1994 BOOK R E V I E S 157
BOOK REVIEWS*
The Republic of Turkey, Turkish International Cooperation Agency (TICA), Eurasian Studies, quarterly, Ankara, Spring 1994-. Eurasian Studies (and its Turkish counterpart A v r a s y a Etüdleri) is a quarterly journal published by the Turkish International Cooperation Agency (TICA) since the Spring of 1994. The issues contain articles by Turkish and foreign authors, notes on the ehronology of events and book reviews. Opinions expressed do not reflect the policies of the sponsor. This quarterly is one of the series of publications planned and executed by TICA. Other publications inelude series of books on certain countries and other series covering pertinent accounts on their legal and economic life. Information on the latter is offcred undcr different headings in this book revievv section.
TICA vvas established in 1992, vvith an autonomous legal personality and vvith an individual budget but conncctcd vvith the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. its direetor at establishment had been Ambussador Umut Arık. TICA's purpose is to assist the progress and grovvth in developing countrics, especially those sharing Turkish culture, by promoting cooperation in economic, commercial, teehnieal, social, cultural, cducational and environmental fields through projccts and programs, to organize assistance via such means as necessary, and to provide the analyses, planning and coordination required.
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Rapid structural changes, such as the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the emergence of new indcpendent states, altered the balance of forces and brought forth nevv challengcs. This restructuring effected the nature of the European Unian as vvell. The reunification of Germany and the liberalization process in Eastern Europe influenced the European community of nations. With nine largest banks and four insurance firms of the vvorld, Japan has novv become a majör vvorld povver. The multi-faceted efforts of many developing countries, on the other hand, to achieve their development require further attention.
The tasks of TICA, under these circumstances, seem to be to promote cooperation programs vvith the developing countries, specify areas and topics of cooperation, provide assistance, initiate training programs, undertake ali activities to utilize project credits, provide financial support to development banks established in these countries and to contact national and international NGOs to encourage their contributions. TICA's activities are mainly concentrated in (1) Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, and (2) the Black Sea, the Balkans and Eastern Europe. It is also interested in the Eastem Mediterranean, the Middle East, and some other parts of the vvorld.
The Eurasian Studies is one of the series of publications sponsored by TICA. The late Aydın Yalçın, professor of economics, vvas the first editor-in-chief, until Fail 1994, succeeded by Ali L. Karaosmanoğlu, professor in international relations at Bilkent University in Ankara. Academic papers, printed in the Eurasian Studies, inelude those on developments in Central Asia (Werner Gümpel), relations betvveen Turkey and the Turkic republics (A. Suat Bilge, Mehmet Saray), Azerbaijan (Yasin Aslan, Ragıp Kuliyev, Cevat Hayet), Ukraine (Olgan Bekâr), the Lake Aral (B.D. Tashmuhammedov, A. K. Kurtov, B.K. Kamilov, Baymirza Hayet), reconsidering Mackinder and his "Heartland" theory (Gerald Robbins), radical islam (Mutahir Ahmed), Eurasian energy (Mehmet Öğütçü), Kirgizistan (Rakhat Achylova), Kurds and the pipeline (David Nissman), environmental problems (Türker Alkan), Turkic and Hindustani languages (K. Gajendra Singh, Oya Akgönenç), the Silk Road (Ali A. Demirhan), northem Caucasia (Abdullah Saydam), Kazakhstan (Meryem Kırımlı), U.S. interests in Central Asia (Abdul Shakoor), Georgia and Armenia (Paul B. Henze, Vladimir Papava), the Gagauz (Günden Pcker), the Kumyks (Kamil Aliyev), minorities in Bulgaria (Ömer Turan), unrest in the Altai region (Hasan Bülent Paksoy), Russia's oil and natural gas (Turan Aydın) and the Caucasus (Paul B. Henze, Mustafa Budak).
1994 BOOK R E V I E S 159
T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı, Azerbeycan... Kazakistan.,.Özbek istan...Türk men İstan... Kırgızistan Ülke Raporu, Ankara, Tiirk işbirliği ve Kalkınma Ajansı (TÎKA), 1995 103+93+73+76+65 pp.
These fıve separate books are reports on Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Türkmenistan and Kirgizistan for the use of Turkish investors and scholars. Each volume offers basic information on the country with a section on relations with Turkey. They ali include some information on the country's history and a longer section on its economic characteristics.
Being the richest among the Central Asian Turkic republics in subterranean raw materials, Kazakhstan possesses almost every kind of metal, excelling in some. It ranks first in tungsten, second in chrorr.e and mangenese, third in boron, and fourth in molibden and phosphate (in terms of reserves). its standing in oil (4.5 billion tons of reserves, including those in the Caspian Sea) and in natural gas (5.9 billion cubic meters in reserves) produetion is twenty-third. Although the country is rich in oil and possesses three refineries, it lacks a pipeline connecting both ends of the large territory with the consequence that the oil produced in the east cannot reach the refineries. Since one of the electrical netvvorks is intereonneeted with the Russian one in the north and the second vvith the neighbours in the south, no energy link exists betvveen the northern and southern netvvorks. In spite of the fact that Kazakhstan has proper refining facilities to process iron povvder, the latter has to be sent to Russia for steel. The country is rich in boxite reserves, but there are no aluminium facilities. It imports fertilizers (vvith nitrogen) although it possesses vast amount of hydro-carbons. While not vvell developed in electronics, it is a leading exporter in taping machines. Similarly, although a majör producer of bieyeles for minors, it cannot manufacture the same for adults. It is an exporter of tractors, but dependent on the other republics for harvesters.
Azerbaijan is also abundant in underground resources, principally oil (8 billion barrels in reserves) and natural gas (118.65 billion cubic meters). Sevcnty-seven percent of the oil and almost ali of the natural gas come from the Caspian Sea. Since Azerbaijan's refinery capacity is above its produetion, the country imports crude oil and reexports it. Produetion is presently 244.000 barrels a day (445,000 barrels a day in 1940). The reasons for this lovv level are inadequate investment and obsolete technology.
Uzbekistan as vvell enjoys rich metals, principally gold, aluminium, natural gas, marble, molibden, tungsten, and coal. It produces (60-70 tons annually) the highest quality (99.99 percent) of gold, most of vvhich is in the Navoi Desert in the north-vvestern part of the country. Natural gas produetion (constituting 67 percent of the energy resources) vvas the highest (elose to 45
billion cubic mcters in 1993) compared to the figures of the former Soviet Union. Hovvever, in spite of impressive performance in natural gas, Uzbekistan imported oil (9 million tons) and coal during the last fevv years. Tvvo nevv oil vvells have been opcned, one at Kokdumulak near the Türkmenistan border, and the other at Minbulak in the Fergana Valley. Uzbekistan has the potentia! of becoming an oil exporter. its copper reserves are close to 800 million tons, 23 million of vvhich is produced at Almalyk, fifty kilometers avvay from Tashkent. Marble is unearthed at Nuratau. Seven million tons of kaolin is stored cvcry year.
Natural gas, chrome, sulphite, lead, gallium, bentonite, bromine, iodade and oil can be found in Türkmenistan. Although it vvas the biggest sodium sulplıate producer in the former Soviet Union, these reserves are dcplctcd novv. Natural gas in the south and ın the plains of Sovebad and Doulabad is cxpcctcd to be carried to Turkey through pipelines via Iran. It is presently transported to the ncighbouring republics and to parts of Europe by vvay of the old pipelines vvithin the former Soviet system. In accordance vvith a protoeol (1990) and an agrement (1992) betvveen Turkey and Türkmenistan, natural gas is expected to reach its destination via the Caspian Sea and then through Iran and Turkey.
Kirgizistan meets its energy rcquiremcnt mainly through imports. More than half of its energy consumption comes from oil and natura! gas. While hydro-elcctricity, coal and Iignite are produced in the counrty, oil and gas are itnportcd. Hydro-electricity (reaching an annual potential of 142,500 million kvv. per hour), the most important energy resource of Kirgizistan, is also exportcd to three ncighbouring Central Asian republics. The coal deposits of Kirgizistan are estimated to bc 2,189 million tons, only 141 million of vvhich is presently produced. The latter meets 70 percent of domestic need, and 1.7 million tons a year are imported. Oil and natural gas resources of Kirgizistan are bclievcd to be plentiful. The existence of rich hydro-carbon deposits in ncighbouring Uzbekistan and China indicates that the Fergana Valley houses oil. Presently, Kirgizistan imports oil and gas from three Central Asian states and Russia. Mining and metallurgy constitute 10 percent of industrial produetion. There is gold at Kumtor and Jarooy, the former possessiııg one of the highest quality in the vvorld. The reserves probably add to 500 tons.
The book on Kazakhstan lists 67 items (including the construction of a Caspian Sea harbour and factories for oil cxploration and processing machinery), conducive for foreign investment. Turkey and Kazakhstan signed (from 3 December 1990 to 17 October 1994) 57 bilatcral agreements and other documents, including those on various kinds of cooperation, oil cxploration and the aducation of military personnel.
1994) BOOK REVIEV/S 161 The number of similar bilatcral documents signcd (from 10 January 1990 to 28 December 1994) betvveen Turkey and Azerbaijan totals 57, ineluding agreements on close cooperation in a variety of fields, in addition to the opening of borders, the construction of a bridge on the Aras River, and the initiation of a new pipeline. Turkish humanitarian assistance to Azerbaijan adds up to $51,059,911 in almost the same period.
Fifty items are separately listed as suggestions for foreign investment in Uzbckistan. Turkey and this Central Asian country signed (from 19 December 1991 to 22 Septembcr 1994) 45 bilatcral treaties and other documents. In addition to various agreements on general cooperation, they inelude protocols on the in-service training of security personnel, the adoption of the Latin alphabet and struggle against terrorism. Turkish humanitarian assistance totals $53,858,556.
Bcing the first foreign country to recognize (16 December 1991) the indcpcndcnce of Türkmenistan, Turkey signed (from 16 October 1990 to 7 January 1995) 66 bilatcral agreements wiıh that nevv republic. Among others, they inelude seven agreements on oil cxploration, produetion and purehase as vvell as the construction of a pipeline. Turkish humanitarian assistance is $5,801,400.
Turkey and Kirgizistan signed (from 29 May 1991 to 8 February 1994) 39 agreements on various aspects of cooperation. There are also accords on the training of security personnel and the establishment of a college on Turcology. Turkish humanitarian assistance is $18,302,330.
Figures quoted above as Turkish humanitarian assistance to the five Turkic republics in Central Asia and Caucasia do not inelude other kinds of aid and bank eredits.
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T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı, Azerbeycan... Kaza-kistan...Özbekistan...Kırgızistan Mevzuatı, Ankara, Türk İşbirliği ve Kalkınma Ajansı, 1995, 120+159+328+259+79 pp.This is a series of five separate volumes aiming to bring together the texts of various lavvs, statutes and regulations governing certain treaties of the sovereign and independent Turkic republics in the Caucasus and in Central Asia. They vvere compilcd and printed by the Turkish Cooperation and Development Agency. Aspiring to provide reliable refcrence material to business and scholarly circles, the publications offer ali pertinent legal documents emanating from Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Türkmenistan and Kirgizistan on the citizenship, ovvnership, privatization,
free zones, joint-stock companies, banking, insurance, entrcprcneurship, rentals, work premises, taxation, foreign trade, the status of foreigners, foreign economic activities, foreign investments, work security, customs, currencies, mortgaging, bankruptcy, and similar topics.
The publications as well go to indicate Turkey's grovving interest in the development of its Turkic cousins in the former Soviet lands. An enormous territory in Central Asia and in the Caucasus, is now indepcndent and free to establish new relations vvith the outside vvorld. In contrast to the situation in Yugoslavia, Central Asia (vvith the possiblc exception of Tajikistan) has a stable regional order. Ali Turkic rcpublics in Central Asia have been able to overcome internal and external threats to their integrity. A portion of Azerbaijan in the Caucasus, hovvevcr, is stili under Armenia's occupation.
Although there are other real or potential actors such as Russia, China, the United States, Iran and Afghanistan, Turkey may be said to have special relations, but vvith no exclusive rights. Ali interested parties are avvare of the common cthno-linguistic roots of the Turkic family of nations. But not only Turkey has no objection to the presence of ali interested parties in these lands provided that they also contribute to the development of these societies, the expansion of Turkey's influence vvas also given official stamp of approval by the West, Russia and others.
While Turkey vvas generous in its efforts of aid and support, a number of other states promoted that country as the standard-bearer of democracy and reİigious moderation. Given the elose cultural links, Turkey vvill probably maintain its position of primus inler pares.
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The Republic of Azerbaijan, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Aggression of the Republic of Armenian Against the Azerbaijani Republic, Baku, Shang-Garb, 1994, 67 pp. The past, vvhich plays a role in dcaling vvith the present, abounds in events, glories, retreats, defeats, losses and pcrsonalities. Especially losses are painful, the trauma sometimes lasting for centurics. Many ethnic groups in the Caucasus lived through trauma as of their ovvn, perhaps in greater degree because they vvere placed at the erossing points of international trade routes. Inevitably, it has been a battlc-ground for peoples and cultures. Some like the Armenians, Azeri Turks, Georgians and Persians have been there longer than the others. The Russians, comparatively nevveomers, created nevv conflicts as vvell as inheriting the old ones. For ali sides concerned, nevv losses often reopen past vvounds.
1994 BOOK R E V I E S 163
Whilc Tsarist Russian colonization was brutal, the Soviet rdgime offered a hand to some Caucasian peoples for comparatively rapid economic developmcnt. But events following the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 proved that faster progress fcll short of supprcssing some of the past traumas. While dissidents during the Soviet period now led the nevv governments or 'old guards' turned privatization supporters, majorities among the ethnic groups targeted old enemies as vvell as signalling nevv ones. Russians, during both the Tsarist and th Soviet periods, either settled tlıcmselves en masse in nevv areas or had other peoples, friendly to them, transferrcd there.
The book above is an official Azcrbaijani publication on the cmcrgcnce of Armenian states throughout history, and on the consequences of Armenian aggression against Azerbaijan. It asserts that several pieces of land, considcred by the Armenians as part of "Armenia proper", are knovvn to the Azeris as "ulka" (ülke), or country vvhere Azeri khanates had been formed. The book cmphasizes that there vvas no "Eastern Armenia" in the Caucasus. Armenian history-vvriting, on the other hand, places Yerovan, Genja, Karabakh and Sunik under Armenian control for a long period embracing centuries. The Azcrbaijani publication, hovvever, maintains that the concept of "Eastern Armenia" vvas shifted, both in time and space, to nevv parts of Caucasia, principally after the conquest of Russia, vvhich allovved Armenian refugces to come över and scttlc in Azerbaijani territory.
Indccd, the Russian vvars in the Caucasus, leading to the Treaties of Gülistan (1813) and of Turkmanchai (1828) added nevv territories to the Tsarist empire. Russia received Baku and Karabakh vvith the former, and Yercvan (Erivan) and Nakhichevan vvith the latter. It is a historical fact that the Azeri khanates vvere overvvhelmed by Russian armed forces and conquered. The Azeri khan of Yerevan, for instance, fought desparately against the Russian invaders but had to capitulate. It vvas in Russia's interest to settle Armcnians -a reliable Christian folk, especially in strategic areas and the border regions. Hitherto Azeri or Georgian lands vvere thus opened to Armenian refugees. Russia also hoped to vvin the favour of the Armenians living in Asia Minör. Armcnians settled in places like Yerevan of Karabakh in conscquence of Tsarist expansion and occupation as vvell as the insertion of special articles in treaties imposed on the vanquishcd. It vvas this Russian plan and practice that altered the demographic realities of some regions.
The Azcrbaijani official publication underlines that vvhen the victorious povvers at the end of the First World War looked upon the Armenians as a potential support both against the Turks and the Bolsheviks, the majority of the population of the Armenian Republic vvas ethnically Armenian, but there vvere more than half of a million Azeris and sizable other minorities. The Armenians made further territorial claims on Akhalkalik and
Gocharly in Georgia and the Nakhichcvan arca and Zangezur, both parts of Azerbaijan. The book adds that, receiving vveapons from some \Vestcrn governments, principally from Britain, the Armenians perpetrated massacres of the Muslims living in the Erzurum province of Eastcrn Anatolia as well as in Yerevan.
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Nagomo-Karabakh, Nakhichevan and Zangezur, frcquently elaimed by Armenians as their own lands, vvere Azeri territories opened to Armenian immigration, principally vvith Russian support. Follovving the establishment of Soviet povver in Azerbaijan (April 1920), the nevv Azeri administration, lcd by its chairman N. Narimanov, demanded the return of these lands.
As to the development of events in the 1990s, the book states that extensive arms to Armenia arrived from abroad, and some vvere acquired from the former Soviet arsenals before the horror of aggression on Azerbaijan's Nagorno-Karabakh. According to Le Journal du Dimanche (24 January 1990), "planes loaded vvith heavy arms, trench mortars and automatic machine guns continously arrived" from abroad.Whilc tlıc Armenian customs officials facilitated their entry, especially at nights, the Azerbaijani side tricd to control their passage to Nagorno-Karabakh. Some of the loads, found in trains and cars, vvere detained by the Azcris. Hencc, the so-ealled "blockadc of the Armenians", as so deseribed by circlcs favourable to the Armenians! The ordinary human logic, on the other hand, vvould bc to assess the situation as some citizens of Azerbaijan, those of ethnic Armenian origin, arming themselves vvith foreign support.
Under the circumstances, units of the Azeri local troops vvere also unable to ensure security even in parts of the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic. A group of Armenians changed the name of a villagc and "inhabited it vvith the citizens of Armenia". While other portions of Azerbaijan came under attack and invasion, mass human rights violations ineluded torture, beheading, throttliııg, burning, sealping, cutting off cars, rape, and the like. As admittcd by Wcstcrn and Russian mass media, there is no exaggeration in the statement that "about 20 pcrccnt of the territory of Azerbaijan have been annexed by the regular Armenian military units and those of Nagorno-Karabakh and foreign hirclings".
While facts proving deliberate mass violations of human rights are abundant, aggression, as it occurred in most places in Azerbaijan, opcnly contradicts international lavv, including the founding documents of the Comonvvealth of Independent States. The Azeri publication underlines that demands for the secession of Nagorno-Karabakh run countcr to the principlcs of the United States and the CSCE as vvcll as the Constitutions of the former Soviet Union and Azerbaijan. The U.N. Chartcr prohibits the use of force, unless so authorized by the Security Council, and demands that conflicts be settlcd by peaceful means. The murder of Azeri civilians, the burning dovvn
1994 BOOK REVIEVS 165 of their dwellings and the evietion of the Müslim population from the homeland they have occupied for ccnturies cannot be "requirements of self-dcfcnce", as some Armenians frcqucntly refer to, but an undeclared vvar against Azerbaijan, having lasted for over five consecutive years. As the "Dcclaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation Among States in Accordance vvith the Charter of the United Nations" (1970) clearly expresses, no state has the right to intervene, dircctly or indirectly, in the intcrnal or external affairs of any other state, and armed interventions or any form of intcrference are in violation of international lavv.
The events that follovved the disirıtegration of the Soviet Union confirmcd that old vvounds have not hcalcd. The Chechens, vvho lead in the past the mountaineer resistance to Russians, are again fighting the same ethnic group. The Armenians started an era of aggression, occupation and expansion, at the cxpcnse of a neighbour.
There is an altcrnative, hovvever, other than vvar. Ossetia provides an cxamplc. Ossctians have also expcrienccd bloodshcd in the past. But they are novv underlining only the past positive and constructive aspects of relationships vvith neighbours. They novv bring forth and undcrline the adats cncompassing rules of reconciliation. Such inheritance may prove to be the only vvay out.
American Studies Association of Turkey, Journal of American Studies of Turkey (JAST), Ankara, 1 (Spring 1925) and 2 (Fail 1995), 71 + 95 pp.
The Amcrican Studies Association of Turkey vvas foundcd in 1988 to promote Amcrican studies and to assist Turkish seholars vvorking in the field by providing material and funds. It also aims to further research and publication in Turkish-American comparative studies. The Journal of American Studies of Turkey publishes vvorks in English by seholars of any nationality on various fields connectcd vvith American culture. Articles vvhich eross conventional borders betvveen academic disciplines are parlicularly vveleome, as are comparative studies of American and other cultures. The Journal also publishes notes, comments and book revievvs.
The Journal is meant to serve as a forum for those Turkish and foreign seholars vvorking on Amcrican topics vvho vvould like to disseminate their findings in Turkey. The cditorial of the first issue states that the Journal "should act, not only as a sounding board but also as an arena of
productive debate on controversial issues". It also aims to publish lectures delivered by American scholars visiting or vvorking in Turkey. It hopes to study more extensively than has been the case so far Turkish immigration to the United States and the Turkish experience in America.
The first issue contains nine articles, the first three dcaling with socio-political themes, the next three being on performing arts, and the last three being basically literary studies. The first article, the keynote speech at the American Studies Seminar held in İzmir (1994) by Shelley Fisher Fishkin, entitled "Reframing the Multiculturalism Debatcs and Rcmapping Amcrican Studies", presents an overview of the rccant debatcs on the subject.
The second issue contains nine articles, the first four addressing multiculturalism from various perspcctives (humor, ChincseAmcrican cinema, 'Hollywood UK, and a 1989 novel by an Indian immigrant vvoman writer).They are foIIowcd by an article on Alice Walker examing the black vvomen's search for selfhood. The next one discusses rcpublicanism in the texts and contexts of William James (1842-1910), "the all-American philosopher". The last four are basically literary studies with some political overtones.
Committed to publishing original researeh of high acadcmic level, the Journal of American Studies of Turkey is well received locally and internationally.
ji'- -,,, 'ıv v
i'-Çveneburi, tri-monthly in Turkish and Georgian, published since 1977, İstanbul; Mamuli, tri-monthly in Turkish and Georgian, published since January 1997, İstanbul.
The two periodicals above are publications of cultural exprcssion of citizens of Turkey who have Georgian (Gürcü in Turkish) ethnic background. Members of the editorial board and contributing vvriters are mostly the sons and daughters of Georgians whosc former homeland is now left on the eastern side of the Turkish border. They are the descendants of the immigrants who erossed över to the Turkish side in the latter part of the last country to avoid Tsarist Russian oppression and inevitable bloodshed and in search of a better life. They were the ethnic Georgians among a host of Müslim Caucasian peoples vvho vvere forced to abandon their homelands initially to save their İives and preferably to live vvith other fcllovv Muslims sharing the same vvorld outlook.
Christianity became the official religion in Georgia as early as 337 AD. The Müslim Arabs captured Tbilisi, novv the capital city, and some four
1994 BOOK R E V I E S 167 centuries later, the south-western corner of the country becanıc Islamic when the Turks dominated that region, later known as the Adjar land. The Georgian language, not Indo-European, Aryan, Finno-Ugrian or Semitic, belonged to the Kartvelian group comprising Georgia proper. The 12th century was the "Golden Age" of Georgia's medieval culture. Shota Rustaveli's long epic poems dominate that century.
The Russian tsars of later centuries, vvho regarded Georgia as a base of operations against the Ottoman Empire, Persia and some other Müslim peoples of the Caucasus, suppressed the Georgian language, the Georgian church and Georgian national aspirations. For instance, an edict of 1873 abolished the teaching of the native language. For the Gcorgians, on the other hand, Rustaveli had become a symbol of their culture and nationhood. Many Georgians considered St. George, the patron saint of the country, to be at least as important as Jesus Christ. The Tsarist governments encouraged Russian peasants to settle in the Caucasus, vvhere they got the best land, and either the Armenians or other Christian foreigners ovvned most of the industry.
The brunt of the tsarist rule vvas borne by the common people, mostly the Müslim Georgians. It vvas under these conditions that the latter chose to migrate to Turkey. Those vvho stayed behind had their first chance of independence after the February (1917) Revolution, and in 1920, an agreement vvas signed vvith Soviet Russia by vvhich their independence vvas recognised. But vvith the Bolshevization of neighbouring Armenia and Azerbaijan, in April and December 1920 respectively, Georgia became increasingly vulnerable. Grigory K. Ordjonikidze, a leading Georgian Bolshevik in charge of the llth Red Army, petitioned Lenin from Baku to invade Georgia. While Lenin seemed reluctant, failing to convey his approval, Ordjonikidze vvent ahead nevertheless, probably vvith the secret support of Stalin, also an ethnic Georgian.
Georgia entered the USSR as part of the Transcaucasian Federation. independent republic status came vvith the 1936 Constitution. Although it may be said that Georgia initially progressed under Soviet rule, industrial output increasing a fevv hundred times vvithin a dccade, there vvas resistance to Soviet povver by an underground "independence Committee", vvhose insurrection in 1924 vvas suppressed. While Catholicus Ambrosius of the Georgian Church vvas arrested after making an international appeal for aid against "religious persecution", collectivization also provoked revolts. Later, some mistakes vvere admitted. For instance, a leading Georgian communist, Philip Makharadze, affumed that a large part of "dekulakized" persons vvere actually small holders.
Lavrenty P. Beria, another Georgian, had also usurpcd dictatorial povvers in the 1930s. During the purges of 1936-37, the most prominent
Georgian Bolsheviks vvere liquidated after tvvo shovv trials. Beria and his elose supporters fell in 1953, but it vvas Nikita S. Khrushchev vvho denounced Stalin's personality cult in his famous "secret speech" at the 20th Party Congress (1956). Although this event created mixed feelings in Georgia, Stalin being Georgian, it vvas after 1972, vvith the rise of Eduard Shevardnadze, later Soviet Foreign Minister and novv Georgia's President, that Georgian nationalism surfaced. In 1980, an open letter to Leonid I. Brczhniev and Shevardnadze from 464 members of the Georgian intelligentsia revealed the extent of dissatisfaction about the consequences of a policy of the primacy of Russian. The Georgians resented the dominance of the Russians, their language and culture.
The descendants of Georgians living in Turkey have been residing and vvorking there for generations. After Georgia, the greatest concentration of Georgian population in the vvorld happens to be in Turkey. Their intelligentsia is avvare of their historical roots. Not only this avvareness is an acknovvledgement of cultural affinities, but also Georgian consciousness is in no vvay discouragcd officially or unofficially from the Turkish side. In fact, several citizens of the Republic of Turkey set up in mid-1996 "The Eduard Shevardnadze Turkish-Georgian Friendship and Solidarity Foundation". This vvriter, vvho is not an ethnic Georgian, vvas eleeted as its president. Many Turkish citizens of Georgian origin vvho have distinguished themselves in the top eehelons of administration, business and cultural achievement are founders or members of the Central Executivc Council of that Foundation.
The vice-president of the Foundation is the present ovvner and editör of the monthly periodical called Çveneburi, meaning "Ours". Each issue dvvells on topics appealing especially to Turkish citizens of Georgian background. They inelude, not only Turkish translations of articles by Shevardnadze (no. 16) or lcading Georgian intellectuals (no. 14), but also the origins of Georgians (no. 22-24), various Georgian dialeets (no. 15), Turkish studies in Tbilisi and Batum (no. 15), deseriptions of Georgian villages in Anatolia (no. 17-18, 19-21, 22-24), geographical regions of Georgia proper (11-12, 13, 19-21), lessons in Georgian language (ali issues), the Georgian Church in istanbul (no. 7), All-Georgian World Congress in Tbilisi (1994) vvhere the Turkish Georgians constituted the most numerous delegation (no. 11-12) and feature articles on the celcbratcd Georgian thinker Niko Nikoladze (no. 11-12), the pioneer Turcologist in Tbilisi Sergi Cikia (no. 19-21), historian Olar Gigineishvili (no. 10), poet Otar Chiladze (no. 7), novelist Nodar Dumbadze (no. 11-12) and short story vvriter Guram Rcheulishvili (no.
15).
The other periodical, entitled Mamuli, meaning "Motherland", is also a cultural publication that appeals to the same reader vvith more or less similar contents but perhaps vvith vvider interest in other Caucasian peoples as vvell. For instance, its editör chose to vvrite on the Chechens in the first
1994 BOOK R E V I E S 169 issue of the magazine, its editorial, hovvever, stresses the place of Georgia in Turkey's foreign policy. It is significant that the two neighbours have signed close to forty-five agreements, protocols and joint communiques within the last six months.
A Magyar-Török Barâti Târsasâg idöszaki lapja, Török Füzetek, Budapest, 1-5 (1997). Török Füzetek (meaning 'Turkish Papers') is a tri-monthly joumal published in Budapest. It may be recounted as one of the produets of developing Hungarian-Turkish relations especially since 1989. An organ of the Hungarian-Turkish Friendship Society and supported by leading Turcologists of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, so far five consecutive issues have been printed. The last issue coincided vvith the visit of Turkey's President to Hungary to attend the unveiling of the Ottoman Sultan Süleyman the Lavvgiver's (1520-66) statue, the opening of the restorated Gül Baba's türbe (mausoleum, sepulehre) and the conferring of medals to three leading Hungarian Turcologists.
With the defeat of the medieval army of the Kingdom of Hungary at Mohâcs (1526) by the Ottoman forces under Süleyman I, Buda and the greater part of Hungary became markedly Balkan and Müslim in character. While the Turks and the Southern Slavs mixed vvith Hungarians, Gypsies, Latins and Jevvs, aproaching travellers vvere struck by the numerous mosques and the slender minarets attached to them. Schools, soup kitehens, baths, hospitals and libraries vvere generally established alongside the mosques. Men from the highest eehelons of administration usually took lead in the construction vvork. An important man vvas Sokollu Mustafa from Bosnia, Paşa of Buda (1566-78), vvho vvas a nephevv of the grand vizier Sokollu Mehmed Paşa. He had enriched the distant Ottoman province by constructing a large number of buildings.
Sultan Süleyman's role in the history of Hungarian-Turkish relations is most evident. His statue vvas veiled in the presence of Hungarian and Turkish lcadcrs. The monuments of Râköczi Ferenc and Kossuth Lajos, both vvcll-knovvn Hungarian freedom-fighters given asylum in Ottoman lands, vvere unveilcd in Tekirdağ and Kütahya (Turkey) respeetively. Monuments for the cclebratcd Hungarian composer Bela Bartök, vvho had been in Turkey collecting Anatolian musical themes, and for Adnan Saygun, a leading Turkish composer, have also been unveiled. Zrinyi's monument vvill soon be created next to the Turkish Sultan's at the Hungarian-Turkish Friendship Park in Szigetvâr. A Turkish-Hungarian Friendship Park also opened in Trabzon on the Turkish Black Sea coast.
A small Turkish building situated on the eastern slopes of Buda's "Rose Hill', figures out as a lasting reminder of the times vvhen Hungary vvas under the rule of the Crescent. Among the surviving buildings, a Müslim sepulchral chapel, or Gül Baba's (Father Rose) türbe is probably the most vvidely knovvn even today. It is believed that Yahyapaşazade Mehmet Paşa (1543-48), governor of Buda, had constructed this particular mausoleum and the adjoining dervish monastery.
The türbe stands as a monument significant for Hungarian-Turkish cultural and historical relations. The first reliable report mentioning him may be found in the accounts of the 17th century Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi. Gül Baba figured also in Andersen's tales and the music of Huszka. 'Gül' (meaning 'rose') vvas usually the symbol of mystical knovvledge; it often represented the dervish himself vvho searched for the "ultimate truth". Gül Baba's coffin vvas carried by Sultan Süleyman himself.
The tekke (mystic monastery), vvhich also served as a soupkitchen for the poor, pilgrims and travellers, stood on a plot of land vvhere vve now find the Gül Baba Street, Törük (Turkish) Street and Mecset Street. It vvas the largest among the dervish monasteries in Buda. The türbe vvas registered as the property of the Ottoman state in the 1870 land registry.
The Turkish Ministry of Culture proposed a plan for the restoration and environmental management of the türbe and the adjoining area. A leading Turkish architect (Turgut Cansever) vvent to Budapest and requested a Hungarian architect (K. Pintdr Tamâs) to assist in the project. The renovated mausoleum is novv surrounded by 64 columns crovvned by capitals reminiscent of the vvorks by the great Ottoman architect Sinan. There are novv two vvells in the park reminding us of the traditional role of vvater and vegetation. The çeşme (fountain) of cultic significance has been covercd vvith tiles from Kütahya. The polished stones came from Kayseri. The illumination of the vvhole site is further enhancing the vievv of Budapest by night.
The restoration of other old Ottoman monuments vvill probably follovv one another, ineluding the tombs of fallen Hungarian and Turkish soldiers vvho fought side by side at the Galicia front during World War I.
The conferring of honours on the three leading Hungarian academics, vvho had distinguished themselves as experts of Ottoman history, vvas also a reminder of the long^ history of Hungarian Turcology, encompassing some 125 years, in vvhich Ârmin Vâmb6ry, Gyula N6meth, Lajos Ligeti and Lajos Fekete occupy prominent places in the annals of past decades.
Among the three vvho have been recently decorated by Turkey's President, Professor G6za Fehdr, novv the dean of Hungarian Orientalists, had
1994 BOOK R E V I E S 171
studicd at the Universities of Pâzmâny and istanbul in the early 1940s. Author of 173 scholarly works on Turks culture in Hungary, he is one of the fevv rernaining non-Turks among the oldcr generations vvho can read and utilizc the old Ottoman documents. Professor Feher vvas the leading organizer of the Fifth International Congress on Turkish Art.
Professor Gyözö Gerö has spent a good deal of his life on the restoration of Turkish monuments and buildings in Hungary. Contrary to vvhat has occurred in some parts of the Balkans (notably in Bosnia), the Hungarians are exerting efforts to preserve the Turkish remains. Professor Gerö's restoration activities inelude mosques, mausoleums, baths and ramparts in Budapest, Pecs, Szigetvâr, Siklös and Eger. For years, Professor Gerö offercd courses on Turkish arcitecture.
Dr. Geza Dâvid, vvho vvrote tvvo dissertations or. Turkish history ("The Simontornya Sanjak in the 16th Century" and "Ottoman Administration in Hungary"), is the head of the Section of Turkish Philology in Budapest. He also hcads the Joint Commission of Turkish-Hungarian Historians.
Török Füzetek vvill continue to carry nevvs and evaluations on Turkey's past and present vvith an emphasis on Hungarian-Turkish relations.
