PERSPECTIVES OF THE LANGUAGE INSTRUCTORS TOWARDS
COURSE BOOK CONTENT IN TERMS OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE; A SAMPLE CASE-NEW INSIDE
OUT ELEMENTARY
BETÜL DEMİREL
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRETMENLİĞİ ANABİLİM DALI
GAZİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ
EĞİTİM BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ
i
TELİF HAKKI ve TEZ FOTOKOPİ İZİN FORMU
Bu tezin tüm hakları saklıdır. Kaynak göstermek koşuluyla tezin teslim tarihinden itibaren altı (6) ay sonra tezden fotokopi çekilebilir.
YAZARIN
Adı : Betül
Soyadı : DEMĠREL
Bölümü : Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi
Ġmza :
Teslim tarihi :
TEZİN
Türkçe Adı : Dil Okutmanlarının Kültürlerarası Ġletişimsel Yeterlilik Açısından Ders Kitabı Ġçeriği Konusunda Bakış Açıları; Örnek Bir Durum; New Inside Out Elementary
Ġngilizce Adı : Perceptions of the Language Instructors towards Course Book Content in Terms of Intercultural Communicative Competence; A Sample Case-New Inside Out Elementary
ii
ETİK İLKELERE UYGUNLUK BEYANI
Tez yazma sürecinde bilimsel ve etik ilkelere uyduğumu, yararlandığım tüm kaynakları kaynak gösterme ilkelerine uygun olarak kaynakçada belirttiğimi ve bu bölümler dışındaki tüm ifadelerin şahsıma ait olduğunu beyan ederim.
Yazar Adı Soyadı: Betül DEMĠREL Ġmza :
iii Jüri onay sayfası
Betül DEMĠREL tarafından hazırlanan “Perceptions of the Language Instructors towards the Course Book Content in Terms of Intercultural Communicative Competence; A Sample Case-New Inside Out Elementary.” adlı tez çalışması aşağıdaki jüri
tarafından oy birliği / oy çokluğu ile Gazi Üniversitesi Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı‟nda Yüksek Lisans tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.
Başkan: (Doç.Dr.Arif SARIÇOBAN) ………
(Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi)
Üye: (Doç.Dr.Kadriye Dilek AKPINAR) ………
(Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi, Gazi Üniversitesi)
Danışman: (Doç.Dr. Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU) ………
(Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi, Gazi Üniversitesi)
Tez Savunma Tarihi: 15/01/2016
Bu tezin Ġngiliz Dili Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı‟nda Yüksek Lisans tezi olması için şartları yerine getirdiğini onaylıyorum.
Prof. Dr. Servet KARABAĞ
iv
v
ACKOWLEDGEMENTS
I praise to God for holding me so that I kept my resoluteness throughout these two years and also for giving me the will and perseverance in order to finish my research. After having a long and hard working time on the researches of my study, now I have the joy and excitement of reaching at the final stage. Like all the M.A students, I am also excited about the presentation of my thesis research study. Presenting it to the help and utility of the people who are interested in the topic will be an honor. I am also pleased because as I study more on the subject I would like to contribute to both my study and my academy. This academic research like many other studies owes very much to those who did not deprive their help by sparing me from their precious time and energy. My gratefulness goes to those people whose enlightening directions played a vital role on determining my route.
Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU for her endless patience, inspiration, and guidance during the whole process of writing my thesis. Also, I would like to send my thanks to the instructors and cadets of Turkish Military Academy who did not avoid from helping as participants on data collection of my study. Finally, I would like to thank to my husband who is with me all the time with his great help and support not only on the academic researches and occupational matters but also, for any problem that I face in every moment of my life. I am really grateful for his patience, respect, love, and friendship.
vi
DİL OKUTMANLARININ KÜLTÜRLERARASI İLETİŞİMSEL
YETERLİLİK AÇISINDAN DERS KİTABI İÇERİĞİ KONUSUNDA
BAKIŞ AÇILARI; ÖRNEK BİR DURUM; NEW INSIDE OUT
ELEMENTARY
(Yüksek Lisans Tezi)
Betül DEMİREL
GAZİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ
EĞİTİM BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ
Ocak, 2016
ÖZET
Çok kültürlü öğretim ortamı; farklı kültür veya milletlerden öğrencilerin oluşturduğu, kültürel farklılıkların olduğu ve eğitim öğretim faaliyetlerinin gerçekleştirildiği ortamlardır. Çok kültürlü eğitim ortamlarında yabancı dil öğretimindeki en önemli unsurlar öğretim faaliyeti esnasında kullanılan ders araç gereçleridir. Bu araç gereçlerden, yabancı dil öğretiminde en etkin biçimde kullanılan materyal olan ders kitabı ve içeriği dilin öğretilmesinde en önemli faktörlerdendir. Özellikle çok kültürlü öğretim ortamında kullanılan kitap içeriğinin ortamdaki öğrencilerin kültür öğelerini barındırması, hedef dilin kültür öğelerini içermesi ve kültürlerarası iletişim edinci açısından uygun düzeyde olması ders kitaplarından beklenen ve istenen özelliklerdir. Yabancı bir dili öğrenen kişilerin kullandığı ders materyallerinin o dilin kültürel öğelerini ve farklı kültürel verileri içermesi kişilerin dil öğreniminde yaratmış olduğu kolaylık ve sempati yadsınamaz bir kıstas ve avantajdır. Mevcut çalışma 2014-2015 akademik yılında Kara Harp Okulu‟nda yapılmıştır. Verilerin elde edilebilmesi için anket ve mülakat uygulaması yapılmıştır. Anket uygulaması 48 öğretim görevlisi üzerinde yapılmıştır. Çalışmada ders kitabının kültürlerarası iletişim edinci açısından değerlendirildiği ankete ilave olarak 15 öğretim elemanı ile yapılandırılmış görüşme şeklinde bir mülakat uygulaması da yapılmıştır. Verileri analiz etmek için SPSS 17,0 programı kullanılmıştır. Verilerin daha iyi anlaşılabilmesi için ortanca değer, standart sapma, frekans ve yüzdelik gibi betimsel analizler yapılmıştır. Tüm bu veriler ışığında öğretim elemanlarının çok kültürlü eğitim ortamında yabancı dil öğretimi esnasında kullandıkları bir kitabın içeriğinin kültürlerarası iletişimsel yeterlilik açısından uygun olup olmadığı anket ve mülakat yoluyla değerlendirilmiştir. Öğretim elemanlarının bakış açılarından yola çıkarak hali hazırda
vii
başlangıç seviyesindeki öğrencilere okutulan New Inside Out Elementary kitabının içeriğinin kültürlerarası iletişim edinci açısından uygun olmadığı anket ve karşılıklı mülakatlar aracılığıyla anlaşılmıştır.
Çok kültürlü eğitim ortamında yabancı dil öğreten öğretim elemanlarının değerlendirmelerine göre ders kitabı, amaçlar, hedefler ve ilgi alanları gibi açılardan genel olarak yeterli görülmemiştir. Bunun yanı sıra, ders materyalinin içeriği çok kültürlülük, kültürler arası bağlam ve kültürlerarası iletişim edinci açısından da yeterli bulunmamıştır. Kitabın içeriği karşı kültür öğelerinin zenginliği açısından ise yeterli bulunmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler : Kültür, Çok Kültürlü Öğretim, Kültürel Çeşitlilik, Hedef Kültür. Sayfa Adedi : xvi +104 sayfa
viii
PERCEPTIONS OF THE LANGUAGE INSTRUCTORS TOWARDS THE COURSE BOOK CONTENT IN TERMS OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE; A SAMPLE CASE- NEW INSIDE OUT ELEMENTARY
(M.A Thesis)
Betül DEMIREL
GAZI UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
January, 2016
ABSTRACT
Multicultural learning environment is the setting where there are students from different cultural and national backgrounds therefore this contains a variety of cultural components. One of the most important tools for teaching a foreign language in multicultural learning environment are the teaching materials itself that are used in the teaching process. Among these materials, the course book carries a significant importance. The content of the course books used during the teaching process plays a vital role when it comes to teaching a foreign language. Most importantly, illumination of the cultural components of different cultures and the target culture in the content of the course book and the scope of the course book in terms of intercultural communicative competence content are the expected criteria from a course book. In the content of a course book introduction of the target cultural and multicultural components are undeniable criteria and advantages in terms of enabling students to learn more about other cultures in the process of learning a foreign language. The present study is conducted in Turkish Military Academy in the 2014-2015 academic years. The questionnaire and the structured interviews were conducted to the language instructors in order to collect the data. The questionnaire was given to 48 language instructors. In the study, a structured interview is also applied on 15 instructors to evaluate the content of the course book in terms of intercultural communicative competence. To analyze the data SPSS version 17,0 is used. In order to understand the data obtained from the surveys in a better way, descriptive statistics such as mean, SD, frequency and percentages were used. As for the results, the content of the course book used in teaching
ix
in multicultural learning environment is evaluated in terms of intercultural communicative competence through questionnaire and structured interviews. Data are analyzed according to the perceptions of the instructors towards the content of the New Inside Out Elementary Course Book in terms of the sufficiency of the content in line with the intercultural communicative competence factor.
According to the perceptions of the instructors, the content of the course book is not regarded as sufficient in terms of goals, aims, and the interests from general point of view. Besides, the content of the teaching material is regarded as insufficient in terms of multicultural, cross-cultural, and ICC components. The content of the course book is evaluated as sufficient and adequate in terms of the target cultural components.
Key Words : Culture, multicultural learning, cultural variety, target culture. Page Number : xvi +104 pages
x
TABLE OF CONTENT
TELIF HAKKI VE TEZ FOTOKOPI IZIN FORMU……… i
ETIK ILKELERE UYGUNLUK BEYANI……… ii
JÜRI ONAY SAYFASI……… iii
İTHAF SAYFASI………... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……… v
ÖZET………...……. vi
ABSTRACT... viii
TABLE OF CONTENT..………. x
LIST OF TABLES... xiii
LIST OF FIGURES...… xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS... xvi
PART I... 1
INTRODUCTION... 1
1.1. Statement of the Problem... 1
1.2. Aim of the Study... 3
1.3. Significance of the Study …….….………... 3
1.4. Assumptions of the Study …….…...………... 4
1.5. Limitations of the Study ………... 4
1.6. Definitions of Terms………..… 4
PART II... 6
REVIEW OF LITERATURE... 6
2.1. A Brief History of English Language Teaching... 6
2.2. Definitions of Culture………..…………... 14
2.3. Relation Between Culture and Language Teaching …………... 17
2.3.1. The Role of Culture in Language Teaching... 21
xi
2.4. Intercultural Communicative Competence... 29
2.4.1. Notion of ICC………..………... 29
2.4.2. Goals of ICC………...……… 33
2.4.3. Components of ICC……… 33
2.5. ICC and Course Book Relation………..………..………… 35
2.6. The Role of Course Books in EFL... 37
2.6.1. The Role of Course Book Evaluation in EFL... 39
2.7. Review of Course Book Evaluation Studies ………..…….. 42
PART III………. 44
METHOD………...………. 44
3.1. Introduction…….………. 44
3.2. Setting and Participants……..………... 44
3.3. Data Collection Procedure…….………..……….. 45
3.3.1. Questionnaire…………...…...………..…. 45
3.3.2. Structured Interview ……….……..………. 46
3.4. Piloting…..………...………. 46
3.5. Research Design………...………. 47
PART IV………... 48
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS…...…...……… 48
4.1. Data Collection………...…………...……… 48
4.2. Data Analysis………. 50
4.3. Findings………... 51
4.3.1. Pilot Study………... 51
4.3.2. Analysis of the Questionnaire …….…... 53
4.3.3. Analysis of the Interview... 75
4.4. Discussion...………... 78
4.4.1. Discussion of the Questionnaire Results... 78
4.4.2. Discussion of the Interview... 83
PART V... 85
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS... 85
5.1. A Brief Summary of the Study... 85
xii
5.3. Pedagogical Implications... 90
5.4. Recommendations for Further Research... 92
REFERENCES... 93
APPENDICES... 98
APPENDIX I ... 99
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 A Map of Culture... 22
Table 2 A Map of Culture... 23
Table 3 Value orientations of Geert Hofstede... 27
Table 4 The Information about the Participants………... 45
Table 5 The Reliability Statistics of the Questionnaire for the Pilot Study... 47
Table 6 The Reliability Statistics of the Questionnaire for the Pilot Study... 51
Table 7 Factor Analysis of the Questionnaire………... 52
Table 8 Factor Analysis of the Questionnaire …..……... 53
Table 9 Distribution of the Participants According to Their Sexes... 54
Table 10 Distribution of the Participants According to Professional Experience Period.. 54
Table 11 Distribution of the Participants According to Their Educational Levels……. 55
Table 12 Reliability Statistics of the Questionnaire for the Main Application ... 55
Table 13 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Goals, Aims, and Interests of the Students……….. 56
Table 14 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants According to the Items in the Questionnaire in terms of the Goals, Aims, and Interests of the Students.. 56
Table 15 t Test Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Goals, Aims, and Interests According to Their Sexes……… 58
Table 16 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Goals, Aims, and Interests According to Their Professional Experience Periods……… 59
Table 17 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Goals, Aims, and Interests According to Their Educational Levels……….. 59
Table 18 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Target Cultural Components……… 60
Table 19 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants According to the Items in the Questionnaire in terms of the Target Cultural Components……….…... 61
Table 20 t Test Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of Target Cultural Components According to Their Sexes……… 62
xiv
Table 21 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Target
Cultural Components According to Professional Experience Periods…………. 63 Table 22 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Target
Cultural Components According to Their Educational Levels………... 63 Table 23 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Cross-
Cultural Components………... 64 Table 24 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants According to the Items in
the Questionnaire in terms of the Cross-Cultural Components………..……... 65 Table 25 t Test Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of Cross-
Cultural Components According to Their Sexes………. 66 Table 26 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Cross-
Cultural Components According to Their Professional Experience Periods…… 67 Table 27 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Cross-
Cultural Components According to Their Educational Levels………... 67 Table 28 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Multi-
Cultural Components………. 68 Table 29 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants According to the Items in
the Questionnaire in terms of the Multi-Cultural Components………. 69 Table 30 t Test Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of Multi-
Cultural Components According to Their Sexes………..……… 70 Table 31 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Multi-
Cultural Components According to Their Professional Experience Periods……. 71 Table 32 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the Multi-
Cultural Components According to Their Educational Levels………... 71 Table 33 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the ICC……. 72 Table 34 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants According to the Items in
the Questionnaire in terms of the ICC………. 72 Table 35 t Test Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of ICC
According to Their Sexes…….……… 74 Table 36 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the ICC
According to Their Professional Experience Periods……… 74 Table 37 Analysis of the Points Taken from the Participants in terms of the ICC
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Byram‟s model……... 18
Figure 2 Moran‟s model... 19
Figure 3 Culture Framework of the National Standards …... 28
Figure 4 Intercultural Competence Model... 30
Figure 5 The Components of ICC... 32
Figure 6 The Components of Intercultural Competence... 34
Figure 7 Histogram of the Values (In Terms of Goals, Aims, and Interests)... 57
Figure 8 Box Plot of the Values (In Terms of Goals, Aims, and Interests)... 57
Figure 9 Histogram of the Values (In Terms of Target Cultural Components)... 61
Figure 10 Box Plot of the Values (In Terms of Target Cultural Components)... 62
Figure 11 Histogram of the Values (In Terms of Cross-Cultural Components)... 65
Figure 12 Box Plot of the Values (In Terms of Cross-Cultural Components)... 66
Figure 13 Histogram of the Values (In Terms of Multicultural Components)... 69
Figure 14 Box Plot of the Values (In Terms of Multicultural Components)……... 70
Figure 15 Histogram of the Values (In Terms of ICC)……….. 73
xvi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
TMA Turkish Military Academy
IC Intercultural Competence
EFL English Language Teaching
FLE Foreign Language Education
EFL English as a Foreign Language
ESL English as a Second Language
ANCFCC American National Center for Cultural Competence
NCATE National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education AACU Association of American Colleges and Universities
1
PART I
INTRODUCTION
In the introduction part of this study, the outline of the survey is presented. Firstly, the problem considered as the matter to be handled is clarified in details. Then, the aim of the study is explained with its different dimensions regarding both educational setting and the learners. The hypothesis of the survey is stated subsequently. Afterwards, the significance of the study in terms of the educational area of foreign language teaching and the assumptions of the researcher are mentioned. Finally, the limitations are explained along with the key concepts as the final conclusion.
1.1. Statement of the Problem
Living in the 21st century, we now know that the earth which was regarded as too huge is not really so large in fact as people imagined before. Thanks to the modern networks, people from all around the world can communicate with the each other whenever and however they wish. They can share their ideas, knowledge, dislikes and likes critics and praises etc. with each other in various high-speed and practical methods. One of the most expected results of this case, as everybody call, is globalization which implies the earth as a small country in which everybody get into contact easily. People all around the world are affected by this globalization process in terms of many ways such as life style, fashion, economical issues, political matters, social relationships, educational subjects, art and sports, etc. Stiftung (2006, p. 34) assumes that how people might act according to the global expectations despite the lack of generally accepted values and virtues is not an easy point. He notes that if people are not aware of cultural components in the standard level it is really quite difficult to act, communicate, empathize, and tolerate others and live accordingly in social environment of an international neighborhood.
Various definitions have been suggested on the term of intercultural competence. According to Deardorff (2006, p. 178-188) the intercultural competence is the skill to communicate effectively and accordingly in intercultural environment, based on certain attitudes, abilities, perceptions, and intercultural knowledge. It is asserted by Deardoff
2
(2006, p. 178-188) that cultural awareness, intercultural competence, cross-cultural competence and multi-cultural competence are the basic concepts which are to be handled in order to define the skill to develop an understanding of culture as an important corner stone of the communication. In the clarifications given above, the importance of being knowledgeable about the intercultural competence in terms of interaction in culturally diverse settings is pointed out.
It is also argued by Deardorff (2006, p. 178-188) that handling the term of intercultural competence in an integrated manner is of great importance because the enhancement of intercultural competence may not be ensured by one discipline alone. Besides, it demands beyond what language learning or traditional cultural studies can ensure without an integrated style. It can be understood that not only language learning but also traditional cultural studies are to be handled in an inextricable way so as to have a unity in terms of the development of intercultural competence.
Simpson (1997, p. 147) points out that learning a language necessarily needs to getting
familiar with the culture of the target language. As a supporting idea it is stated by Sercu (2005, p. 1) that “Bringing a foreign language to the classroom means connecting
learners to a world that is culturally different from their own”. From this point of view, it can be asserted that the students learning a foreign or second language get familiar and learn the cultural components and standards of the target language at the same time. So, the learners are to be enabled to learn the cultural background of the language in order to ease and make their language learning process more enjoyable. From the statements above it can be deduced that the role of culture in foreign language education in teaching the target language is undeniable. According to the assumption of the study, the perceptions of the language instructors towards existence of intercultural communicative competence are determined. The content of the course book is evaluated in terms of its convenience according to the fact that whether it provides opportunities for the learners for enhancement of intercultural communicative competence or not. Through this, the results of the evaluation process are expected to enable the language instructors and course book selection commissions to reconsider the course books.
3 1.2. Aim of the Study
The principal goal of the study is to determine the perceptions of the language instructors towards the content of the New Inside Out Elementary Course Book in terms of intercultural communicative competence. The New Inside Out Elementary Course Book which is used to teach English to both Turkish and international students in the academy is evaluated according to their content in terms of intercultural communicative competence. It is investigated to see if the content of the course book is sufficient in terms of intercultural components which are regarded as vital content contributing much to the learners during the language learning process. The study goals at finding answers for the following research questions:
1. What are the perceptions of the instructors for the New Inside Out/Elementary Course Book in terms of goals, aims, and interests of the students?
2. What are the perceptions of the instructors for the New Inside Out/Elementary Course Book in terms of target cultural components?
3. What are the perceptions of the instructors for the New Inside Out/Elementary Course Book in terms of cross-cultural components?
4. What are the perceptions of the instructors for the New Inside Out/Elementary Course Book in terms of multicultural components?
5. What are the perceptions of the instructors for the New Inside Out/Elementary Course Book in terms of developing Intercultural Communicative Competence? 6. Are there any significant differences between the variables related to the instructors and their perceptions towards the content of the New Inside Out/Elementary course book?
1.3. Significance of the Study
The research serves to enlighten the perceptions of the language instructors in TMA towards the content of the New Inside Out Elementary Course Book according to intercultural communicative competence. It tries to find out if the content of the course book is sufficient in terms of intercultural components. The study is expected to give useful information as a guide to adjust some curriculum content while determining the appropriate course books or supplementary source books. The outcomes of the study are expected to give important referrals especially for those schools in which international
4
students are taught a second or foreign language. It is supposed that the suggestions given depending on the results of this research will be beneficial for:
1. English language instructors all over Turkey.
2. Colleges or academies containing classrooms with international students. 3. EFL Departments for further studies.
4. The curriculum designers and Course Book selection commissions 5. Military Academies and Military High Schools
1.4. Assumptions of the Study
The study is based on the following assumption:
It is assumed that all of the subjects‟ responses to the questionnaires and interviews are honest and sincere.
1.5.Limitations of the Study
The study has the following limitations: It is limited to the perceptions of the foreign language instructors in TMA and focuses on the content of the course book according to ICC factors in terms of multicultural awareness that includes target culture, multiculture, cross-culture, national identity, and tolerance towards otherness. The study group consists of the instructors teaching English for more than 4 years in TMA in international classrooms. The number of the instructors is 48. This is a dissertation of limited scope.
1.6. Definitions of Terms
Certain terms which are underlined in the study may appear repeatedly in the research. This concept clarification serves as an introduction of the terms, to be discussed in more detail in ensuing chapters.
Cadets: Students from Turkey and sixteen different countries following the educational path by attending Turkish Military Schools.
Culture: Integrated pattern of human behavior that includes thoughts, communications, languages, practices, beliefs, values, customs, courtesies, rituals, manners of interacting and roles, relationships and expected behaviors of racial, ethnic, religious or social group; and the ability to transmit the above to succeeding generations. (Goode, Sockalingam, Brown, and Jones, 2000)
5
Cultural Diversity: Cultural diversity is a peaceful coexistence of multiple cultures or societies in an organization (e.g. workplace) (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1992, p.119).
Multicultural: Multi refers to many, or more than two and cultural to pertaining to culture or pertaining to a particular civilization or culture (Kirkpatrick, 1981, p.238). The term of multicultural in this context refers to handling more than one culture at the same time within the same classroom setting.
Multicultural Education: Multicultural education is a field of study and an emerging discipline with the goal of enabling equal educational opportunities for students from different racial, ethnic, social, and cultural groups.
Intercultural Competence: The term "intercultural competence" describes the combination of willingness and ability of an individual or a company to behave in different cultures in line with the dominant social norms and thus being positively received.
Cross-Cultural Communication: An exchange of ideas, information, etc between persons from different Cultural backgrounds (Richards and Schmidt, 2002, p. 134).
Language Proficiency: The degree of skill with which a person can use a language, such as how well a person can read, write, speak, or understand language.
Turkish Military Academy: A four-year co-educational military academy located in the center of Ankara, whose mission is to develop cadets mentally and physically for service as commissioned officers in the Turkish Army.
6
PART II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this first chapter, a brief history of the methods and approaches in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) is presented. Then, the definitions of the concept of culture, language and culture relationship, and the role of culture in language teaching are clarified in details. After that, the notion of Intercultural Communicative Competence is given with the subtitles of goals of ICC and components of ICC. The chapter continues with the clarifications about the relationship between the ICC and Course Book. Finally, the role of course books in EFL is attached together with the role of course book evaluation in EFL.
2.1. A Brief History of English Language Teaching
While having a short glance to the years from 1880s up to 1980s it can be seen that foreign language education has always been the basic concern to people so far. The years mentioned in the beginning sentence are especially expressed because of the fact that this period involves the years when several kinds of methods have risen and cleared away according to their popularity around the world. It is quite clear that people from all around the world have spent too much time and effort to teach and learn foreign languages by using those methods or techniques. People learn those languages in order not to be away from the world around them. On this matter it is stated by Richards and Rogers (2001, p. 3) that “some 60 percent of today‟s world population is multilingual and from both a contemporary and a historical perspective, bilingualism or multilingualism is the norm rather than the exception”. Therefore, it can be claimed that people have always searched for an ideal and efficient way or method for teaching or learning a foreign language. As the efforts of the people studying have outcomes, historical progress of EFL profession is inclined to present a sequence of the methods each of which is more or less declined as the new one replaced it (Richards and Rodgers, as cited in Brown, 2007, p. 14). In this section, the methods and approaches for language teaching will be provided, with the pre-explanations of the terms of approach and method beforehand.
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According to Brown (2007, p. 14) “An approach was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, teaching”. He notes that “an approach defines assumptions, beliefs and theories about the nature of language and language learning” (Brown, 2007, p. 14). As for the Richards and Rogers (200, p.15) “An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning” (Richards and Rogers, 2001, p. 19). The hierarchical order of the concepts as approach, method and technique is issued by Edward Anthony (1963, p. 167) but Richards and Rodgers (1982, p. 18) make a change in this order and reformed it as approach, design and procedure and he regards the concept of method as an encapsulating term for the others (Richards and Rodgers, as cited in Brown, 2007, p. 14).
As the second term method, Brown (2007, p. 14) states that “method is described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach” (Brown, 2007, p. 14). From another but similar point of view it is pointed that “A method is overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 19). The approach and method relation is dealt in Richards and Rodgers as: “Within one approach, there can be many methods” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 19). From the explanations of the scholars above, it can be deduced that the approach is the general point of view towards language learning process. It can be regarded as a positioning to the event and determining the style or manner. The second term method is more specific and it responds to the color of your approach. It encapsulates your strategies and purposes in every step rather than a general point of view. In language learning process, for instance, the approach points to your manner of learning style but the method points to what sort of materials and techniques will be used in this process.
As the definitions of the concepts of approach and method were made clear; we can have a start by having a glance at the first implementations of language learning or teaching process. The first applications of methodology of teaching a foreign language dates back to the times of Latin languages teaching periods. The Classical Method is the basic method for teaching these languages. Its main principles are memorizing vocabulary, learning grammar, translating texts and doing written exercises (Brown, 2007, p. 18). In the 16th century, the grammar analysis and having a good speech in Latin language was very important. This became a model for teaching a language from 17th to 19th centuries. Oflaz (2009) states that accordingly with the popularity of this method the grammar teaching
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became one of the main goals of the coursebook during the period. As a consequence, the coursebook involved grammar rules, lists of vocabulary and long texts for translations (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p.19).
During the 19th century the Classical Method was named as the Grammar Translation Method (GTM). Brown (2007, p. 18) states that “There was little to distinguish Grammar Translation Method from what had gone on in foreign language classrooms for centuries”. As suggested by the name, the basic idea of this method is teaching of grammar rules in a mechanical way and wishing the students to apply them in the exercises in the form of blank fillings in sentences and translating. Because of the fact that translation is of vital importance, the use of native languages of the students is regarded as usual. The main purpose of the learners using this method is to learn a language in order , to be able to read its literature, therefore there was little or no effort to teach listening and speaking skills (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 19). Not only during old periods but also today GTM is very popular and widely used in classrooms all around the world although it has not got a theoretical basis which offers a rationale for its implementations (Richards and Rodgers, 200, p. 19). Because its application do not enable students enhance their oral skills, it is too hard for the scholars or language teachers to find the basis for methods or techniques applied in the classrooms. So, this leads to the invention of new teaching methods of foreign languages in the 19th century.
It is stated by Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 19-29) that from the mid-19th century on, with more opportunities and expectations for communication in Europe people want to enhance their oral communication skills in target languages. This situation caused language experts such as C. Marcel, T Predengast and F. Gouin to search for better ways of teaching language for communicating in daily interactions. According to Oflaz (2009, p. 9), it is regarded that the meaning in language is important and gave importance to the reading skill more than other skills. Predengast (1806-1886, p. 68) was the first scholar to state that the usage of contextual cues can be observed on new language learners which is similar to children when they are learning their first languages (Oflaz, 2009, p. 9). It is pointed by Richards and Rodgers (200, p. 9) that F. Gouin (1831-1896, p. 36) created an approach for language teaching by observing children learning their first languages. Gouin (1831-1896, p. 36) claims that people learn the language by doing a series of simple related actions repeatedly. This method is regarded as Gouin‟s Series Method.
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Reformers, in later years, were on the point of view that the oral based method in foreign language teaching is more fruitful, so they decided that it is better for learners to hear the language before seeing it in written form (Kamhuber, 2010, p. 12). Therefore, it was the time for the Direct Method to take place the GTM. According to Larsen and Freeman (2000, p. 22), opposing to GTM, Direct Method has one basic principle: No translation while teaching foreign language. Rather than translation, the meaning is focused directly in the foreign language through the use of some kinds of visual aids and demonstrations (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 23). Additionally, Direct Method regards that learning a second language learning must be like learning the mother tongue, in which there are many communication, use of daily language; translation and lists of grammar rules do not exist (Brown, 2007). Although it gained much attention and became very popular in the early 20th century, Direct Method also fell short of clarifying some points specifically for classroom implementations. Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 19) say that the decline of Direct Method was the sign of the beginning of „methods era‟.
The Twentieth century was a very fruitful period in terms of approaches and methods. Oflaz (2009, p. 9), states that especially the years 1950s to1980s witnessed the rise and decline of a number of methods and approaches. These methods and approaches are: The Audio-Lingual Method, The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching, Communicative Approach, The Humanistic Approaches (Silent Way, Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response), and The Natural Approach. According to Richards and Rodgers (200, p. 9), British linguists Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby were the scholars developing The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching and their basic goal was to develop a more scientific oral approach for language teaching. The spoken language is the first stage in this approach; everything is taught orally before giving them in written forms; so it is understood that the target language rather than native language is used in the classroom generally (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Vocabulary and reading proficiency is also given much importance as essential components of this approach (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 9).
The Oral Based Approach enjoyed its popularity for a period of time, but most of the foreign language teachers returned to the implementations of GTM after the Coleman's Report (1929, p. 3). That report says that “it was not practical to teach oral skills; instead reading skills should be the main focus” (Brown, 2007, p. 22). But, with the beginning of the World War II, the USA needed to teach their soldiers the interactional skills at once. As
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the state wanted to use the soldiers as spies and translators the U.S Military started oral skills based language teaching methods known also as the “Army Method” (Brown, 2007, p. 23). In 1950s the method is called “The Audio-lingual Method”. As it is regarded the method has the principles of a mixture of several theories. Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 9) sums up what is going on in classroom setting in which the implementations of these methods are conducted as;
Dialogues and drills form the basis of Audio-lingual classroom. Dialogues provide the means of key structures and illustrate situations in which structures may be used to as well as some cultural aspects of the target language. Dialogues are used for repetition and memorization. Correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm, intonation are emphasized. After a dialogue has been presented and memorized, specific grammatical patterns in the dialogue are selected and become the focus of the various kinds of drill and pattern-practice exercises (As cited in Oflaz, 2009, p. 11).
In the method mentioned above, there are little or no grammar explanations and vocabulary teaching is also limited; but pronunciation is given importance. Hence, students are wished to produce correct utterances (Brown, 2007, p. 23).
The Audio-lingual Method has declined in the following years again for a number of reasons. The inefficiency in teaching long-period communicative skills is one of those reasons according to Rivers (1964, p. 24). Following the popular period of the Audio-lingual Method, the progress of this method was opposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1960s. In the beginning of 1960s, it is asserted by linguist Noam Chomsky that language learning does not occur via habit formation as it is regarded in Audio-lingual Method; rather, people can produce and grasp the utterances they never hear (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 21). Therefore, Larsen-Freeman (2000, p. 21) assumes that learners were taught to be responsible for their own learning process they used cognitive mechanisms which enabled people to use Cognitive Approach methods in language learning process in the early 1970s. During this time there were not any teaching methods using the principles of Cognitive Approach (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 53). But there existed some methods pertaining to innovation such as the Community Language Learning, Silent Way, Total Physical Response, Nero linguistic Programming, Suggestopedia, and Multiple Intelligences. These methods and approaches are clarified shortly in the following paragraphs.
“Gattegno‟s Silent Way is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the student should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 81). The method regards as, it is crucial that students‟ production in target language must be thanked with the silence of the teacher. In the classroom, silence is accepted as a tool to put forward the autonomy of the
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learners (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 53). The teacher uses colored rods of in different lengths and colors to introduce the elements of the language involving grammar and vocabulary (Brown, 2007, p. 29). The instructor is active by using materials rather than his/ her voice.
As it is regarded, Silent Way has some innovative points. This is clarified by Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 88) as:
The innovations in Gattegno‟s Silent Way derive primarily from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed on students to figure out and test their hypotheses about how the language works, and the materials used to elicit and practice language.
As for the Suggestopedia which is also called as Desuggestopedia, it's originator Georgi Lozanov agreed with Gattegno in that people should be able to learn a foreign language much faster but the reason why they cannot is the fact that they build some psychological obstacles against learning. Those obstacles should be cleared away so that we can use our capacity in a better way (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 73). Brown (2007, p.25) points that desuggesting this psychological obstacle is of vital importance and basic purpose to be reached in a language classroom. This can be achieved through some exercises applied in a setting without anxiety and much stress (Brown, 2007, p. 27). Suggestopedia is already generally known for this type of classroom atmosphere where different techniques leading teachers to favorable options and making students relaxed and stressless, are used.
Another method bound to the principles of Cognitive Approach is Community Language Learning which is also called Counseling-Learning. It is also under the effect of Carl Rodgers‟ humanistic psychology. The originator of the method, Charles A. Curran, notes that learners feel embarrassed if they cannot succeed in learning, so it is the role of teachers to enable the learners cope with their negative feelings and have better feelings towards further learning (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 89). In order to make the students relaxed, CLL offers some principles applied in the classrooms. How these principles are conducted is clarified by Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 9).
A group of learners sit in circle with the teacher standing outside the circle; a student whispers a message in the native language (L1) the teacher translates it into the foreign language (L2); the student repeats the message in the foreign language with the teacher‟s help; students reflect about their feelings (As cited in Oflaz, 2009, p. 13).
In the 1960s and 1970s, studies show that language learning should begin with grasping meanings and then production as the next step, which led to the rise of the approach called Comprehension Approach. It involves James Asher‟s Total Physical Response at the same
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time (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 107). Brown (2007, p. 30) states that “Asher (1977, p. 35) noted that children, in learning their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that their listening is accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving, looking, and so forth)”. And, Asher reasoned that “the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is to follow directions uttered by the instructor (without native language translation)” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 108). Richards and Rodgers (2001) supported these ideas with the following remarks: “A method that is undemanding in terms of linguistic production and that involves game like movements reduces learner stress and creates a positive mood in the learner, which facilitates learning” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 73).
Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 73) notes that Tracy Terrell, a Spanish instructor outlined the main principles of a new approach in language teaching called the Natural Approach in 1977 (Richards and Rodgers, 2000, p. 73). Not much later, he studied on the method with an applied linguist, S. Krashen. They have written the principles and practices of the well known Natural Approach in their book which also involves Krashen‟s second language acquisition approach and Terrell‟s thoughts of using naturalistic principles in classroom applications in language teaching (Richards and Rodgers, 2000, p. 73). The purpose of the Natural Approach is to equip the learners with the necessary communication skills which are needed for daily interactions (Brown, 2007, p. 31).
This approach consists of five hypotheses. The first one is the input hypothesis. In this approach, it is regarded that the learners should be exposed as much comprehensible input as possible (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 74). Hence, in order to develop students‟ language production they should be given the ample amount of input in the target language. The second one is the acquisition-learning hypothesis regarding that language proficiency can be succeeded in two ways, which are acquisition and learning. According to Oflaz (2009, p. 9) the acquisition process is accepted unconsciously and naturally while the learning process is regarded as conscious and formal way. The third one is the natural order hypothesis which claims that some of the grammar structures are acquired before than the others (Oflaz, 2009). The fourth hypothesis is the monitor hypothesis which claims that “we may call upon the learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate, but that conscious learning has only this function” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 181). The last one is the affective filter hypothesis which says that learners‟ level of anxiety must be reduced, which enables them to learn more without psychological concerns
(Larsen-13
Freeman, 2000, p. 107). According to Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 183) “This hypothesis states that students with low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact with confidence and are more receptive to the input they receive”. Hence, the main responsibility of the teacher is to keep the students‟ psychological barriers as away as possible that is, they should keep the learners‟ affective filter as low as possible.
According to Hymes (as cited in Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 121) towards the end of 1970s and beginning of 1980s, it was began to be discussed that communicating needs communicative competence rather than linguistic knowledge; it requires the total usage of the language rather than a partial usage of certain functions such as ordering, inviting, promising, and refusing in social context. From this point of view it is stated by Brandl (2007, p. 5) that “Communicative Language Teaching (its name for practical applications) is based on a theory that the primary function of language use is the communication”. Larsen and Freeman (2000, p. 122) contributes to the perspective by saying that what is produced through the language is produced with a communicative tendency, so it can be claimed that language is for communication. According to Larsen Freeman (2000, p. 122) with Communicative Language Teaching, people understood the importance of communicative language teaching and they started to pay attention to the method in the foreign language classrooms.
Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 172) point to the principles of communicative language teaching enabling various kinds of classroom application as follows:
Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.
Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities.
Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
Communication involves the integration of different language skills.
Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trials and errors.
According to Brown (2007, p. 46) it can be asserted that Communicative Language Teaching is a collaborative approach which is theoretically well-informed with principles about the nature of language learning and teaching process. Due to the practical applications there are a lot of different coursebook and other source books developed according to the principles and applications of Communicative Language Teaching and language instructors around the world use this method in foreign language classrooms.
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As can be understood by having a gaze at the history of language teaching, all the approaches, methods, and techniques present the language teachers some specific substantial and beneficial aspects and fill one important point of the teaching principles. As Richards and Rodgers notes:
Some methods focus primarily on oral skills and say that reading and writing skills are secondary and derive from transfer of oral skills. Some methods set out to teach general communication skills and give greater priority to the ability to express oneself meaningfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical accuracy. Some methods set out to teach the basic grammar and vocabulary of language. Others may define their objectives less in linguistic terms than in terms of learning, that is, in terms of the processes or abilities the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 24).
By looking at the historical progression of the approaches and methods, it can be stated that the ways of teaching a foreign language has developed and changed throughout the years, and accordingly the materials also have had the same evolution. To sum up, it is noted by Kamhuber (2010, p. 9) that through the history of language teaching and in material design and content there have been alterations and evolution from methods centering upon the receptive skills to methods focusing on the productive skills. Until this point, the researcher has tried to analyze and clarify the approaches and methods with their principles and techniques. The approaches and methods which have been influential during the language learning process for a century or more can be regarded as the cover of the process. The matter which is related to the content rather than the cover is the application of the language teaching process in our own country. The variables and evolving trends and standards of the language teaching area affects the process in Turkey like every country in the world. In this research, upon the methodological expressions of the language learning or teaching process it would be more practical to address the issue generally regarding to Turkey.
2.2. Definitions of Culture
It can be seen that a lot of definitions of the term of culture are made by the scholars but it is regarded that all of the definitions do represent one specific aspect of the general term. Some of the dimensions in the explanations are highlighted more than the others. However clarifying all aspects of the concept in only one definition may not be possible. In order to have a general idea and examine some of the specific aspects of the cultural components, various definitions are presented in the paragraphs below.
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It is asserted by Parson (1949, p. 8) that in the old times especially when searching through the previous century‟s studies it can be seen that most of the definitions made for the concept of culture belonged to the ethnographers and anthropologists. Parson (1949, p.8) notes that “culture consists in those patterns relative to behavior and the products of human action which may be inherited, that is, passed on from generation to generation independently of the biological genes”. From that perspective another clarification is made by Useem and Useem (1963, p. 169). They state that “culture has been defined in a number of ways, but most simply, as the learned and shared behavior of a community of interacting human beings” (Useem and Useem, 1963, p. 169). In the explanations, scholars point to the concrete features of the definition of the concept of the culture. The behavioral features of the people interacting with others are accepted as the culture.
Uygur (1984, p. 26), states that the culture is the manner of life, a type of program to survive, and the way of behavior adopted by the one. According to Kongar (1981, p. 46) culture is the core forming the basic structure of the society. Ertürk (1998, p. 13) describes the culture as the outcome of the interactions among people coming from different national or cultural backgrounds. Erden and Akman (2002, p. 14) define the culture as the common perceptions, attitudes, and values of the society. The notion can be grasped from the explanations that all of the communities have their own culture but groups of people in the same community may have some different cultural features according to their circumstances and the places they live in.
According to Sapir (1949, p. 24), prior to 1960s the definition of the concept of culture was common and it was regarded as the synonym of the civilization. The definition of the term "culture" changes a lot from just pointing to the physical aspects to the spiritual elements, as well. The other surveys which are done in the 80s and 90s (Byram, 1988, p. 154) accept culture as an ongoing process, and members of the culture variable, and cultural learning process as improvable through interaction. From 1960s on, it is regarded that the term of the culture is handled as a dynamic course which can be shaped by interaction.
Robinson (1985, p. 23) applied a study about the explanation of the culture with more than 300 educators. The educators vary from language instructors to bilingual educators. The participants are asked “What does culture mean to you?” and the answers went around some general explanations. These explanations are behaviors, ideas, and products.
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In the later periods, the definitions of culture embrace the abstract features. Damen (1987, p. 367) describes the culture as “learned and shared human patterns or models for living; day-to-day living patterns”. Damen (1987, P. 367) notes that these patterns and models containing all features of the social interactions of people. In his point, culture is regarded as the people‟s main adaptive mechanism. It is assumed by Banks (1989, p. 169) that culture consists especially of abstract and symbolic features of the communities. He notes that the basic point of the culture is not only its tangible cultural features but also how the society perceives and considers them, as well. It is claimed by Banks (1989, p. 169) that people differ from each other with their commentaries, symbolic features, values, and perceptions. It is claimed that people living in the same cultural area look at the events around them in the same or similar ways.
Lederach (1995, p. 35) describes the concept of culture as common merits, data or concepts produced by a group of people in order to understand, clarify, and react to the events around them. Another comprehensive definition of the culture is made by American National Center for Cultural Competence in a more detailed manner;
Integrated pattern of human behavior that includes thoughts, communications, languages, practices, beliefs, values, customs, courtesies, rituals, manners of interacting and roles, relationships and expected behaviors of racial, ethnic, religious or social group; and the ability to transmit the above to succeeding generations (Goode, Sockalingam, Brown, and Jones, 2000, p. 21).
In this definition both main components of the culture and translating of the features of the culture to the following generations is underlined.
From classical point of view, it is pointed by Gurney (2005, p. 54) that it is difficult to clarify culture in a simple way and to explain it in short words. Gurney (2005, p. 54) describes the culture as overall and intellectually broad term. Gurney assumes that culture is the general patterns and styles of communication, cognitive functions; patterns that people learn by socialization and transmit it to following generations. It is regarded that people transmit their values, emotions, opinions, knowledge by interacting with others in verbal or nonverbal ways. According to Gurney‟s point, people help the others to learn the cultural features through the interactions with one another.
Some researchers point to some specific attributes which are common to most of the definitions of the culture. These features are regarded as values, beliefs, tendencies, traditions, observable or non-observable behaviors, habits, perceptions, perceptions, appraisals, and comments (Banks, 1994, p. 57). They claim that cultural elements do not
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occur away from communities but they exist within those societies. Like Banks‟ explanation, according to Kaya (2002, p.194), culture is “the unity of values, knowledge, and feelings”. It is stated by Banks (1994, p. 57) that cultural elements or features are shared by the members of a community and those elements are acknowledged by the people in the society. From the words stated on the concept of culture it is understood that culture is not something people are born with; it is discovered and learned by people during their lifetime during the socialization process. It is implied that people do not form their own culture as soon they are born; they collect and comprise their unity of culture while interacting with people during their life in the society.
According to Peterson and Coltrane (2003, p. 39) language learners and teachers should be knowledgeable about the cultural contexts and features of the language. It is understood that the culture of the target language, the trends and expected manners of behaviors and customs are to be taken into consideration so as to have a good communication with the people in the target language. Hence, if the language is supported by extensive world knowledge of the target culture, it would play a very useful role for the learners. Otherwise, the language stays short of the cultural components and it may not enable the learners to get in to communication with other people in the target language in a comfortable manner. So, as Kramsch (1998, p. 59) states the teaching of foreign language and culture are inextricably interwoven issues and intercultural communicative competence is the necessary skill to be enabled to the language learners through the materials.
2.3. Relation between Culture and Language Teaching
According to Byram (1988, p. 154) the studies on the relation between the culture and language exist more and more with the impact of development of the modern linguistics in the 19th century. Byram (1988, 154) assumes that if language is considered as a means of communication then it cannot be isolated from the culture. It is also noted that something beyond language is implied by the language itself. This referential issue can be presented to some important relation between the culture and language. The relation between the terms is highlighted and they are regarded as close-knit terms which cannot be isolated from each other. For clarification of the relationship between the language and culture, Kramsch (1998, p.3) states that “Language is the principal means whereby we conduct our social lives. When it is used in the contexts of communication, it is bound up with culture
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in multiple and complex ways”. The language is accepted as a tool for interaction and the interaction is accepted as the very existing point of the concept of culture.
It is reviewed by Byram (1988, p. 154) that language is a significant dimension of the culture and it is a form of knowledge gathered within the culture. Byram (1988, p. 154) assumes that language is both an inextricable part of the culture and it is the transmitter of the culture, as well. From his explanation, it is understood that culture is deeply related to the language and they are reciprocally related; therefore dealing with one without the other is almost impossible.
Kramsch (1998, p. 134) describes the culture by pointing interactional features. He says that communicating with the others is not only talking and exchanging information. Interaction means learning, thinking, and believing in a certain way related to the culture at the same time. Accordingly, it can be claimed that language learning means not only learning about the language itself, but having knowledge about the culture and components constituting the language, as well. It‟s exemplified by Kramsch (1998, p. 134) that the relation is as not only exchanging messages or information but also understanding the cultural components of the language at the same time. It can be stated that people explain themselves according to their values, attitudes and perceptions about the world around them; it means that they share their knowledge, create new meanings and decide or form their identity according to the culture they live in.
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From the culture teaching perspective in language classrooms Byram (1991, p. 21) designs the model based on awareness and experiences. The description made by the scholar is especially essential in terms of pointing the place of the concept of culture in foreign language education. Byram (1991, p. 21) states that one of the basic aims of teachers expecting success from their learners is to create an awareness and interest in students towards country, people, and the culture of the target language. In his model it is underlined that linguistic and cultural components should be gathered in the process of culture learning. Byram (1991, 21) points that language awareness and learning, cultural awareness and experience are the indispensable aspects of culture and language learning processes. This clarification clarifying culture learning process has some common points with Moran‟s (2001, p. 14) experiential learning model which also includes reflection. Moran‟s model (2001, p. 14) highlights knowing oneself aspect in culture learning more than the other points. Moran (2001, p. 14) explains his model in the following way:
Learners encounter another way of life. The way of life is the content, and the learners‟ encounters are the process, the kinds of activities they undertake and the outcomes they achieve. The teacher, through a working relationship with the learners, is an integral part of this experience. This experience, in turn, is very much a function of the particular context of learning circumstances where the culture learning takes place (Moran, 2001, p. 14).
Figure 2. Moran‟s model (Moran, 2001, p. 14)
Moran (2001, p. 14) notes that blending into a society's culture necessitates people to compromise some of their aspects such as knowing about, knowing how, knowing why and knowing oneself. Broody, (2003, p. 37) discusses another point on the role and significance of the culture. He says that:
