the message is to be communicated in verbal or written form or he/she should take care of body language and facial expression if the message is to be communicated in nonverbal form, along with the abilities and professional competencies of the receiver.
1.1.1.5 Feedback: It is the most crucial element of communication. It is
provided by the receiver to the sender. Receiving feedback is important for the sender to know that the receiver has received the message and interpreted the meaning of the message in the desired way. Without feedback, the process of communication cannot be complete. For example, when you send a mobile SMS to your friend, you get feedback in the form of delivery report that informs you whether your message has been delivered or not to the intended receiver; it also happens in the same way in the case of e-mail.
1.2. THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject becomes a lot more complex. There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time.
The first step of the start of a communication comes after a start of any kind of a relationship. Both personal characteristics and environment play a role in the start of an interpersonal relationship. A major determinant of a relationship is propinquity, or physical proximity. People who come into contact and have no prior negative feelings about each other generally become attracted to each other as their degree of mutual familiarity and comfort level increases. The situation in which people first meet also determines how they will feel about each other. One is more likely to feel friendly toward a person first encountered in pleasant, comfortable circumstances.
Personality type is another determinant of interpersonal attraction. In areas involving control, such as dominance, competition, and self-confidence, people tend to pair up with their opposites. Thus, for example, the complementary pairing of a dominant person with a submissive one. People gravitate to others who are like themselves in terms of characteristics related to affiliation, including sociability, friendliness, and warmth. Another important factor in interpersonal relationship, especially during the initial encounter, is that of physical appearance, even among
members of the same sex. Each culture has fairly standard ideas about physical appearance that serve as powerful determinants in how we perceive character. Kindness, sensitivity, intelligence, modesty, and sociability are among those characteristics that are often attributed to the determinants of the interpersonal relationships.
It is also evident that physical appearance has a greater role in the attraction of males to females than vice versa. Behavior, attitude, as well as appearance, influences interpersonal relation and communication. No matter what the circumstances are, behavior and attitude are often seen as reflecting a person's general traits (such as kindness or aggression or self trust) rather than as a response to a specific situation. They are also effect the perception and evaluation process of the listener in the interpersonal communication process.
It is possible to say that there are two dimensions of communication; audial and visual. The audial dimension includes the speech that can be expressed as “verbal communication” . Speech can be defined as an exchange of every kinds of message and information among people by the help of the letters and words that compose the language system (Küçükbezirci,2008:13). There are two main types of communication, verbal and non-verbal.
1.2.1 Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal Communication is communication that occurs within you. It involves thoughts, feelings, and the way you look at yourself.
As the intrapersonal communication is centered in the self, you are the only sender-receiver. The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you are thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself, you discard certain ideas and replace them with others.
Even though you are not directly communicating with others in intrapersonal communication, the experiences you have had determine how you “talk” to yourself. For example, if you had a good day, you are likely to look at yourself in a positive
way . If a teacher was disappointed with your work, or if you had a fight with a fellow student, you are likely to focus on your feelings or anger. You can never look at yourself without being influenced by the relationships you have had with others. Figure 1.2.1 shows some some of the things that make up the self and, hence, intrapersonal communication (Hybels & Weawer II, 2001:18).
What you say
What you think
What you feel
How you are
Fig. 1.2.1
1.2.2 Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication occurs when you communicate on a one-to- one basis- usually in an informal, unstructured setting. This kind of communication occurs mostly between two people, though it may include more than two.
Your Appearance and Physical and Psychological
Condition Healthy Good frame of mind
Neat Clean Stylish etc.
Your Moods and Feelings Humor Anger Hate Love Contentment etc. Your Social Traits Outgoing Assertive Warm Emphatic etc. Your Social Roles Parent Family provider Community leader Professional person etc.
Talent you Possess or Lack Artistic Musical Athletic Writing Speaking etc. Your Strong Beliefs Religious beliefs Beliefs about success
Patriotic beliefs Beliefs about family Education beliefs etc.
Your Intellectual Capacity Logical
Reflective Studious Speculative etc.
Interpersonal communication uses all the elements of the communication process. In a conversation between friends, for example, each brings his or her background and experience to the conversation. During the conversation each functions as a sender-receiver. Their messages consist of both verbal and nonverbal symbols. The channels they use the most are sight and sound. Because interpersonal communication is between two(or a few) people, it offers the greatest opportunity for feedback. Internal noise is likely to be minimal because each person can see whether the other is distracted. The persons involved in the conversation have many chances to check that the message is being perceived correctly. People who want to engage in interpersonal communication usually look for informal and comfortable setting(Hybels & Weawer II, 20001:18).
In one sense, everything except intrapersonal communication is interpersonal. Interpersonal communication exists on a continuum from impersonal to highly personal. The most impersonal kind of communication occurs when we ignore another person or treat another as an object (Wood, 2012:12).
1.2.2.1 Verbal communication
Verbal communication occurs when a person puts across their message by speaking. The person sending the message is expected to be able to convey a message which clearly expresses all of their feelings, needs, wants, dreams, hopes, messages, values, beliefs and thoughts using the English language that we have available to us. The receiver has to be able to listen to the information, understand all that that was communicated to them, and, if need be, act upon any part of the message.
If the receiver misunderstands the message, the sender can get upset and feel like they are not being listened to. This can cause friction, tension, conflict, even anger. To avoid misunderstandings, the receiver of the message needs to be skilled enough to know how to understand the sender of the message. This is when reflective listening can be of great assistance.
What can also make a huge difference are the tonal qualities of your voice. The tone, pitch, volume, timbre and speed of your voice has a significant impact on
how the message you are trying to get across to someone is actually received by them.
1.2.2.2 Non-verbal communication
Did you know only one third of a message that is sent in a person-to-person exchange is in words alone, the other two thirds of the message is made up of non-verbal communication? Therefore, non-non-verbal communication is very important.
There are different types of non-verbal communication which include but are not restricted to:
•Body language
• Physical characteristics and appearance • Personal space
• Environment
1.3. BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication plays a major role in developing a relationship. It can also affect the relationship among family members or management in any institute. More specifically, communication influences the effectiveness of instruction, performance evaluation, and the handling of discipline problems. Communication should be straightforward. We can say that the barriers can make the communication process complex, difficult, and frustrating.
Fig. 1.3
Communication barriers are like walls between people in the communication process. These walls are built up mostly consciously by the interlocutors of the communication process. However sometimes they are built unintentionally and uncontrollably and they are much more dangerous for the communication process, because at this time the speakers are unaware of them and so they will not have the chance to remove the walls between themselves to manage a healthy communication process.
Most people would agree that communication between two individuals should be simple. It is important to remember that there are differences between talking and communicating. When you communicate, you are successful in getting your point across to the person you are talking to. When we talk, we tend to erect barriers that hinder our ability to communicate. There are many types of barriers for the effective communication:
Physiological Barrier Cognition barriers Perceptual barriers Cultural barriers Language barriers Emotional barriers Gender barriers Interpersonal barriers Need barriers
The Unconscious mind Poor Listening Skills Information Overload Inattention
Physical and Environmental Distractions Semantic Barrier
Linguistic Barriers Past Experiences Time Pressures
1.3.1 Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers to communication are related with the limitations of the human body and the human mind (memory, attention, and perception). Physiological barriers may result from individuals’ personal discomfort, caused by ill-health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties.
Individuals are in the tendency of ignoring or denying the messages which are not appropriate for their beliefs or thoughts. They sometimes try to transform some messages according to their prejudices. If the message does not fit to the belief of the receiver, s/he tries to erase it from the memory. Emotional differences of the interlocutors of the communication process compose the psychological dimension of the communication barriers. The human psychology not only prevents to transmit the message but also prevents the message to be perceived precisely (Mısırlı, 2003:27).
1.3.2 Cognition barriers
Cognition is defined as the period one takes to perceive messages from his outer environment, to store them, remember and later on use them. In other words, it has to do with the functions of the mind and the thought process.
Since we can not prevent cognitive functions and go on living, they make up a very important part of our lives. It is indispensable in every way, especially with our communication. What we see, hear, interpret, forget, prepare, our opinions, ideas and thoughts influence our communication to a great extent. Although the perception is among these, we will consider it separately, in detail because of its importance(Dökmen,1996:78).
1.3.3. Perceptual barriers
Perception is organizing, interpreting, and giving a meaning to data that reaches our minds by our senses. These data are useless before perception. After perceiving our sensual data we can decide on our reaction. Perceptual barriers are internal. If you go into a situation thinking that the person you are talking to is not going to understand or be interested in what you have said, you may end up subconsciously sabotaging your effort to make your point. You will employ language that is sarcastic, dismissive, or even obtuse, thereby alienating your conversational partner.
The following example will help to clarify the how the perceptual differences occur; If we hit Two objects behind three people sitting side by side, although they hear the same thing, they would perceive them differently. One of them would think a pencil hit a wood, the other two coins are punched, and the third a key was knocked on the table. This difference in perception might result in some problems. What is taken as a “joke” by one may be taken as an “insult” by another. Perception depends on people’s past, and their cultural background.
Perception and communication go together. In communication, people experience very complicated perceptions such as perceiving ourselves, the other person and how he perceives us. This is all done by communicating parties. In such
crowded traffic, it is natural that some accidents, and conflicts take place(Dökmen,1996: 88).
1.3.4. Cultural barriers
Cultural barriers are a result of living in an ever shrinking world. Different cultures, whether they are a societal culture of a race or simply the work culture of a company, can hinder developed communication if two different cultures clash. In these cases, it is important to find a common ground to work from. In work situations, identifying a problem and coming up with a highly efficient way to solve it can quickly topple any cultural or institutional barriers.
In the communication process , for example, two people from different cultures will have difficulty in developing a qualified communication as they do not have anything in common to communicate on. The use of cultural saying like a proverb will not be understood by the listener in the intended way. We can say that cultural differences will increase the problem of misunderstandings in the communication process.
1.3.5. Language barriers
There is an obvious relationship between language and communication and thinking. Here, in this part we will study on language and communication, a relationship which goes both ways. The way people communicate makes up communication, and communication directs the language.
The language barriers are often hidden that we are not always aware of them. Sometimes, in the communication process two people can not speak the same language although they belong the same nation and speak the same mother tongue and have the same culture. One of them says something but the message is received by the other in an unwanted way. The message is misunderstood by the listener now. Or sometimes the message is understood correctly by the listener as the speaker says exactly what the listener hears, but the intended message is again not the message that is heard by the listener.
The language barrier is closely related with the slips of tongue. The misuse of the language, the misunderstandings, perceptual differences of the speakers because of the cultural differences can be counted among the language barriers in the communication process.
1.3.6. Emotional barriers
Our behaviors are divided into two: voluntary and involuntary. The second one is closely related with our emotions that reveal themselves through our facial expressions, and body language.
Emotional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important to put aside to engage in conversations. We are often taught to fear the words coming out of our own mouths, as in the phrase “anything you say can and will be used against you.” Overcoming this fear is difficult, but necessary. The trick is to have full confidence in what you are saying and your qualifications in saying it. People often pick up on insecurity. By believing in yourself and what you have to say, you will be able to communicate clearly without becoming overly involved in your emotions. So, the emotional situation one experiences is very important to determine the way of a conversation and accordingly we can say that the health of a communication process is related with the emotional situation of the sender and receiver.
1.3.7. Gender barriers
Gender barriers have become less of an issue in recent years, but there is still the possibility for a man to misconstrue the words of a woman, or vice versa. Men and women tend to form their thoughts differently, and this must be taken into account when communicating. This difference has to do with how the brain of each sex is formed during gestation. In general, men are better at spatial visualization and abstract concepts such as math, while women excel at language-based thinking and emotional identification. However, successful professionals in highly competitive fields tend to have similar thought processes regardless of their gender.
1.3.8. Interpersonal barriers
Interpersonal barriers are what ultimately keep us from reaching out to each other and opening ourselves up, not just to be heard, but to hear others. Oddly enough, this can be the most difficult area to change. Some people spend their entire lives attempting to overcome a poor self-image or a series of deeply rooted prejudices about their place in the world. They are unable to form genuine connections with people because they have too many false perceptions blocking the way. Luckily, the cure for this is more communication. By engaging with others, we learn what our actual strengths and weaknesses are. This allows us to put forth our ideas in a clear, straightforward manner.
Communication is not a one-way street. To have others open up to you, we must open ourselves first. By overcoming these barriers to communication, we can ensure that the statement we are making is not just heard, but also understood, by the person we are speaking with. In this way, we can be confident that our point has been expressed.
1.3.9. Need barriers
In psychology, “incentive” is a term that contains wishes, and needs. It has two subgroups. The first one has to do with thirst, hunger, sex and this psychological incentive is called the first incentive and the other one about success, curiosity is called social incentive. In any way, they push us to act and behave and they also control our actions. When thirsty, people drink and when we want money, status, we seek a job etc.
Maslow(1943), focus on the importance of personal needs and here it seems beneficial to give the need theory pyramid(Rekabet Kurumu,2006):
Fig. 1.3.9.1
According to this pyramid, the effect of personal needs on the communication process is related with the steps of blonging, esteem and self-actualisation. After a person achieves his/her personal physiological needs and safety needs s/he searches for social needs.The communication is among the most important ones to establish social relations.
These incentives also control our communication processes with the others. We might get into conflicts by their effect and get aggressive when some of our incentives are being prevented. If our friends approve of us when we get aggressive and answer back, then we might plunge into new ones to get more approval (Dökmen,1996:91).
1.3.10. The Unconscious mind
In psychology, we can apply just one of many methods and explain behavior using it or take some of them together and reach a conclusion.
According to psychoanalytical approach or in other words psychoanalysis, conflicts and emotions in people’s unconscious mind influence their visible thoughts, emotions, and behavior and thus communication conflicts. Some dreams, needs and
conflicts are stored in our subconscious minds since childhood. These stand behind our quarrels, misunderstandings, slips of tongue and offenses.
To keep our mental health, and to control these worries, we sometimes use defense mechanisms which may lead to some other communication conflicts. If one uses reflections the other person may be offended thinking that it is unjust done to him. In reality conscious processes and unconscious processes are not two different things as it is obvious from the logical explanation that every person has a conscious, unconscious and a forethought (Dökmen,1996:90).
1.3.11. Poor Listening Skills
Listening to others is considered a difficult task. A typical speaker says about 125 words per minute. The typical listener can receive 400–600 words per minute. Thus, about three-fourth of listening time is free time. The free time often sidetracks the listener. The solution is to be an active rather than passive listener. A listener's premature frown, shaking of the head, or bored look can easily convince the other person/speaker that there is no reason to elaborate or try again to communicate his/her excellent idea.
Many people are poor listeners, even in everyday life. They tend to listen and think about something else at the same time. This happens even more frequently when people are in conflict. Rather than carefully attending to what the other person has said, many people think about their response while the other person is talking. In addition, they tend to interpret things to coincide with the views that they already have. For this reason, they assume they know and understand what other people are saying, because they assume that it corresponds to their own expectations about what the person is likely to say or "should" be saying. Since people in conflict tend to develop hostile and distrustful images of the other, their interpretation of things the other side says or does is also likely to be hostile and distrustful. Ambiguous messages are interpreted in the worst possible way; even clear messages tend to be ignored or disregarded, if they are inconsistent with one's original negative view (Rekabet Kurumu,2005).
Such poor listening makes good communication almost impossible. No matter how much care one person or group takes to communicate their concerns, values, interests, or needs in a fair, clear, unthreatening way, if the listener is not willing to receive that information in that way, the communication will fail.
1.3.12. Information Overload
Information overload occurs when people or systems receive information at a faster rate than they can process it. As input increases, output may also increase up to a point, but when, input is too great, breakdown occurs. As tensions within the receivers builds, errors in processing the information may increase(Marsen,2006:20).
We are all surrounded with a pool of information. It is essential to control the flow of the information in the communication process, or else the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result, communication may get distorted. Thus, we are expected to avoid of excessive information overload to prevent the listener misinterpret us.
1.3.13. Inattention
At times, we just do not listen but only hear. For example, your boss is immersed in his/her very important paper work surrounded by so many files on the table and you are explaining him/her about an urgent office problem. In this situation, due to the inattention, the boss will not listen to you (he/she will only hear you); hence, he/she may not get what you are saying and it may lead to disappointment.
1.3.14. Physical and Environmental Distractions
Physical distractions are the physical things that get in the way of communication. Examples of such things include the telephone, an uncomfortable meeting place, and noise. These physical distractions are common in the hospital setting. If the telephone rings, the usual human tendency will be to answer it even if the caller is interrupting a very important or even delicate conversation. Distractions such as background noise, poor lighting, uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic room, or
an environment that is too hot or cold can affect people's morale and concentration, which in turn interfere with effective communication.
1.3.15. Semantic Barrier
Language, jargon, slang, etc., are some of the semantic barriers. Different languages across different regions represent a national barrier to communication, which is particularly important for migrating nurses. Use of jargon and slang also act as barrier to communication. For example, while delivering health education to a cardiac patient, if a cardiac nurse uses jargons such as “coronary artery disease,” “anticoagulants,” and “homocysteine and C-reactive proteins,” the patient will listen attentively as he/she cannot understand these medical jargons. Therefore, she is required to use simple words “certain chemicals in our body” so that the patient can understand what the nurse is supposed to communicate with him/her (Patidar,2012:15).
1.3.16. Linguistic Barriers
Individual linguistic ability may sometimes become a barrier to communication. The use of difficult or inappropriate words in communication can prevent the people from understanding the message. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion. The linguistic differences between the people can also lead to communication breakdown. The same word may mean differently to different individuals. For example, consider a word “face.”
He is facing a problem
What is the face value of this share bond? Your face is oval shape
“Face” means differently in different sentences. Communication breakdown occurs if there is wrong perception of the meaning of the message by the receiver (Patidar,2012:16).
1.3.17. Past Experience
Past experiences are the happenings that occur in the past time and leave an effect on the person’s psychology. Lexically, it means knowledge or practical wisdom gained from what one has observed, encountered, or undergone.
Clearly understood from the definitions above, the past experiences effect one’s psychology and accordingly the attitudes against the situations and people in the daily life relations.
If someone has awful experiences in the past related to some particular situation, then he/she will try to avoid communication in that situation. Similarly, if s/he has experiences that s/he does not want to remember, s/he will try to avoid being in the same communication process or at least will have a negative perception or prejudices about the other side of the communication process. For example, a staff nurse who, while providing detailed information regarding the patient care at the time of routine clinical round to her boss, is always facing negative body language and discouraging words from her boss will ultimately limit her communication to the boss at that time.
1.3.18. Time Pressures
Often, in organization the targets have to be achieved within a specified time period, the failure of which may have adverse consequences for the speaker. In a haste to meet deadlines, usually a speaker tries to shorten the formal channels of communication that can lead to confusion and misunderstanding among the various levels of supervisors, hence this situation may lead to distort the communication. Therefore, sufficient time should be given for effective communication. The limit in the use of the time make the speaker feel under pressure to catch the time. So, the quality of the speech may be defected.
1.4. THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE COMMUNICATION POSITIVELY
Effective communication plays a vital role in the success of every professional and personal relationship. Becoming a skilled communicator requires you to learn the roles of every element of communication. You can use these elements in many ways, including public speaking, interpersonal relationships, media development and business relations.
As everything in life, communication has some important rules that is necessary to be obeyed during the communication process. Mısırlı (2003) makes a list of communication rules as following(Mısırlı,2003:37):
Do not speak without thinking
Do not interrupt the speeches of others Do not talk too much about yourself Give a chance to speak to the other side Do not be insistent on your ideas Be respectful to other’s thoughts Do not use slang language Keep your speech clear-cut
Do not bore others with a long speech
Use request expressions frequently as ‘please, your welcome, let me..., etc.’ Speak with an easily understandable language and a soft tone of voice Pronounce the words appropriately
Do not act in a hurry as if you are avoiding from speaking to that person Tell only the things you are sure about the truthfulness
Be sure that the other side understand you correctly Do not sulk your face
Avoid from angry manners during your speech Arrange your tone of voice
Use such words as Mr.,Mrs., etc. in your salutations
If you listen the others carefully, they will listen to you carefully too Avoid using fake jests and mimics
If necessary apologize to others
Try to have face to face communication
Some researches show that there are more important factors that compose an important part of communication when you have face-to-face conversations with others. So before you utter a word to another person, memorize this list of the 8 key elements of highly effective speech:
1.4.1. Key Elements for Effective Communication
1.4.1.1. Gentle eye contact
Gentle eye contact increases trustworthiness and encourages future cooperation, and a happy gaze will increase emotional trust. However, if we see the slightest bit of anger or fear on the speaker’s face, our trust will rapidly decrease. But you can’t fake trustworthiness because the muscles around your mouth and eyes that reflect contentment and sincerity are involuntary. Solution: if you think about someone you love, or an event that brought you deep joy and satisfaction, a "Mona Lisa" smile will appear on your face and the muscles around your eyes will soften.
1.4.1.2. Kind facial expression
Researchers at the University of Amsterdam found that expressions of anger, contempt, disgust, fear, sadness, and surprise were better communicated through vocal tone than facial expression, whereas the face was more accurate for communicating expressions of joy, pride, and embarrassment. And in business, a warm supportive voice is the sign of transformational leadership, generating more satisfaction, commitment, and cooperation between other members of the team.
1.4.1.3. Warm tone of voice
The tone of your voice is equally important when it comes to understanding what a person is really trying to say. If the facial expression expresses one emotion,
but if the tone conveys a different one, neural dissonance takes place in the brain, causing the person confusion. The result: trust erodes, suspicion increases, and cooperation decreases.
You can easily train your voice to convey more trust to others, and all you have to do is slow down and drop your pitch. This was tested at the University of Houston: when doctors reduced their speaking rate and pitch, especially when delivering bad news, the listener perceived them “as more caring and sympathetic.” Harvard's Ted Kaptchuk also discovered that using a warm voice would double the healing power of a therapeutic treatment (Waldman &Newberg, 2012).
If you want to express joy, your voice needs to become increasingly melodic, whereas sadness is spoken with a flat and monotonic voice. When we are angry, excited, or frightened, we raise the pitch and intensity of our voice, and there’s a lot of variability in both the speed and the tone. However, if the emotion is incongruent with the words you are using, it will create confusion for the listener.
1.4.1.4. Expressive hand and body gestures
Gestures, and especially hand movements, are also important because they help orchestrate the language comprehension centers of your brain. In fact, your brain needs to integrate both the sounds and body movements of the person who is speaking in order to accurately perceive what is meant. From an evolutionary perspective, speech emerged from hand gestures and they both originate the same language area of the brain. If our words and gestures are incongruent, it will create confusion in the listener’s brain. Our suggestion: practice speaking in front of a mirror, consciously using your hands to “describe” the words you are speaking.
1.4.1.5. Relaxed Disposition
Your degree of relaxation is also reflected in your body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice, and any form of stress will convey a message of distrust. Why? Your stress tells the observer’s brain that there may be something wrong, and that stimulates defensive posturing in the listener. Research shows that even a one-minute relaxation exercise will increase activity in those parts of the brain
that control language, communication, social awareness, mood-regulation, and decision-making. Thus, a relaxed conversation allows for increased intimacy and empathy. Stress, however, causes us to talk too much because it hinders our ability to speak with clarity.
If the speaker feel under pressure of something, the level of anxiety and anger will increase and this may lead to the increase of the tendency of slips of tongue or forgettings in the communication process because of the stress.
1.4.1.6. Slow Speech Rate
When you speak, slow down! Slow speech rates will increase the ability for the listener to comprehend what you are saying, and this is true for both young and older adults. Slower speaking will also deepen that person’s respect for you. Speaking slowly is not as natural as it may seem, and as children we automatically speak fast. But you can teach yourself, and your children to slow down by consciously cutting your speech rate in half. A slow voice has a calming effect on a person who is feeling anxious, whereas a loud fast voice will stimulate excitement, anger, or fear.
Try this experiment: pair up with a partner and speak so slowly that … you … leave … 5 … seconds … of … silence … between … each … word. You’ll become aware of your negative inner speech that tells you that you should babble on endlessly and as fast as possible. It’s a trap, because the listener’s brain can only recall about 10 seconds of content! That’s why, when we train people in Compassionate Communication, we ask participants to speak only one sentence at a time, slowly, and then listen deeply as the other person speaks for ten seconds or less. This exercise will increase your overall consciousness about the importance of the first 7 elements of highly effective communication. Then, and only then, will you truly grasp the deeper meaning that is imparted by each word spoken by others (Waldman &Newberg,2012).
1.4.1.7. Brevity
The brevity is one of the most important factors that effect the quality of the communication process. The quality of the speech is characterized with the brevity.
The dialogues can not be too long, otherwise it would be prevented from being understood (Nikulin,2006:207). Managing the length of the speech is very important for the listener to listen and pay attention without getting bored. If the speaker makes his/her speech too long to be listened, the listener would not listen to him/her till the end of the speech. On the other hand, if the speech is arranged very short, then it would be lack of clarity enough to explain what is intended to be told. In sum, the brevity is very vital to be determined appropriately.
1.4.1.8. The appropriate words
But what about written communication, where you only have access to the words? When it comes to mutual comprehension, the written word pales in comparison to speech. To compensate, your brain imposes arbitrary meanings onto the words. You, the reader, give the words emotional impact that often differs from what the writer intended, which is why so many email correspondences get misinterpreted. And unless the writer fills in the blanks with specific emotional words and descriptive speech – storytelling – the reader will experience your writing as being flat, boring, dry, and probably more negative than you intended.
The solution: help the reader “paint a picture” in their mind with your words. Use concrete nouns and action verbs because they are easier for the reader’s brain to visualize. Words like “sunset” or “eat” are easy to see in the mind's eye, but words like “freedom” or “identify” force the brain to sort through too many conceptual frameworks. Instead, our lazy brain will skip over as many words as possible, especially the abstract ones. When this happens the deeper levels of meaning and feeling will be lost.
CHAPTER 2
PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
2.1 PSYCHOLOGY
The word "psychology" is the combination of two terms - study (ology) and soul (psyche), or mind. The derivation of the word from Latin gives it this clear and obvious meaning:
The study of the soul or mind. "Psyche" is defined as:
1. The spirit or soul. 2. The human mind.
3. In psychoanalysis, the mind functioning as the center of thought, emotion, and behavior.
Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and behavior. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain how we think, act and feel. As most people already realize, a large part of psychology is devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of mental health issues, but that's just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to applications for psychology. In addition to mental health, psychology can be applied to a variety of issues that impact health and daily life including performance enhancement, self-help, ergonomics, motivation, productivity, social relations , interpersonal communication, personal happiness, etc.
As the mind is the center of thought and the thought is the base of the behaviour the psychology is the first step to be underlined for this study to clarify the behaviour of language use.
2.2. LANGUAGE AND PSYCHOLOGY
The human relations depend mostly on language. Language is the most lively part of human life. A person thinks by the help of a language, s/he must bind his/her thoughts to a language either to the mother tongue or a foreign language. As the human being lives in the language, all of his/her life experience reflect on the language. From morning to the night, a person who express all the day’s emotions and thoughts and actions via language, adapts the language according to his/her existence (Kayaalp, 1998:125).
As the research field of psychology is the human behaviors, and as the use of the language is also a behaviour, it is clear that there is a close relationship between language and psychology. Language use has both conscious and unconscious processes. In addition to this, the psychology is the field that deals with the conscious and unconscious processes of the behaviors.
In order to explain the relationship between language and psychology, we should at first explain the relationship between language and mind.
2.2.1 Language and Mind
Thought, as the production of the mind, can not exist without language. Albert Einstein says “ The words of language, as they are written or spoken, do not seem to play any role in my mechanism of thought. The physical entities which seem to serve as elements in thought are certain signs and more or less clear images” (Aktaran, Tercanlıoğlu, 2000:39).
Human being thinks about the relationship between the language and mind. One of the first questions that comes into mind is that ‘Can we think without language?’
One of the common answers to this question is that as the deaf people are lack of the power of listening and commonly speaking are they lack of the ability of thinking too? Of course not, it has been observed for many years that many people who can not hear and speak have normal emotions, behaviors and abilities. This sample proves the existence of thought without language. However, of course the
contribution of the ability of the language to the development of mind can not be denied.
Judith Greene, a psycholinguistics researcher, raises a question in her book “Certainly one obvious question that is likely to occur to anyone exposed to psycholinguistics for the first time is; given that is reasonable to make use of linguistic descriptions of language why should such exclusive attention be paid to just this one linguist Noam Chomsky? The plain answer is that Chomsky’s theory of generative transformational grammar was the first to force psychologists to reconsider their whole approach to the study of language behavior, and so heralded the psycholinguistic ‘revolution’ (Greene,1992:15).
Language behaviour includes both observable and unobservable behaviour. Part of language behaviour-understanding spoken or written language has some physically observable signs. It includes unobservable behaviour because language user has to postulate some set of processes, some internal mechanism which operate when we speak or understand. In summary, this approach to language is concerned with explaining
how we acquire language,
its relation to general human cognitive system,
the psychological mechanisms underlying the comprehension and production of speech,
the issue of what language is for (Tercanlıoğlu, 2000:56).
In his Language and Mind, Chomsky deals with the relation between language and mind in detail.
“ I think that in order to achieve progress in the study of language and human cognitive faculties in general it is necessary first to establish ‘psychic distance’ from the ‘mental facts’ to which Köhler referred, and then to explore the possibilities for developing explanatory theories, whatever they may suggest with regard to the complexity and abstractness of the underlying mechanisms. We must recognize that
