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1 HE NEREID MONUMENT RELIEF SCULPTURES IN REVIEW
VOLUME I
A THESIS PRESENTED BY TUGBA TANYERİ
TO
THE INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF ART
BİI.KENT UNIVERSITY
M ß Ί î o
T U
I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree o f M aster o f Arts in the Department o f Archaeology and History o f Art.
I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree o f Master o f Arts in the Departrnent o f Archacojogy and History o f Art.
I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree o f M aster o f Arts in the Department o f Archaeology and History o f Art.
I certify that I have read this thesis and in my opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree o f Master o f Arts in the Department o f Archaeology
and History o f Art. / ,
ABSTRACT
The Nereid Monument R elief Sculptures in Review Tanyeri, Tuğba
M.A., Department o f Archaeology and History o f Art Supervisor: İlknur Özgen
May 1999, volume 1: 188 pages, volume II: 139 pages
The Nereid Monument is a 4' ' century funerary monument from Xanthos, Lycia. It is
richly adorned with sculptural decorations. The sculptural reliefs o f the Nereid
M onument display a fusion o f local Lycian traditions with stylistic and iconographie influences from (ireece and Persia. These reliefs also carry a strong propagandistic message. This thesis aims to investigate the meaning embedded in these relief sculptures through a historical analysis. The Introduction summarizes the previous sculptural and iconographie studies conducted on the Nereid Monument. A detailed investigation o f the Lycian history from 6*'' to 4"' centuries based on the cpigraphic, literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences is presented in the first chapter. The sculptural decorations are presented according to their reconstructed placement on the monument. The blocks
constituting the relief sculptures are catalogued and described. liach scene and
iconographie detail represented on the reliefs are discussed through an analysis o f the
comparanda material. The cultural, political, religious and military propaganda
illustrated in the relief sculptures is discussed in the eighth chapter. In the conclusion the significance o f these messages o f propaganda is investigated within the context ol Lycian history.
öz
Nercidler A nıtı’nın Ileykeltraşi Kabartmalarının Yeniden Değerlendirilmesi Tanyeri, Tuğba
Yüksek Lisans, Arkeoloji ve Sanal Tarihi Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi; İlknur Özgen
Mayıs 1999, ç illi: 188 sayfa, c iltli: 139 sayfa
Nercidler Anıtı güneybatı A nadolu’da, Likya Bölgesi’nin Xanthos şehrinde bulunan ve İ.ö. 4. yüzyıla tarihlenen bir m ezar anıtıdır. Bu anıt zengin heykeltraşi bezemelerle süslenmiştir. Nercidler AnıtTnın heykeliraşi kabartmaları yerel Likya heykel geleneği ile Yunan ve Pers silistik ve ikonografik etkilerinin güzel bir karışımını oluşturmakladır. Anıtı süslemenin yanısıra, bu bezemeler aynı zamanda anıtı yaptıran hükümdara ait güçlü
bir politik propaganda mesajı da taşımaktadırlar. Bu çalışmanın amacı Nercidler
A nıtı’mn heykeltraşi kabartmalarının tarihsel bir bakış açısı ile ikonografik analiz ve
anlamlandırmasını yapmaktır. Giriş kısmında anıt üzerinde daha önce yapılmış
çalışmaların bir özeti sunulmaktadır. Birinci kısımda Likya tarihine ışık tutan epigrafik, tarihsel, nümizmatik ve arkeolojik bulgular incelenmiş ve özetlenmiştir. Kabartmalar anıtta bulundukları yerlere göre sınıflandırılmışlardır. Kabartmalarda betimlenmiş tüm sahne ve ikonografik ayrıntılar kapsamlı bir kataloglamadan sonra incelenmiştir. Sekizinci kısımda kabartmalarda gösterildiği düşünülen siyasi, kültürel, dini ve askeri propaganda öğeleri belirtilmiştir. Sonuç kısmında ise bu öğelerin Likya siyasi tarihinde ve özellikle anıtı yaptıran hükümdarın yönetimi esnasında oynamış olabilecekleri r<,)l özetlenmiştir.
TABLE OF CO N TEN TS VOLUM E I; A B STR A C T OZ TA B LE OF C O NTEN TS A C K N O W LED G M EN TS A B B R EV IA TIO N S FO REW O RD IN TRO D U C TIO N C H A PTER I: HISTORY
C H A PTER II: A R C lIITl'C TU R i; C H A PTER III: PliDIM liNT FRIliZIiS CH A PTER IV: liNTABLATURH FRIEZE C H A PTER V: CELLA FRII'ZE
C H A PTER VI: SMALL PODIUM ERIIiZI· C H A PTER VII: LARGE PODIUM FRIIiZIi
C H A PTER VIII: MEANING IN A POLITICAL C O N TI'X T C H A PTER IX: CONCLUSION
B IB LIO G R A PH Y
A PPEN D IX : INSCRIP LIONS OF I'RBBINA
111 iv V vi vii I 4 18 48 57 70 94 112 140 157 165 169 VO LU M E II: TA BLE OF CO N TEN TS: LIST OF FIGU RES: FIGU RES:
Xlll x iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor. Prof. Dr. İlknur Özgen, who has been an endless source o f encouragement throughout this study. I am grateful especially to my professors Dr. Deniz Kaptan, Dr. Jean Öztürk and Dr. Julian Bennett for their valuable assistance, suggestions, and their friendly support. I also thank all my professors in Bilkent University, who have helped me formulate my thoughts throughout my education there. I would like to thank Giilcan Çelebicioğlu, the Secretary o f the Department o f Archaeology and Art History at Bilkent University, for her enormous help in solving all administrative problems. I am grateful to my French professor Nicolas Iluckle. Thanks to him, I was able to incorporate the French publications into this study. 1 would also like to thank Dr. Necla Çıkıgil, for commenting on earlier drafts o f this work.
I would also like to thank the following libraries and research institutions for facilitating my research: ARIT in Ankara, Bilkent University, Boston University, Briti.sh Institute in Ankara, German Archaeology Institute in Istanbul, Harvard University W idener and Tozzer Libraries. I would also like to thank Dr. Norbert Karg, for his help in enabling my research in the British Institute Library, which was closed during the months o f July and August.
My special thanks go to my colleagues and friends. Yasemin İlseven, E lif Denel, Jülide Aker, Kutlu Akalın, Recep Efe Mocan, Dr. Mehmet Cem Mocan, Volkan Erdemir, Heidi Euchsinger, David Stewart, Dr. Ali Aktaş, and İsmail Besim Emirmahmutoğlu who were always supportive and helpful throughout this study. Prof. Yücel Tanyeri and Adnan Erdemir also deserve my thanks for their assistance in the preparations o f the plates, and my grandmother Berrin Tezok for hosting me and my husband during my research in Ankara. I would also like to thank P ro f Fulya Tanyeri and Çiğdem Erdemir for their financial and moral support throughout this work. Finally, 1 am grateful to my husband, Aykan Erdemir, who has always been supportive, inspiring and helpful, the best assistant a writer could possibly have!
ABBREVIATIONS
The titles o f journals are abbreviated in accordance with the list published in the
Am erican Journal o f Archaeology^ 90 (1986), pp. 384-394. The abbreviations o f titles
not cited there and frequently used in this study are listed below. AA = Archäologischer Anzeiger. (1963 i ).
ActaArch = Acta Archaelogica. (1930 +).
AJA = American Journal o f Archaeology. (1885 i ). AnatSt =" A natolian Studies. (1951 +).
Benndorf and Niemann, Trysa ·= Benndorf, О. and (i. Niemann, Das l leroon von Giölbaschi-'frvsa. (Wien 1889).
Borchhardt, M yra = Borchhardt, .1. and Ci. Neumann, Mvra: Eine Lykische Metropole in A ntiker un By/.antinisher Zeit. (Berlin 1975).
Bruns-Özgan Grahrclicfs = Bruns-Özgan, C. Lyki.sche Grabreliefs des 5. und 4. .Jahrhunderts V. Chr. (Tubingen 1987).
Bryce, Lycians = Bryce, T'.R. The Lycians in the Literary and Ivpiuraphic Sources. (Copenhagen 1986).
CAII = Cam bridge A ncient History.
САП IV 1988 = Boardman, J. and N. (i. L. Hammond, et. al.. The Cambridue Ancient History IV: Persia. Greece and the Western M editerranean c. 575 to 479 B.C. (Cambridge 1988).
C A H V 1 9 9 2 = Lewis, D.M and .J. Boardman et. al. The Cambridge Ancient History V: The Fifth Century B.C. (Cambridge 1992).
C A H V 1 1 9 8 7 = Bury, .I.B. and S.A. Cook, et. al. The Cambridge Ancient lli.story VI: Macedon 401-301 B.C. (C’ambridge 1987).
CAH
VI 1994 = Lewks,
D.Mand J.
Boardman et. al. The Cambridge Ancient HistoryVI:
The Fourth Century B.C. (('am bridge1
994).Childs, Prolegomena = W .A.P. Childs, “Prolegomena to a Lycian Chronology; The Nereid M onument from Xanthos” Revue Archéologique ( 1973) 281-316. Childs, 6V//6’.v = Childs, W.A.P. City Reliefs o f Lvcia. (New Jersey 1978).
Childs, Lycian Relations = “Lycian Relations with Persians and (ireeks in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries Re-examined” Anatolian Studies 31 (1981) 55-81.
Clairmont, CA T =-~ Clairmont, C.W. Cla.ssical Attic romb.slones. (Kilchberu 1993). CRAI = Comptes Rendus de Séances de Académie des Inscriptions et Icelles Lettres.
Demargne, RecueilPlassart = Pierre Demargne “ L’iconographie dynastique au
monument des Néréides de Xanthos” Recueil Plassart: Études sur l’antiquité grecque. (Paris 1976) 81-95.
Oentzer, Banquet = “Aux Origines de l’Iconographie de Banquet Couche” Revue
Archéologique ( 1971 ) 215-259.
Fellows, Trophy M onument = Fellows, C. Account o f the Ionic Trophy Monument
1 Excavated at Xanthos. (London 1848).
Fellows, Travels = Fellows, C. T ravels and Resarches in Asia Minor, More Particularly in The Province o f Lvcia. (London 1852).
FdX = Fouilles de Xanthos.
F’dX I = Demargne, P. Fouilles d e Xanthos 1: Les piliers funéraires. (Paris 1958). FdX II = Metzger, II. et. al. Fouilles de XanU^ j .lAcropcdc lycicnnc^ (Paris 1963). FdX III = Coupel, P. et. al. Fouilles de Xanthos 111: L’Architecture du monument
des Néréides. (Paris 1969).
FdX IV = Metzger, II. et. al. Fouilles de Xanthos IV: Les céram iques archaïques et classiques de l’acropole lycienne. (Paris 1972).
FdX V = Demargne, P. et. al. Fouilles de Xanthos Tom e V: 7'ombcs-Mai.sons, Tom bes Rupestres et Sarcophages. (Paris 1974).
FdX VI = Metzger, II. et. al. Fouilles de Xanthos VI: La stèle trilingue du Létoon. (Paris 1979).
FdX VII = Balland, A. Fouilles de Xanthos VII: Inscriptions d ’époque impériale du Létôon. (Paris 1981).
FdX VIII = Dcmargnc P. et. al. Fouilles de Xanthos Tome VIII: Le Monument des Néréides le Décor Sculpté. (Paris 1989).
FdX IX = Metzger, II. et. al. Fouilles de Xanthos IX: La Region nord du Létôon -les sculptures- les inscriptions gréco-lvciennes. (Paris 1992).
Ilow ink ten Cate, Population Groups = llow ink ten Cate, P.ll.J. The Luwian Population Groups in Lycia and Cilicia Aspera in the Hellenistic Period. (Leiden 1965).
\(X\\, L ikya Lahitleri = İdil, V. Likya Lahitlcri. (Ankara 1985).
Jacobs, Grabkunsi = Jacobs, B. Griechische und Persische Flemente in der Grabkunst Lykiens zur Z eit der Achamcnidenhcrrschart. (Jonscred 1987).
Jdl = .Tahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. ( 1918 +). JIIS = .Tournai o f Hellenic Studies. (1880 +).
JNFS = Journal o f Near Lastern Studies. (1942 i ).
Keen, D ynastic Lycia = Keen, A. Dynastic Lvcia: A Political History oT the Lvcians and Their Relations with Foreign Powers. (Leiden 1998).
M ich aelis,/W /76‘/70/7 = Michaelis, A. P e r Parthenon. (Lcipziu 1870).
Morkholm and Zahle, Lycian Dynasts = “The Coinages o f Lycian Dynasts Khcriga,
Kherei and lirbbina” Acta Archacologica 47 (1976) 47-90.
Pfuhl and Mobiles, Grabrclicfs = Pfuhl, L. and II. Mobiles, Die Ostaricchi.schcn Grabreliefs. (Mainz am Rhein 1977).
Nollé, Daskyleion = Nollé, M. Denkmäler yom Satrapensitz Daskylcion. (Berlin 1992). O berleitner,//croo/7 = Oberleitner. W. Das Ileroo n yon Trysa. (Mainz 1994).
RA = Reyue Archéolouique. ( 1844 +).
Ridgway, Fifth Century Styles = Ridgway, B.S. Fifth Century Styles in Greek Sculpture. (Princeton 1970).
Rodenwalt, R eliefs = Rodenwalt, G. “Gricchishe Reliefs in Lykien” in Sonderausgrabe aus den siiy.ungsherichten der preussisehen A kadem ie der Wissenschafien Phil.-
IIist Klasse. (Berlin 1933).
Root, K ing and Kingship = Cool Root, M.C. The Kintz and Kingship in Achaemenid
Art: Lssavs on the Creation o f an Iconotzraphv o f Lmpire. (Leiden 1979). Schmidt, PersepoIis= Schmidt, L.l·'. Persepolis I: Structures, Reliefs. Inscriptions.
(Chicago 1953).
Smith, Catalogue == Smith, Л.Н. Л Catalogue o f Sculpture in the Department o f Greek and Roman Antiquities British Museum Vol. II. (London 1900).
TAM I = Kalinka, L. Tituli Asiae Minoris I: Tituli Lyciac. Lingua Lvcia Conscript!. (Vienna 1901).
Zahle, Politics and liconom y= “Politics and Lconomy in Lycia During the Persian Period” Revue des Études Anciennes 91 (1989) 169-182.
Zahle, Achaem enid Influences^ “Achaemenid Influences in Lycia (coinage, sculpture, architecture): Evidence for Political Changes During the s"' Century B.C.” in Sancisi-W eedenburg and Kurst (eds.) Achaemenid History VI Asia Minor and Egypt: Old Cultures in a New 1 Empire. Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, Leiden, pp. 145-160.
FORKW ORD
Many of the ancient cultures of Anatolia have leil us examples of stone monumental
architecture embellished by sculptural decoration, 'fhe Lycians were among these
communities, and one which is very well known for its numerous funerary monuments. The Lycian landscape displays many examples o f both rock-carved and free-standing tombs, several of which are decorated with the finest examples o f relief sculpture.
The most impressive example of these monuments is the Nereid Monument at Xanthos, a 4'’’ century funerary monument in the form o f a small Ionic temple. The monument was richly adorned with standing and relief sculptural decorations, 'fhe standing sculpture includes 16 female figures, which are known as the 'Nereids', two akroterial groups and two lions. A number of different subject matters are depicted on the reliefs. The Eastern Pediment shows an enthroned couple flanked by a number of people A battle scene is depicted on the Western Pediment. Scenes o f a hunt, procession, tribute and warfare encircle the monument on the Frieze o f the Entablature The frieze around the cella shows a banquet, sacrifice and a gathering or procession 'fhe subject matter of the two podium friezes is warfare: the Small Podium Frieze illustrates the sack of a number of cities, whereas the Fartie Podium Frieze shows combat scenes.
In comparison to the free standing sculptures, very·' few studies have been conducted that investigate the relief decoration in its entirety, and aim to understatid the meaning of these
reliefs.’ This is partly because there were no complete publications available which illustrated the reliefs o f the monument in detail after the publication o f Smith’s catalogue in 1900, until the publication o f the eighth volume ot' ¡•’oullie.s de Xanthos in 1989. fhis publication has made this current study possible and will hopefully enable more scholars to work on the relief sculptures o f the Nereid Monument in the future.
One general observation can be stated here concerning the conceptual difference between the relief and the free standing sculptures o f the Nereid Monument. The reliefs appear to be depicting scenes directly related to the life and deeds o f the ow'ner o f the monument, whereas the free standing sculptures, the acroterial groups and the 16 "Nereids’ appear to have been connected more closely w'ith a different sphere, one that concerns the religious and funerary beliefs of the ancient Lycians, for which our information is still minimal.
The propagandistic content o f the reliefs, however, enables us to analyze them as an outcome o f a specific political context. In the light of our increasing information pertaining to the Lycian history of the 5'’’ and 4’" centuries, we now have a much better idea on ilie socio-political affairs of Lycia. 'fhis information not only sheds light on the events of the period, but it can also be utilized effectively in order to understand the iconography and meaning behind the reliefs o f the Nereid Monument. Our lack o f information on the funerary and religious beliefs of the I.ycians. however, still poses an impediment for
Smith, Caialoguc. The catalogue numbers that were established by this sUid\ are still used m the literature. ¡-’(LX I 'III is the most detailed and recent work on ihc monument in main respects. It pro\ ides a detailed catalogue with a complete set of draw ings and photographs, w hich also incorporated the
fragments rcco\ered after the c.\ca\ation of the monument b> Sir Charles Fellows in the mid lb '' ccntui^ Childs and Dcmargnc propose a reconstruction of the placement of the reliefs on the monument.
conducting a similar study on the free standing sculptural decoration o f the Nereid Monument. This is why the free standing sculptures have been left out o f the content o f this particular study.
My method in this examination is three-fold. First, I will present the historical facts that are available for the period in question. Secondly, I will describe and discuss the comparanda^ and iconographie influences on the Nereid Monument. 1 will, then, present the discussion on the proposed meanings for the sculptural reliefs in the light of these facts. 1 have also included a Catalogue, describing the scenes in some detail, which w'ould help the readers when the illustrations are not clear. This catalogue is also important in that no such study exists in English in the contemporary literature. '
In conclusion, I hope to propose a new- understanding of the iconography of the sculptural reliefs in the light o f the historical evidence, which in return illuminates the message that these images were once created to convey.
■ In this section I have consulted the priinaiy publications of the discussed monuments \vhcnc\ cr it w as possible. Although I am aware that some of the \ iew s that arc presented in these earlier publications arc outdated, the illustrations for the most part were much better than those in the later publications. Thus, the visual illustrations arc used and cited from the earlier publications.
INTRODUCTION
History of Scholarship
The 19'*' century was a time o f expeditions and discoveries. A revived interest towards past civilizations after the industrial revolution, led to the flourishing of investigations and discoveries in search o f a forgotten past.’ The discovery o f the Nereid Monument in 1838, occurred in the particular context o f the ‘Antiquarian A ge’, during which the European aristocracy planned excursions to the ‘Old W orld’, investigated the ancient ruins, adored the Classical remains and made drawings and notes to be published upon their return. This was also an opportunity for them to collect ‘antiquities’ belonging to the long lost cultures, sometimes for their own cabinet of curiosities, and sometimes for the larger collections o f the museums.“
Charles Fellows was a British aristocrat, a wealthy silk-merchant with a special interest in geology and a Classical education which gave him an appreciation o f the Greek and Roman antiquities.'' He participated in the British excursions to the southwestern coast o f Anatolia in 1839, 1840 and 1843. Just like his contemporaries, he took detailed notes o f his observations through his travels, and published them upon his return to England. ' His notes from the 20’’’ o f .April in the year 1838 vividly describe his excitement upon
^ B. trigger. .1 liisiory o f Archaeological Thought (Cambridge 1994) .S8-.39. “ G. Daniel. A Short History o f Archaeology' (London 1983) 82-87.
encountering a large amount o f sculptures scattered around the acropolis o f Xanthos.^ Fellows immediately recognized the potential of these to become a valuable purchase for the British Museum, comparable to the Elgin Marbles,
On his return to England Fellows worked towards convincing the British authorities to arrange an expedition to excavate these antiquities and bring them to the British Museum. This expedition would have required, in addition to a ship and finances to cover the expenses, i\ ferman from the Ottoman authorities. This particular official documentation, as Fellows notes, was granted in 1841.^’ Immediately upon the receipt o f [he ferman. he launched his expedition to Lycia. In 1843, the sculptural group nicknamed the 'Lycian Marbles’ which included the decorations of the Nereid Monument, along with the Pavaya sarcophagus, and the Harpy tomb, were carried to their new home; the British Museum in London.^
The acquisition of the Xanthian Marbles made (|uite a strong impact on the academic and social circles of the time, 'fhey were displayed in the ‘Lycian Room' in the British Museum from 1848 to 1878.**
'C. I'cllows. ,1 Journal Written durnne on Excursion in Asia Minor l S.iH (London 18.S9), 1 lie notes of ins second c.xcursion were published in C. Fellows. An Account o f Discoveries in Lycia. Beiny a Journal Kept (luriny a Second Excursion in Asia Minor. IH40 (London 1841).
’Fellows (supra n. 4); Slaitcr (supra n. .3) .39.
*’€ . Fellows. The Xanthian .Marbles: Their Acquisition and Transmission to /v?,"/«/?<■/(London ISd."') ,1. Fellows (supra n. 6) 4.''-44.
'I'he standing female sculptures were identified as Nereids by Samuel Birch in 1843.^ The small sea animals, such as dolphins, fish and crabs by the feet o f the statues led to this identification. Sir Watkiss Lloyd was the first person to use the name ‘Nereid Monument’ in the title for his publication in 1845.“^ However, this ‘nickname’ was not accepted immediately. Several publications from the mid IQ'*' century prefer to call the monument with various names, for instance in Fellows’ publication o f 1848 the monument w'as referred to as “the Ionic frophy Monument.""
.Although the name has been popularized and used widely in the literature ever since, it is perhaps erroneous. It has been suggested that the Nereids could be representing ‘sea breczx's’ or ‘aurorai’.'" A recent study advocates that the Monument should be called the ‘Eliyana M onument’ on the basis that the so-called ‘Nereids’ could be equated with the ‘Eliyana’, the female consorts o f Leto mentioned in the inscription o f Letoon Irilingual.'
Shortly after the transportation o f the Xanthian Marbles to the British Museum, a large corpus o f studies appeared in the literature. It is perhaps important to note that the
' S. Bircli. 'Obscnations on ilic Xantliian Marbles Rcccntlv Deposited in the British Mnseuin'· Archacolo^in 30 (1844) 202.
’''W. W. Lloyd. The Xanihian Marbles: The Serení Monunieni: an Historical and Mythological Tssav.
(London 1845). This ideniificalion has led to sonic elaborate interpretations. For c.xainple. Gardner suggest that they represent "Nereid nvniphs hastih’ escaping o\'cr the surface of tlic .sea from a nide alarm, flying in disorder to their father Ncrciis.’' P. Gardner. Sculptured Tombs o f Hellas (London 1896) 219. She suggests that the warfare taking place in the Small Podium Fric/.c is the reason for their panic. ’’ Fcllo\\ s. Trophy Monument.
Fi. Panofsky. 'Tomb Sculpture (New York 1992) 22.
^' T. Robinson. ''The Nereid Monument at Xanthos or the Fliyana Monument at Arfina'.^ ’ Oxford Journal o f Archaeology 14/3 (1995) 355-359. The ideas put fonvard by Robinson arc interesting and proiX)sc a refreshing new approach towards llie studies on the Monument with its critical points rebuking the Hcllcnoccntric approach that prevails in most of the former studies on the monument. A discussion of the appropriateness of the name is beyond the scope of this study. Although I sympathi/.e w ith this
researches by Fellows were amongst the primary attempts to investigate Lycia. Fellows recognized the scarcity o f sources related to Lycia early o n .'“* Before the emergence o f archaeological and epigraphic studies in the region, early commentators only had scanty references to Lycia from the Classical literary sources, which posed an important impediment in their understanding.
In 1843, Samuel Birch delivered a paper summarizing his observations on me recemi) acquired sculptures.'^ His paper included a historical introduction, based on the Classical and m>ihoIogical references to Lycia and Xanthos and brief descriptions o f each sculptural group, as well as a short topographical reference to the city plan o f Xanthos from Fellows' accounts. It is interesting to note that Birch was cautious in not assigning all the sculptures that were discovered from the area o f the ‘new tow n’ to a single monumeni. Through an investigation o f the stylistic differences between the podium friezes and the rest o f the sculptural decoration, he thought that the cella and entablature friezes belonged to an other monument in the vicinity."’ No illustrations accompanied Birch’s publication
proposal, in this work. I will be referring to the Monument as the Nereid Monument', since the name is widely used and has been well established in the literature
'''Fellows, (supra n. 6) 2. Birch (supra n. 9) 176-204. Birch (supra n. 9) 192-203.
In 1845, William Watkiss Lloyd published a book on the historical and mythological
interpretation o f the Nereid Monument.’’ Unlike Birch, he accepted Fellows’
reconstruction in which all the sculptures discovered from the ‘new city’ were considered to be parts o f the same monument. His publication has a restored image o f the Nereid Monument. His discussions include a chapter on the Persian involvement in the region after the conquest o f H arpagus,'” as well as a detailed study on the mythology related to the monument.iv
The discoverer o f the Nereid Monument, Sir Charles Fellows was amongst the earliest scholars to conduct and publish studies on its sculptural decoration. ’" Fellows, thought that the monument was erected in the memory of a victory, possibly commemorating Harpagus’ sack ofX anthos.'”
Two articles were published in 1851 by Falkener and Gibson in the first volume of The
Classical Museum of A niiqunies^' Falkener, in this particular stud\' suggested a full
reconstruction o f the monument with a detailed account o f various measurements, and Gibson submitted his views on the stylistic analysis of the sculptures.
' Lloyd, (supra n. 10).
Lloyd, (supra n. 10) 22-.35. and pariicuhirly on llarpagus. o.^'-ioo. ” Lloyd, (supra n. 10) 36-6.S.
■" F elloes. Trophy iVionument: and. Fellows. Travels. 502-.S0.L ■' Fellow s. Trophy Monument. 12.
"■ B. Gibson. "On the Sculptures o f the Ionic Monument at Xanihos” 'The Museum ofCla.ssical.lntupiines 1 (1851) 131-156; E. Falkcner, "The Ionic Herouni of Xanthos" 'The Museum o f Classical .Uuiqunies (185I)2.50ff.
In the mid 19"’ century an important development took place in the Lycian studies. The Trysa Heroon was discovered by an Austrian team in the 1840’s, and was transported to Vienna. Benndorf and Niemann published a full account o f this particular monument with numerous illustrations in 1889.^'^ Shortly after, scholars started recognized the possibility that the relief sculptures o f the podium can be reconstructed as immediately on top of each other, which were previously reconstructed both by Fellows and Falkener at some distance from each other."' Niemann in 1921 for instance reconstructed the podium friezes similar to the Trysa friezes.
Beginning in the mid 19"' century, the Nereid Monument began to be included in the general handbooks of Greek sculpture. Overbeck’s publication o f 1858 included the Nereid Monument in the same chapter with the Bassae frieze and the M ausoleum ,"" and the fourth edition o f the same book in 1894 investigated the Nereid Monument together with the M a u s o l e u m . Lübke in 1871 was still utilizing Falkener’s reconstruction.'* He analyzed the monument in the same category with the examples o f other known Lycian sculptures from Telmessos, Kadyanda, Tlos, Finara and Xanthos. Perry’s book in 1882,“" and Murray’s in 1883,'" each devoted a full chapter to the Nereid Monument.
“’Benndorf and Niemann, 'frysa.
“'A..S. Miirra>·. .1 History o f Greek Sciilputrt miJer i'iudms and ii:> Successors (London 1883) 205; For instance, sec the earlier reconslniclion by Fellow s. Trophy Monument. 19.
■■'G. Niemann. Das Xerciden .Monument in .Vanthos {\Wicn 1920).
“"J. Overbeck, Geschichte der Griechische Plastik, II (1858), first edition, pp. 102-111. " J. (A erbeck. Geschichte der Griechi.sche Plastik, II (1894). fourth edition, pp. 187-205. “*^W. Lübke Ge.s'chichie der Plastik, / (Leipzig 1871) 194ff.
“"W.C. Репу, Greek and Roman Sculpture (London 1882) 501-508. ^’’Murray (supra n. 24) 203ff.
March in 1905 following Furtwangler’s dating, included the Nereid Monument in his chapter on the 5*^ cen tu ry /' Lawrence, however, suggested that a date before 400 was highly improbable, and incorporated his discussion on the monument in his chapter titled: “The City States at War 433-370 B.C.” Collignon’s book in 1911 included a chapter on the great tombs o f Asia Minor, in which the Nereid Monument was discussed together with the M ausoleum ."
The first thorough catalogue o f the Nereid Monument was published in 1900 by Smith, ’^ which remains to this day as the only full Catalogue o f the monument in English. In the first half o f the 20"’ century, several important works are worthy o f mention. Apart from Niemann’s publication, two important articles appeared in German in the scholarly literature, one by Schuchhardf ' in 1927, and the other by Rodenwalt in 1933. ’'’
The studies on the Nereid Monument diminished significantly in the next decades. Interest was renewed in the years 1950-1951, with the commencement o f the French excavations in Xanthos.;'^ which continue to the present. The same team has also conducted annual excavations in Letoon. The information recovered from the excavations, published in the series FoiiiHes ck Xanihos, have had an important impact on our understanding of Lycia in
33
''E. March,.! flandhook o f Greek ami Roman Sculpiurc (Boslon 1905) 165-169. A.W. Lawrence. Classical .Sculplurc (London 1929) 2.22-235.
M. Collignon. Les Siaiues L'lineraires clans I 'Art Grec (Paris 191 1) 243-251. Smith. CataJop^ue.
W. H. Schuchhardt '’Die Frieze des Nereiden-Monumentes von Xanthos'* iw Miiieilungen des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Athenische Ableitung 52 (1927) 94-161.
G. Roden^^'alt. “Griechische Reliefs in Lykien’' Sitzungberichie der Preussichen Akctdemie der Wissenschaften Berlin (Berlin 1933) 1028-1055.
antiquity.'^* Two o f these volumes, namely the third and the eighth, are particularly important for the study o f the Nereid Monument.
The third o f the Fouilles de Xanthos volumes is devoted to the architecture of the Nereid Monument. This publication presents an extensive study on the recording o f the surviving fragments o f the Monument, as well as offering an architectural reconstruction. ''·^
The eighth volume o f FouiUes de Xanthos is the publication o f the sculptural decoration o f the Nereid Monument. This study is the most recent extensive documentation, and includes a short history o f previous research, a thorough catalogue, information on previous sculptural reconstructions, sections on iconography, style and dating, along with visual documentation in the form of illustrations and photographs.'*” I'dX ] III will allow more work on this spectacular monument in the years to come.
Despite extensive research, the date of the Nereid Monument is still not established. .A wide range o f dates has been proposed over the years, based on historical, architectural and sculptural studies.
The French e.\ca\ations are published in the Fonilles de Xanlhos series, which ciirrcnth' has nine volumes covering tlie following subjects: FcL\ I. the funcrarv- pillars; FcL\ II. the Lvcian Acropolis; F d \ HI. the architecture of the Nereid Monument; I'iLX /1'. the archaic and chtssic ceramics from the L\ cian Acropolis; FdX V. the house tombs, rock cut tombs and the sarcophagi; I'dX VI. the Lctoon Tnlingual; FdX ML the inscriptions of the imperial period from Leloon; F'lLX I III, the Nereid Monument; and ¡■'dX IX. the Greek and Lvcian sculptures and inscriptions from the region north o f Lctoon.
^‘XdLXIII.
F-dX MU. I utilize the architectural and sculptural restorations offered in this publication, which is illustrated in figs. 13-16.
Early commentators dated the monument through historical analysis, especially through the interpretation of the city siege on the Small Podium Frieze. Lloyd suggested that the Monument must have been built around the time o f the Battle o f Eurymedon, c. 470 B .C .'' Fellows, on the other hand, advocated that the Nereid Monument was built as a commemoration o f the sack o f Xanthos by Harpagos.'^^ Lawrence, suggested that it was the Lycian Prince Pericles, whose capture o f Telmessos is depicted on the city reliefs, c. 370 B.C.·’'
The availability of other examples of Classical sculpture both from Greece and from Anatolia led some scholars to investigate the date o f the monument through stylistic analysis. Murray, for instance, analyzed the Nereid Monument by comparing it to the sculptural decorations of the Temple at Olympia, the friezes o f Phigaleia, and the Nike temple at Athens, and suggested that the monument had stylistic analogies with these, and could not be dated before 400 B.C.'*'* Gardner observed that “the Nereid Monument belongs to the age o f the Parthenon and the temple o f Athena Nike, not to the age o f the Mausoleum.“ '^
Lloyd (supra n. 10) 35.
'■ Fello^^ s. Trophy Monwneru. 5-8. Lawrence (supra n. 32) 233. " Murray (supra n. 24) 203.
Klein, on the other hand, following Furtwängler and Six, retained a date in the second quarter o f the fourth century,“*^ and the studies by Kjellberg '^ and Devrambez·*^ agree on a date close to Klein’s.
-19
The architectural studies seem to favor a date around the turn o f the century. Martin and Dinsmoor^*' assigned a date c. 410-400 B.C. Coupcl and Demargne preferred a slightly later date around 400 to 385 Although the proposed historical and stylistic dates range over a fairly wide time span, a date around 400 B.C. or slightly later seems to be generally accepted for the architectural dating o f the monument.
One o f the latest publications on the stylistic dating o f the monument is by W.A.P. Childs.'·' His study focuses on the Greek elements of the sculptural program, and analyzes the relief sculptures through a system that was established and utilized by F. H i l l e r . T h i s study focuses on the drapery styles of 5‘'’ and 4“' centuries. Childs summarizes Hillers approach as follows:''
W. Klein, “Mikon und Panainos. Mikon und Panainos ' JJI .13 (1918) 29-20.
' E. Kjcllbcrg. Studien zu den attischen Reliefs des I '. Jahrhunderts v. Chr (Uppsala 1926) 97-104. P. Dc^τan^bcz, Bas-Reliefs de Téos (Paris 1962) 29.
R. Martin ”Lc Monument Nereides à Xanthos" II I (1979) 291-296.. W.B. Dinsmoor, The Archiiecturc o f Ancient Greece (London 1950) 256. ■' F d \ III. 157.
G. .M. Richter. 'The Sculpture and Sculptors o f the Greeks (New Ha\en 1970) 103: and J.
Borchhardt. "Das Heroon von Limyra— Grabmal des lykischen Königs Periklcs" .1.1 85 (1970) 378. 383. Childs, Frologomena, 106.
"Childs. Prolegomena . 105-116; and also. Martin (supra n. 26) 327-337.
■ ' F. Hiller. Formgeschichtliche Untersuchingen zur griechi.'tchen Statue des Späten .'. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (.Mainz 1971) 69; discussed in Cliilds. Prolegomena. 106-108.
F. Fliller has recently restated the principle o f development in regard to rapidly moving figures from the body dominated by the drapery (Parthenon East Pediment G) to the body dominating the drapery (late fifth· century moist style). Thereafter the two elements become separate entities before and integration takes place resulting in a pattern o f expression.
In relation to that, Childs points to the duality between body and drapery expressed in the Large Podium Frieze, and observes that this feature is different than the mainland monuments such as the F^arapet o f Temple o f Athena Nike and the Apollo temple at Bassae. Thus, he concludes that the Nereid Monument should be regarded differently and slightly later than the monuments o f the mainland Rich Style.
Childs’ second discussion rests on the ridge patterns of the drapery. He states that the fold patterning o f the ridges is "characterized by rather sharp crests segmented by a furrow or groove,” and the valleys between the ridges are ‘'broad and flat.”^^^ Through this examination Childs suggests that the Temple of Asklepios at Epidauros displays the closest parallels to the Nereid Monument in the patterning of the r i d g e s . H i s final conclusion is that the monument must fall into a time period between the Bassae Temple Frieze and the sculpture of the .Asklepios 'femple at Epidauros. The former is usually dated sometime around 395 B.C. and the latter is usually dated around 370 B.C. He concludes that “the style stage of the Nereid Monument must be c. 380 or shortly thereafter; the absolute date depends on the assessment o f provincialism in Lycia and Xanthos in particular.”'*^
Cliilds, Prolegomena. 108
C h i l d s , 110.
The same date is also offered in FdX VIII, with the further comment that a date before 390-380 is now considered to be highly u n l i k e l y . T h e r e are still some problems in Lycian chronology for the dating of funerary monuments. Childs and Demargne remark that one could always hope for the discovery o f a new inscription to suggest a more concise date60
A precise date cannot be assigned to the Nereid Monument with the current state o f information. However, a date in the first quarter o f the 4*^' century seems to agree with both the architectural^'’ and sculptural studies. Childs' study suggests that a date towards the end o f the first quarter of the 4”' century is more probable.
This short introduction to the history of research does not aim to propose an exhaustive study on what has been written about the Nereid Monument since its discovery. However, it is important to realize that the monument has been known for over 150 years and has been studied extensively Studies will continue to be conducted in the future, adding to the existing knowledge of Lycian history.
My purpose throughout this thesis is to observe the problems related to the meaning o f the relief sculptures, most of which have been already studied by the above-mentioned scholars. In addition to that, 1 will attempt to elaborate on the present interpretations by
FdX HU. 403-404. "^[FcLWlIl^ 404.
examining the historical and cultural context in which the Monument was erected. The historical context, even though it has been recognized by some scholars, plays only a peripheral role in previous studies of the iconography o f the Nereid Monument. The foremost contribution o f this present study will be the re-evaluation and refinement o f the existing studies with the incorporation of the historical conditions within which the Nereid Monument was created.
Some Comments
on the Study of the Iconography and Meaning of the Nereid Monument
Our imperfect knowledge o f Lycian beliefs and iconography poses an impediment to the understanding o f the Lycian funerary reliefs. In an article published in 1942, just over a century after the acquisition of the Nereid Monument, Tritsch pointed out that ‘"these Lycian sculptures [the collection brought to the British Museum by Fellows] have indeed been extremely successful in withstanding all attempts at explaining them or even understanding them.”^""
The free-standing sculptures of the Nereid Monument have been excluded from this present study. One general comment can be made at a first glance at the Nereid Monument, that the nature o f the relief sculptures is different from that o f the free standing ones. The free-standing sculptures seem to carry a different meaning, one that has stronger connections with the belief system and mythology of ancient Lycia, which seems to be obscure to us w'ith our present state o f knowledge. However, the relief
sculptures o f the Nereid Monument can be approached through a different path, as they also seem to function as political propaganda for a certain individual in Lycian history.
My suggestion is that it is possible to have a better understanding o f the meaning embedded in these sculptures if we investigate them in the light o f the historical information that elucidates the socio-political conditions o f the 6^' to centuries B.C. As the visual images, when combined with the historical facts, have the potential to offer us a much more complete picture, I propose that a contextual approach is the most suitable way of understanding the message conveyed through this particular monument
CHAPTER I
GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Geography
Lycia is located in southwest Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the area south of a line drawn from modern Köyceğiz to Antalya. Caria neighbors Lycia at the northwest and Pamphylia lies to the east of the region. Several mountain ranges constitute the natural features: Antikragos (Mendiis Dağı), Kragos (Dodurga Dağı), and Massicytus (Akdağ) in the west, and Solyma (Bey Dağlan) in the east. The Elmalı Plateau lies to the north. The Xanthos River (Kınık Çayı) in the west, and the Ar>’kandos and Limyros rivers in the east are the main rivers o f the region.
Lycia in the
6'*
and
Centuries
Former studies on Lycian history have pointed out the difficulties stemming from the scarcity o f sources, the imperfect understanding of the Lycian language, and the lack of archaeological research, especially related to the earlier periods.' Although these drawbacks still exist, a short sketch of the available historical facts will prove to be helpful in understanding the context in which the Nereid Monument was created. Therefore, in this section I attempt to offer a concise history of Lycia, and its relations with Persia and Greece, focusing on the period o f Persian domination over Lycia, which starts with the sack o f Xanthos by the Persian general Harpagos in 540 B.C., and continues until
Alexander the G reat’s conquest in 334 B.C. This period is also known as the dynastic or epichoric period in literature.^
In sketching the historical events, 1 have divided the period under question into three phases, which are designated through Lycia’s shifting alignments within the international sphere. These phases are: 1) 540-470 B.C., the first phase o f Persian intervention, 2) 470-430 B.C., the phase o f Attic intervention, 3) 430-334 B.C., the second phase of Persian intervention.
540-470 B. C.: Persian Inien>entiotu
The Persian involvement in Lycia starts with the sack o f Xanthos by the Persian general Harpagos, traditionally dated to 540 B.C. The attack and siege o f the city is reported by Herodotos, who informs us that the Lycians, after battling in the plain o f Xanthos, closed themselves in the citadel and set their city on fire.' Only eighty families, who had been absent at the time o f attack, were reported to have survived. M etzger suggests that a burnt layer from Xanthos, dating approximately to the mid 6"' century', might be the archaeoloiiical record o f this sack. '
~ Sec for example. Keen. Dynastic Lycia. 3: and T.R. B nce. “Polilical Unity in Lycia During the ;Dynasiic Period^^^ JNES 42 (1983) 31.
Herodoios. 1.176; Biyce. Lycians. 99-100: Childs. Lycian Relations. 55: Keen. Dynastic Lvcia. 7 V v z v //. 18. .31-32, 46-47.
The Persian involvement in the region seems to have two main reasons: 1) the extraction o f taxes, and, 2) the utilization o f Lycian littoral^ and sea-power^ for Persian interest. The latter one is usually considered to be more important, although, there is no doubt that the former was also significant.
The Persian Empire, like any other imperial construct, depended on the collection o f tribute and taxes from us subjects, which could only be possible through an effective bureaucratic and administrative system. One way o f establishing and maintaining an administrative structure in the conquered lands was through “manipulating high status local interest groups,'’^ in other words, manipulating and supporting the local elité.
Several developments can be traced in the internal structure o f Lycia following the Persian sack of Xanthos. The changes that are observed in the archaeological record might have been reflecting other changes, particularly those of the social, political and administrative structure. Some scholars advocate that the Persian involvement in the area is the prime reason behind the setting up o f a political system in Lycia,** while others favor the idea that a political system was present in Lycia prior to the Persian conquest, and that the Persians absorbed and utilized the existing structure.*^ Due to the absence o f historic, epigraphic or archaeological evidence, it is very hard to speculate on what kind o f a political
^ A. G. Keen. "Gateway from the Aegean to the .Mediterranean; the Strategic Value of L>cia Down to the h'ourth Ceniuiy B.CA in Borchhardl and Dobesh (eds.) Aktcn cles 11. Intcrnaiionalcii Lykiai-Sympnsinus,
(Vienna 1993) 72-77. y.A H V I 1988, 211.
C. Tuplin. ' The Admiiiistraiion of the Persian Empire” in Carradice (ed.) Coinage and Adminisiraiion in the Athenean and Persian Empires (1987) 109.
'^Bn.ce (supra n. 2) 33; В глее. Lycians. 100. Keen. Dvnastic Lvcia. 79.
organization was present in Lycia prior to the Persian involvement. Thus, neither argument can be securely illustrated. Whatever the state o f the existing political system might have been, the Persian involvement seems to have favored, if not caused, the flourishing o f the local elite.10
In the first few decades following the Persian involvement, there seems to be a rapid increase in wealth which is probably followed by a parallel increase in social stratification. A new ‘super-elite’ appears to have formed in a very short time. The most evident sign o f this increase in wealth is the emergence o f stone funerary m onuments." The uniformity and uniqueness of the Lycian funerary monuments from the first time they appear suggests that precedents might have existed in wood or other materials that have not survived to us. Most o f the stone funerary monuments seem to be imitating wooden constructions.'" However, the sudden emergence o f stone funerary monuments suggests that there is a change, possibly related to the process of social stratification.
Lycia opens to foreign influences shortly after the sack o f Xanthos.’’ The archaeological excavations at Xanthos have shown that Attic pottery makes its appearance in Xanthos in large quantities immediately following the Persian intervention in the area.'' Although
' Zahle. Achaemenid Influences. 15.3 7/<\h\c. .ichaemenid Inßuences. 145
'■ These features can be obscix ed in the ethnographic record. The modern granaries in the Elmalı plateau are built w ith a wooden consiniction technique that closely resembles the house tombs, and the bcchi\ e eonstructions show similarities to the pillar tombs. M. Mellink. "Comments on Continuity and Discontinuity in South Anatolian Coastal Toponymy"' in van den Houl (ed.), Studio Hisionae Ardens: Ancient Xear Eastern Studies Presented to Philo H.J. Houwink ten Cate on the Occasion o f his 65'^ Birthday (Istanbul 1995) 187-194; J. Zahle, "Lykische Gräber".-LI 88 (1975) 313-350.
' ’ Zahle, . Ichaemenid Inßuences. 145; Morkholm and Zahle. Lvcian Dvnasts. 76. '■'/TiV//. 17, 81.
Childs proposes that this implies a closer relation with Attica, rather than Persia during the period under discussion,'^ the same evidence might also be an indication o f the increase o f wealth, as it might be the case that now more Lycians had the resources to utilize imported materials. The presence o f a foreign influence, in this case the Attic influence, can also be seen as an outcome o f the Persian presence.
One other important development, namely the introduction o f coinage as medium o f exchange might be related to the changes in the administrative system. Coinage appears in the archaeological record as early as 525 B.C."* * Since the earliest Lycian coins do not bear legends, we do not have much information on the earlier dynastic lineage. The earliest Lycian coins w ere issued in a weight standard known as the middle standard. The uniformity in the type, technique and weight o f these suggests that there might be a single center o f issue or some form o f a consensus between the coin issuing centers.’^ Zahle proposes that the local w'eight standard, which is different than the Persian standard, might illustrate that currency was struck for local application, not for direct payment of tribute."* Some o f the earliest motifs on coinage display Achamenid influence.'''
fhe local elite by the mid 5"* century seems to have gained a fairly high level o f economic power, as can be evidenced from the emergence o f very elaborately embellished and costly funerary monuments in the archaeological record, such as the Harpy monument, dating to
' Q iilds, Lycian Relations, 54.
Morkholm and Zahle. Lycian Dynasts. IG. Zahle, Politics and Economy. 170-171. Zahle, Politics and Economy. 171. * ^ Zahle. AchacmenidInßuences. 146.
c. 480/470 B.C. and the Building G, dating c. 460 B.C. Both o f these monuments are attributed to the members o f the ruling family centered at Xanthos and their sculptural decorations display Achamenian motifs.“”
The first reference to Lycia within the satrapal system o f the Persian Empire is Herodotos’ account in which Lycia is listed in the first satrapy along with Ionia, Magnesia, Aeolia, Caria, Milyas and Pamphilia after the administrative reforms o f Darius I.“' As Bryce states,22
It may be helpful to think o f the administrative system in Lycia in this period as a microcosm o f the satrapal system to which Lycia belonged. Within the satrapy Xanthus provided the administrative link between the satrapal headquarters and the various districts o f Lycia, where regional administrators exercised the most immediate control.
The administrative system and the ruling elité appear to be centered at Xanthos. Zahle points out that sculptured tombs are attested only in Xanthos during the period between 500/480 B.C. to the mid 5'*’ century.“'
We can observe that Lycia was serving the central authority of the Persian Empire with a certain level o f loyalty, as it was not reported to take part in the Ionian Revolt, which had
■ ’ r. J. Trish ' The Harpy Tomb at XaiUluis“ .///.S'62 (1942) .29 Hcrodoios. 111.90.1; Keen,
Dynastic Lycia,
91."" T. R. Bryce. ‘T h e Lycian Kingdom of .Southwest Anatolia" in J.M. Sasson (ed.). Civilisations o f the . Indent Xear Last II (New York 1995) 1164.
started in 498 and, in 480 B.C., Lycia is recorded to have supplied fifty ships and troops to the army o f Xerxes.25
Shortly after the Ionian Revolt, which was quelled in 494 B.C., several significant political events took place in Greece, which are important in understanding the second phase. After the victory o f the Battle o f Platea in 479 B.C., the Greek Mainland was now free o f
the immediate l^ersian threat. The Delian League, established in 478 B.C., was
constructed as an apparatus to fight against Persia to free the ‘Asiatic Greeks’ from the tyrannies It was al.so utilized by Athens in order to build a strong imperial power, this time to the west o f the Aegean Sea, centered in Attica.“^ It is important to note that Sparta, which had played a pivotal role in the Battle o f Platea, was to remain out o f the Delian League.27
470-430 B.C.: Athenean Intervention.
The second phase is the period during which Lycia had closer political and economic affiliations with Athens, which begins .sometime around 470 B.C., and continues till the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War.
Hcrodotos. V. 103-2. 104.1; ('ЛИ V 1992. 3.s.
Herodotos, VII. 92: Childs. Lycian Relations. 55: B ncc. Iycians\ 103: Houwink ten Cate. Population Groups. 4-5.
Although the geographical center and treasun of the Delian League, was on Delos till 453 B.C.. the leadership of Athens is e\ idcnt throughout the hision of the Le^igue. СЛИ V 1992. 34-61.
The expedition o f Athenian general Cimon, aimed towards integrating the Carian towns into the Delian League shortly preceding his involvement in the battle o f Eurymedon in 468 B.C., is an important event in designating the position o f Lycia and its alliance with A t h e n s . C i m o n is reported to have sacked the city o f Xanthos. A wide destruction layer at Xanthos around 470 B.C. might be related to Cimon’s sack.'"^
The Athenian interest in Lycia, in addition to the financial contribution to the Delian League, seerns to have several reasons, namely the control o f the sea route and Lycian littoral,^“ as well as timber for shipbuilding. ’' Xanthos became a member o f the Delian League,·' as it appears in the Athenian Tribute Lists for the years 452/1, 451/0, and 446/5 B.C.·'·^ Bryce argues that the rather small amount o f 10 talents submitted by the Lycians did not necessarily have any significant economic value for the league.’'' The Lycians ceased to contribute at sometime during the following years, although their exact time o f detachment from the League is not very' clear. '^
The numismatic evidence illustrates several interesting developments within the internal structure o f Lycia. Sometime around 465-450 B.C., just around the time of Lycia's
■*’ Childs, Lycian Relations. 56; B n ce (supra n.2) 34-35; Br\ce. Lycians. 103; Houwink len Calc Population Group.s. 5.
2‘JFdX II. 22-23. 26-7.
Keen. Dynastic Lycia. 102; A. G. Keen. "Athenian Campaigns in Karia and L\kia during the Peieponncsian W ar’ JUS 113 (1993) 152.
■ ' Childs. Lycian Relations. 61.
'■ Childs. Lycian Relations. 56; B nce. Lycians. 105; Keen. Dyna.stic Lycia. 97-111.
■” B. D. Merritt, H. T. Wade-Gcrv’ and M. F. McGregor, The .Itlienean Tribute Lists II (Princeton 1949). 3 (I. 29-.30); 4 (V. .32-33); 9 (IIP 33-34).
’ ’ Br\'ce, Lycians, 106.
"Definitely before 442. since Lvcia does not appear on the lists o f 442/1 and 440.’39 B.C. Keen (supra ii. 30) 153.
involvement in the Delian league, the middle standard was replaced by a lighter standard, which is equal to the Attic s t a n d a r d . T h e division between the heavy eastern and light western standards in coinage appears to have occurred around the same time.'^ The earliest coins o f Lycia were struck in the middle standard, which continued to be in circulation for some time after the division. '^ Several personages, namely Esbehi, Esehi and Uele, were minting in the middle standard at this period, either overlapping with or dating prior to the division.
Morkholm-'^ illustrated that this division of weight standards in coinage is due not to chronology but to geography, that the lighter standard, which is equal to the Attic standard, was used in western Lycia, and a heavier standard^*“ in eastern Lycia. Whatever this division implies is not clear. Some scholars tend to interpret this along the lines of a geographical and political division, and perhaps a federation.·” The question whether this might signify a confederation, as attested in the Hellenistic period, is put forward by Morkholm and Zahle, who state that such a conclusion, although perfectly possible, can not be securely reached with our current state o f knowledue. '"
Morkholm and Zahle. Lycian Dynasis. 75. ^ Childs. Lycian Relations. 57.
Zahle, Achaemenid Influences. 148.
O. Morkholin. ‘ The Classifieation ofLycian Coins Before .Me.xander the Great" J\'(i 14 (1964) 65-76. Zahle. Politics and liconomy. 175.
Childs, Lycian Relations, 57. states that the hca\ ier eastern sttindtird was "basically Persian" His c\aluation of the nuniisinatic c\ idcncc is erroneous. Several coins were stnick occtisionally in tlic F^ersian weight standard. howc\er the hca\ icr standard used in eastern Lycia (from Phclios to Liinyra) is dilTcrcnt than the Persian one. Zahlc, Politics and Economy, 170, It is important to point out Childs' error, since he uses this data to argue that eastern Lycia remained out of the economic sphere of the Delian League, which may not necessarily be the case.
"Childs, Lycian Relations. 59.
A large number o f Lycian individuals are attested in the numismatic record from this period. One dynast, however, stands out with his long reign. Kuprilli, who is generally accepted to have been in power between 485 and 440 B.C.,'*' minted coinage in both the light standard, and the heavy standard. Only one of his contemporaries, Ekuwemi who had a die link with Kuprilli, is known to have minted in both standards.“” Other personages, such as Ite, Jan, Mutlei, Sppntaza, Tenegure, Teththiweibi, Tnnemi, Wekhssere, minted in either the heavy or in the light standard.
Many scholars, including Demargne, Borchhardt and Zahle, recognize the second half o f the fifth century B.C. as a period of poverty in Lycia, which seems to be in accordance with a general economic malaise in western Anatolia, especially in Ionia. ” There appears to be a general decline in the number and quality o f funerary monuments in Lycia. Demargne observes that in the late S'** century tombs are made o f local limestone, not o f m a r b l e . B o r c h h a r d t states that no sculptured tombs have been built during the period that Lycia was under Athenian c o n t r o l . Z a h l e , moreover, precisely defines the period in which no funerary monument were built in Lycia to be from 450 to 415 B.C.
'■’Morkholm and Zahle (supra n. 42) III. "Morkholin and Zahle (supra n. 42) 111.
Keen. Dynastic Lycia. 114. Childs. Lycian Relations. 61. F(LX I. 86.
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J. Borcliliardt, "Kunsl in LykieiC in Cotter Ilerocn Herrsher (Munich 1990) 46. In this particular article BorchharadI designates the period bch\een 460-404 B.C. as Ihe period of 'Athenian nile'. This particular division is based on Lveian art, and he does not assign any specific events for either the beginning or the end of the period.
Borchhardt relates this trend to the Athenian law o f ‘Anti-grabluxusgezets’ which would prohibit the building o f costly personal funerary monuments.^“ Although his proposal is an interesting one, there is no evidence either from Lycia or from Athens to suggest that this legislation was ever enacted in Lycia. The economic conditions, moreover, do not recover till the beginning o f the 4* century B.C., well after Lycia’s ties with the Delian League were cut off. Thus, the application o f ‘Antigrabluxusgezets’ would alone not be sufficient enough to explain this period o f poverty. A combination o f factors might have been acting together to cause this decline in economy, or more precisely the decline in the economic power o f the ruling elite. The ruling elite, which flourished under the Persian control, might have lost some o f its economic power under the Athenian control. This, in combination with the tribute to be paid to the Delian League and the circumstances o f war pervading till the beginning o f the 4^*' century B.C., might have caused a decline in the economic and social status o f the local elite.
430-334 B.C.: Persian Intervention
Sometime around 430 B.C., Athenian general Melesander is reported to have sailed to Caria and Lycia to collect tribute and to “prevent the Peloponnesian privateers from establishing a base in these regions.”"' As he was trying to collect tribute in Lycia, Melesander was killed and his troops were defeated by the Lycians. The Lycians seem to take a certain pride in the defeat o f Melesander, as his name appears on the Inscribed Pillar
■'"J. BorcWiardt, “Zur Deutung Lykischer Audienzszeneiv' Actes du Colloque sur la l.vcie Antique (1980) 8.
