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TEACHING VOCABULARY IN TURKISH STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
i
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·
.
A MAJOR PROJECT
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF LETTERS
AND THE INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES OF BlLKENT UNIVERSITY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS , FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
*
.
.
i
BY
TURAN PAKER A ugust, 1989
BILKENT UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
MA MAJOR PROJECT EXAMINATION RESULT FORM
August 31, 1989
The examining committee appointed by the
Institute of Economics and Social Sciences for the
major project examination of the MA TEFL student
TURAN PAKER
has read the project of the student.
The committee has decided that the project
of the student is satisfactory/unsatisfactory
Project Title:
TEACHING VOCABULARY IN TURKISH STATE
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Project Advisor: Dr. John R. Aydelott
Bilkent University, MA TEFL Program
Committee Member: Dr. James G. Ward
English Teaching Officer, USIS
гі
/
TEACHING VOCABULARY IN TURKISH STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
A MAJOR PROJECT
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF LETTERS
AND THE INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
OF BILKENT UNIVERSITY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS IN
THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
BY
TURAN PAKER
August, 1989
1 certify that I have read this major project and that in my
opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a major
project for the degree of Masters of Arts.
1
John K. Aydelott
(Advisor)
I certify that I have read this major project and that in my
opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a major
project for the degree of Masters of Arts.
Approved for the
Institute of Economics and Social Sciences
^ \ - f Z r Z —
^'İ>uİ€uı^l■ /3·
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
Page
1. INTRODUCTION ...
1
Problem ...
2
Purpose of the Study ...
3
Scope
...
4
Method ...
5
Definition of Terms ...
5
2. REVIEW OF PROFESSIONAL LITERATURE ...
8
A. Review of Theoretical Concerns with the Teaching
of Vocabulary ...
8
Learning, Theory of Language Learning and
Teaching ...
8
Learning and Learning Strategies ...
9
Learning Theory ... 13
Theory of Teaching ... 14
Vocabulary Teaching in Different Approaches and
Methods ... 18
Nature of Words ... 21
Vocabulary Learning ... 25
Vocabulary Teaching in General ... 29
B. Review of Practical Concerns with the Teaching
of Vocabulary ... 33
Teaching Vocabulary at the Elementary Level .... 33
Teaching Vocabulary at the Intermediate
Level .. 39
Teaching Vocabulary at the Advanced Level .... 50
Summary ... 55
i ii3. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ... 56
Explanation of Method ... 56
Data Presentation and Interpretation of the
Results .
.
.
... 56
Suggestions ...
59
4. CONCLUSION ... 60
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... J... 64
APPENDIXES ...
71
1. Vocabulary Questionnaire ... 72
2. List of Schools ... 73
VITA ... ,... 74
IVSection I. INTRODUCTION
Vocabulary teacliing is one of the indispensable components
of
language teaching.
Wilkins (1974 :
111 ) states
that
"without
grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing
can be conveyed."
Wallace (1982:9) also states that
"it
is
possible to have a good knowledge of how the system of a language
works and yet not be able to communicate in it; whereas,
if we
have
the vocabulary we need
it
is usually
possible
to
communicate,
after a fashion."
In order to communicate with
other people we should use appropriate vocabulary; otherwise, our
communication
will
stop.
^Language
teachers
should
not
misunderstand that they should emphasize vocabulary teaching more
than
anything else.
What teachers need to do is to be able to
balance vocabulary teaching and the other skills because language
is not solely composed of vocabulary.
Wallace
(1982:9)
states
that
"vocabulary is not the whole story: the system of, language
(its ‘grammar' or 'structure') is also important: how the plural
is formed, how past tense is signified, and so on."
Teachers expect students to master the vocabulary of the
language as well as its grammatical features.
Celce-Murcia
(1979:242) states that "both grammar and vocabulary are important
and both can and should be taught in the ESL classroom without
sacrificing one for the other."
To sum up, in learning a language, students need
to have
control over the lexical items of the language they use.
Problem
Vocabulary teaching has been neglected and seen to have a
secondary status compared to syntactic structures
in
language
teaching.
Carter and McCarting (1988:1) state "vocabulary study
has been neglected by linguists, applied linguists and
language
teachers."
Allen (1983:1) states "vocabulary has been neglected
in programs for teachers during much of the twentieth century."
Gairns and
Redman (1986:1) also state that
"in
recent years,
vocabulary has not received the recognition it deserves
in the
classroom."
According to Allen (1983:3), the following are specific
reasons why vocabulary has been neglected in the past:
1. Vocabulary was being given
too much time
in
language classrooms, so it was time
to give more
emphasis on teaching grammar
instead of vocabulary.
2. Specialists
in
this field
feared
that
if
students
learned
too many words before the basic
grammar had been mastered,
they would make many
mistakes
in
sentence construction.
As a result of
this, teachers were made to believe
that teaching
much vocabulary was not the best way of teaching a
foreign language.
3. Those who gave advice to teachers seemed
to
be saying that word meanings can be
learned only
through experience and they cannot be adequately
taught
in
a
classroom.
Consequently,
little
attention was directed
to techniques for vocabulary
teaching.
The si tuat ion in the Turkish State Secondary Schools seems
nearly the same as A1len '
s explanations.
Grammar
is given more
emphasis
than
vocabulary
in
teaching
English.
After
an
the Ministry of National Education in 1981, the conclusion can be
drawn
that grammar
is emphasized more
than vocabulary.
The
vocabulary which would be taught was given in lists and
advised
to be taught before presenting subject matter fTeacher^s Rooks:
RlemfiJi-tary, 1,Z; IjLLe.r.m.eiixiLt.s. 1,2.; Adyanced 1,2, (1981)].
I
Although some
teachers teach vocabulary at
the beginning
level
(elementary) they usually shift to teaching grammar while
teaching at the intermediate and advanced levels.
The reason is,
first, they think tliat grammar is the basic element of language
teaching,
so
they spend more time on teaching grammar
than on
teaching vocabulary.
They also do not use various techniques but
generally tend to present vocabulary in a list with their Turkish
equivalents.
The most important reason for this is that teachers
are obliged to keep up with the syllabus in a limited amount of
t ime.
Purpose of the Study
Teachers should be systematic in teaching vocabulary.
Stern
(1983:132)
states that "for language instruction,
lexicography,
and
other practical activities, a systematic understanding of
lexis
is important, and the neglect is all the more curious and
unjustified."
In order to teach vocabulary successfully teachers
should use a variety of techniques, and audio-visual aids.
Thus
teachers can help students acquire sufficient vocabulary so as to
communicate and also carry out
the
four skills:
listening,
speaking, reading, and writing.
experts say about teaching vocabulary, and how teachers deal with
vocabulary
teaching
in
their classes in
the State Secondary
Schools in Turkey.
A comparison of the opinions of experts with
the practice in Turkish States Secondary Schools will provide a
basis
for
improvement of vocabulary teaching in the Secondary
Schools.
This
study also aims at
informing teachers of
the
importance of vocabulary teaching and presenting teachers with a
variety of techniques which can be used with the three
levels:
beginners, intermediate and advanced.
Scope
Sources for data collection were limited to sixty English
teachers who work at ten State Secondary Schools in Ankara.
The
study deals with only vocabulary teaching, not with testing or
the acquisition of
the language skills of
reading,
writing,
listening or speaking.
Techniques in vocabulary teaching are only for content words
(nouns,
verbs,
adjectives and adverbs) not for function words
(articles, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs and modals).
The survey
provides some helpful teaching techniques for new vocabulary
items and suggests solutions to problems
in
learning
and
teaching.
It should be noted that the aim of this stuidy
is not to
criticize
the teachers at State Secondary Schools in Turkey but
to make teachers aware of the importance of vocabulary teaching
and to increase the effectiveness of both learning and teaching.
Method
This descriptive study has been based on a review of
professional
literature on the teaching of vocabulary so that
opinions and explanations of experts can be presented in concise
form.
An
extensive review of
library materials has
been
conducted at Bilkent TEFL library, Bilkent University
library,
Turkish American Association library, British Council
library.
Yüksek öğretim Kurumu (Higher Education Council) library and the
libraries of other universities in Ankara.
A questionnaire composed of five questions with 26 choices
related to vocabulary teaching was prepared and distributed to 67
English teachers at ten State Secondary Schools
in Ankara in
order to discern some problems in vocabulary teaching and tq see
how the teachers teach vocabulary in their classes.
Definition of Terms
In this section an attempt is made to define briefly the
basic terms used in this study.
The terms 'foreign language' and 'second language ax*e used
as distinct from one another because the teaching and
learning
situations are different.
The distinction between
them
is
reflected
in
the use of the words second and foreign.:
UidL,
Teaching English as a Second Language, and T£EL., Teaching English
as
a Foreign Language.
Maple
(1987:35-36)
explains
the
difference between TESL and TEFL clearly.
According to Maple
(1987),
foreign
language
learning is
in
a non-acquisition
students all have the same LI (here LI refers to mother tongue of
the students) and English is not necessary for communication.
The teacher is usually a non-native speaker of English.
Second
language
learning
is in an 'acquisition-rich environment,'
and
normally
in English speaking countries, ,
or
in
non-English
speaking countries if English is the lingua franca (language of
communication
for commercial or some other
purposes)
of
interaction
and work or study.
Students in
the classes are
usually from more than one LI background, making the use of
English essential,
and
the teacher who is a native speaker of
English in general, usually does not speak the LI of all students
in the classroom.
Because
in this study, English is considered as a foreign
language
in Turkey,
vocabulary teaching has been considered
within the framework of foreign language teaching, not of second
language teaching.
As this study aims at finding out how teachers deal with
vocabulary teaching
in
their classes in
the State Secondary
Schools where English
is taught from zero-level to advanced
level, clarifying the term State Secondary School will be useful.
State Secondary Schools are divided into two, as Middle Schools
and H iefh Schools.
According to a book prepared by the Ministry
of Education
(MEGveSB, 1988) Middle Schools are schools where
students,
at
the ages of between
12 and
15,· attend
after
Elementary school.
Education in these schools is for three years
and attendance is not compulsory.
High Schools are schools where
students attend
from the age of 15 to 18 after Middle School
education,
and
attendance is not compulsory, either.
In
this
case lli.g.h__S.cJlilQ.l is considered as in two sections:
a Middle
School section
and
a High School section.
Vocational High
Schools are also included in the State Secondary High Schools.
Students begin to take English courses during the first year of
Middle
School and continue to study English until the last year
of High School.
Each student studies at
least one foreign
language, English, German, or French, for
six years
in State
Secondary Schools in Turkey.
In
language
teaching,
some approaches,
methods
and
techniques have been used for years, to improve effectiveness of
teaching.
As these terms approach.
method and technique are used
in this study defining these terms will be instrumental.
Anthony
(1963) defines approach as "a set of correlative assumptions
dealing with the nature of language teaching and
learning."
Anthony (1963) also defines method as "an overall plan
for
the
orderly presentation of
language material, no part of which
contradicts,
and all of which is based upon,
the selected
approach."
He also discusses approach as axiomatic and
as
procedural.
Techniques are, in a way, cornerstones of
language
teaching because each activity is framed as a technique and all
the methods and approaches are implemented by way of particular
techniques.
Anthony (1963:63-67) asserts that "a technique
is
implementational--that which actually takes place in a classroom.
It
is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used
to
accomplish an immediate objective.
Techniques must be consistent
with a method,
and therefore in harmony with an approach as
well."
[{ichards
and Rogers
(1986:15)
interpret
Anthony's
definitions maintaining that approach
is the
level at which
assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are
specified;
method
is
the
level at which theory is put into
practice
and
at which choices are made about the particular
skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in
which the content will be presented; techniaue is
the
level at
which
classroom procedures are described.
Defining active and passive vocabulary is necessary as this
study deals with them.
The term active vocabulary means the set
of words which the students can understand, produce correctly and
(
use
in
speech and writing appropriately.
However,
passive
vocabii 1
arv
is the set of words that students can recognize and
understand when they encounter them in context, but they cannot
produce them correctly and use them in an appropriate context.
Section 2.
REVIEW OF PROFESSIONAL LITERATURE
A. Review of Theoretical Concerns with the Teaching of Vocabulary
(
Learning, Theory of Language Learning and Teaching
Since all disciplines are based on theory, language learning
and
teaching,
of course, are based on theory,
too.
Language
teaching cannot take place without a theory of language learning.
Having an explicit set of ideas about
language
learning is
necessary
in
order to
improve the profession of
language
teaching.
Brown
(1980:13) says "the language teacher
cannot
teach
effectively without understanding varied
theoretical
language,
learning and teaching."
Broughton, Brumfit,
Flavell,
Hill and Pinças (1988:38) also state the necessity of a theory in
language teaching and learning as "the more knowledge the teacher
can glean from the v-jealth of writing in the field, the better
he
will be able to combine this knowledge with practical experience
to produce a suitable teaching methodology for his own purposes."
Learning and Learning Strategies
First of all, defining learning is essential because a
concept
of
language
learning
is fundamental for
language
teaching.
Littlewood (1984:1) defines learning from a language
learning point of view: he says learning is "above all, to react
to stimuli
and instructions provided by the main actor
in the
classroom:
the teacher."
The teacher has an important role
in
students'
learning a foreign/second language.
The more the
students receive stimuli the more chance they will have to learn.
Brown (1980:7) divides learning into seven components:
1. Learn ing is acquisition or 'getting'
2. Learning
is retention of
information
or s
It
i11
3. Learn ing
involves active,
conscious
focus
on
and acting upôn events outside or
inside
the
organism
4. Learning
is relatively permanent, but subject to
forgetting
.5. Retention
implies
storage
systems ,
memory,
cognitive ,
organization
6. Learn ing involves some form of practiciB,
perhaps
reinforced practice
7. Learn ing is a change in behavior
On the other hand, Krashen (1982:10) separzites learning from
accjuisi t ion .
He says "there is a distinction
between
learning
and
acquisition"
and defines
language acquisition
as
"a
subconscious process,"
because Krashen
(1982:10) claims that
language acquirers are not usually aware of the fact that they
are acquiring the language for communication.
He
(p.lO)
also
defines 'learning' as "conscious knowledge of a second
language,
knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able talk about
them.
"
Krashen
(1982:10)
asserts that
"both
'acquisition'
and
'learning' promote each other."
Littlewood (1984:90) states that
“according to second language research progress does not only
occur when people make conscious efforts to learn. Progress also
occurs as a result of spontaneous, subconscious mechanisms, which
are activated when learners are involved in communication
with
the second language."
Learning situations, affect learning very much.
Motivation
is of substantial importance in second/foreign language learning.
Littlevjood
(1984:57)
states that "according to the research
findings of Garner and Wallace
(1972) both integrative and
instrumental
motivation
affect
learners
in
learning
a
second/foreign language."
He also states:
1. A
learner with integrative motivation
has a
genuine interest in the second
language community.
He
wants to
learn their
language
in
order
to
communicate with them more satisfactorily and to
gain closer contact with them and their culture.
2. A
learner with
instrumental motivation is more
interested in how the second language can be a useful
instrument towards furthering other goals,
such as
gaining a
necessary
qualification or
improving
Being
able
to use
the second/foreign
language
for
communication purposes, emotional climate of learning situations,
linguistic
input according to the learner's level,
and
formal
instruction
have great influence on the second/foreign
language
Jejarner.
Learners develop their own
strategies according to
language
learning situations.
Wenden
and
Rubin
(1987:23-27)
suggest that there are three kinds of strategies which have been
identified which contribute directly or indirectly to
language
learning:
"learning strategies, communication
strategies,
and
social strategies."
Wenden and Rubin (1987:23-27) explain these
learning strategies dividing them
into
cognitive
learning
strategies and metacognitive learning strategies as follows:
a) Cognitive Learning Strategies:
1. Clarification/verification
refers
to
those
strategies which learners use to verify or clarify
their understanding of the new language.
2. Guessing/inductive
inferencing
refers
to
strategies which use previously obtained linguistic
or conceptual knowledge to derive explicit hypotheses
about
the
linguistic
form,
semantic
meaning or
speaker's intention.
3. Deductive reasoning is a problem-solving strategy
in which the learner looks for and uses general rules
in approaching the foreign or second language.
4. Practice refers to strategies which contribute to
the storage and retrieval of language while focusing
on accuracy of usage.
5. Memorization also refers to strategies which focus
on
the storage and retrieval of language; therefore
some of the strategies, such as drill and 3>epetition,
used
for practice are
the same as memorization
strategies.
6. Monitoring
refers to strategies
in which the
learner
notices
errors
(both
linguistic
and
communicative), observes how a message
is received
and interpreted by the addressee,
and
then decides
what to do about it.
b) Metaoognitive Learning Strategies
According
to
Wenden and
Rubin
(1987)
metocognitive
strategies are used
to oversee,
regulate
or
self-direct
language
learning.
Students learn depending on their needs and
preferences
and they choose
the way they should
learn
a
language.
Students also choose
the way to use resources and
may make some priorities in learning.
To sum up,
students, may
plan
their learning strategies, and change their strategies
if
they fail.
Wenden and Rubin (1987) discuss communication strategies
by claiming that
"in order to
remain
in
the conversation,
learners must (1) find
ways to
continue producing the target
language despite limitations, (2) recognize when their production
has not been properly interpreted,
and
(3) indicate their
reception of the speaker's intentions.
"According to Wenden and
Rubin (1987) learners may take part in the conversation by using
a few well chosen conversational formulas. However, many learners
may avoid producing words,
phrases or topics when they feel
uncomfortable and switch the topic
in order
to maintain
conversation.
Wenden
and Rubin
(1987)
state
that "Such
strategies promote communication but are not directly related
to
learning since learners are using what they know and not directly
addressing areas of confusion.
"According to them, when learners
realize that the addressees do not understand
learners they
clarify
their
intention.
Learners also use another strategy;
that
is, they indicate to their
interlocutor that they follow
them while speaking.
According to Wenden and Rubin (.1.987) social strategies are
tiie activities in which learners are exposed to opportunities to
communicate.
Learners have two social strategies: (1) they join
a group and (2) act as if they understand what is going on.
If
they do not understand they ask help from their friends.
Wenden
and
Rubin
(1987)
found out this result by making use of the
research findings by O'Malley, et al. (1983), and Brown, et al.
(1983), Carton (1971), Cohen and Aphek (1981),
Wenden
(1982,
1986), Politxer and McGroarty (1985).
After reviewing learning and learning strategies,
teachers
can be suggested to know learning strategies before teaching in
order to make both teaching and learning more meaningful.
Taking
the
importance of
learning strategies
into
consideration,
teachers may solve some of
the ·
problems students
have
in
learn ing.
Learning Theory
All approaches and methods related to language teaching are
based on a theory of language learning.
Hutchinson and Waters
(1987:39)
state
that:.
"developments
in
learning theory have
followed a similar pattern to those in language descriptions and
each has had some effect on the other."
Therefore methods and
approaches are closely related to learning theories.
Richards and
Rogers
(1986:18) consider the theory
of
language
learning in two categories: "process-oriented theories
and condition-oriented theories."
They define these theories as:
"Process-oriented theories build on learning processes,
such as
habit formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis
testing, and
genex-alization .
Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature
of
the
human and physical context in which
language
learning
takes place."
The Grammar-Translation Method, The Direct Method, and
The
Audio-lingual Method are based on process-oriented theories and
The Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, Total
Physical
Response Method, The Communicative Approach and The
Natural Approach are based on condition-oriented theories.
In
fact,
all
these recent methods and approaches have
their own
language learning philosophies.
Although learning theories have created diverse methods and
approacihes,
today there is no universally accepted method or
approach among teachers.
Richards and Rogers (1986:19)
suggest
that
teachers
may constantly revise,
vary,
and
modify
teachirig/learning procedures on the basis of the performance of
the
learners and
their reactions to
instructional practice.
Yalden (1983:3) states;
The concept of a uriivei’sally
applicable method
has given way to a kind of eclecticism
in
the
classroom.
The teacher
is expected to proceed in
accordance with
(cognitive
code-learning
theory
(Carrol, 1965, 1966;
Chastain, 1970, 1976;
Diller
1976), chioosing teaching techniques which will fit in
with some broad principles of the psychology of
language
learning a generalized concern
for
the
learner's state of mind,
and appropriate
language
learning objectives.
Theory of Teaching
Teaching and learning are so closely related that defining
one apart from the other is difficult. Teaching has been a point
Learning, in a broad term, is based on what the learner receives
from the input presented to him; however, teaching is systematic
and planned beforehand.
If we are to define teaching,
we can
refer to it as well-planned instruction implemented to facilitate
learning.
Brown (1980:7) defines language teaching as
"showing
or
helping someone to
learn
how to do something,
giving
instructions,
guiding in the study of something, providing with
knowledge, causing to know or understand.
"Stern (1983:21)
also
defines language teaching as
"the activities which are
intended
to bring about language learning."
The Chinese proverb
"Give a man a fish and you feed him for
a day. Teach a man how to fish and you feed him for a life time,"
asserts that teaching has an important role
in guiding and
facilitating
learning.
Teaching enables the learner to learn,
and Fjets the conditions for learning.
All
language methods and approaches have been created
in
order to facilitate learning and
help the
learner
learn the
language in a systematic way.
Hutchinson and Waters
(1987:39)
state that "the key to successful language learning and teaching
lies not in the analysis of the nature of
language but
in
understanding the structure and processes of the mind.
Stern
(1983:473)
states that "methods are considered as
language teaching theories.
They are derived partly
from
practical experience, intuition, and inventiveness, partly from
social,
political,
and educational needs,
and partly from
theoretical considerations."
As each method has its own teaching
theory,
the theory of
teaching changes from one method
to
view,
we can see how the theory of teaching has changed
through
t ime .
Vocabulary Tcsaching in Different Approaches and Methods
There have been great alterations in methods and approaches
in
teaching a second/foreign language through this century.
We
can divide
these methods and approaches as structuralist and
huiUim.lal,.ia approaches because some of them such as The Grammar-
Translation,
The Audio-1ingual,
and The Direct Method are based
on
the theory of
language,
and some of them such as The
Communicative Approach, The Counseling Learning, and The Silent
Way are based on theory of
language
learning.
Sometimes
these methods and approaches have attempted
to replace one
another,
but sometimes
they have had a tendency to deny the
advantages of
the previous ones.
"The attitudes of foreign
language
teachers and learners toward vocabulary have undergone
several changes depending on the way in which each approach
emphasized different language skills and, above all, the role of
vocabulary" (Palmberg, 1986:15).
In the fo].lowing section the role of vocabulary in ten major
recent approaches and methods, used in second/foreign
language
teaching, is reviewed; The Grammar-Translation Method, The Direct
Method,
The Audio-1ingual Method, The Cognitive Code Approach,
The Silent Way, Suggestopedia,
Community Language Learning,
The
Total E^hysical Response Method, Communicative Approach and The
Natural Approach.
is to havB the le a r n e r s learn a b o u t the g r a m m a r r u l e s and v o c a b u l a r y of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e in o r d e r to be a b l e to read l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n in the t a r g e t language. A f t e r lear n i n g a new g r a m m a t i c a l rule, the l e a r n e r is e x p e c t e d to p r a c t i c e t h r o u g h t r a n s l a t i o n exerciseBs from the n a t i v e l a n g u a g e into the fo r e i g n l a n g u a g e or r e v e r s e u s i n g word lists or d i c t i o n a r i e s . “V o c a b u l a r y is p r e s e n t e d in the form of a b i l i n g u a l list" (Krashen 1 9 8 2 : 1 2 7 ) . L a r s e n - F r e e m a n (1986: 1 3 - 1 4 ) c l a i m s that “S t u d e n t s are g i v e n o ne set of w o r d s and are a s ked to find a n t o n y m s in the r e a d i n g p a s sage, s t u d e n t s are a l s o r e q u i r e d to m e m o r i z e g r a m m a t i c a l rules and g r a m m a t i c a l p a r a d i g m s s u c h as ver b con j u g a t i o n s . " Larsen~'Freeman ( 1986 : 13 — 14 ) a l s o m a i n t a i n s that “s t u d e n t s use w o r d s in s e n t e n c e s in o r d e r to s h o w that they u n d e r s t a n d the m e a n i n g and use of a new v o c a b u l a r y item."
In The D i r e c t M ethod, f o r e i g n / s e c o n d l a n g u a g e is l earned by a c t i v e and m e a n i n g f u l u se of the target language. S t u d e n t s have full co n t r o l of recent, learned s t r u c t u r e s in oral p r o d u c t i o n from the ver y b e g i n n i n g . The n a t i v e l a n g u a g e of the l e a r n e r s is s t r i c t l y in h i b i t e d . “The d i r e c t m e t h o d p r e s u m e s that s t u d e n t s will a c q u i r e n e w v o c a b u l a r y in c o n t e x t as an integral part of e£icti lessorV (Krashen, 1982). V o c a b u l a r y is taug h t b e f o r e p r e s e n t i n g ttie si_ibject m atter, and v o c a b u l a r y is p r e s e n t e d in c o n t e x t by u s i n g relia, p i c t u r e s , or p a n t o m i m e .
The A u d i o - 1i n g u a 1 M e t h o d a s s u m e s that l a n g u a g e lear n i n g will be a c c o m p l i s h e d by ha b i t f orm^J^ t i o n . “The goal of this m e t h o d is to have the s t u d e n t o v e r — learn a v a r i e t y of p a t t e r n s to be used d i r e c t l y * in p e r f o r m a n c e “ (Krashen, 19 8 2 : 1 3 2 ) . “New v o c a b u l a r y and s t r u c t u r e s are p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h d i a l o g s and the d i a l o g s are
learned t h r o u g h i m i t a t i o n and r e p e t i t i o n " (L a r s e n - F r e e m a n , 1 786:43). "The t e a c h i n g of v o c a b u l a r y is d e - e m p h a s i z e d in the initial stages, kee^ping it to a m i n i m u m until the basic s t r u c t u r e s and the s o u n d s y s t e m of the l a n g u a g e have been m a s t e r e d “ ( Ce? 1 c e M u r c i a and R o s e n s w e i g , 1 9 79:241)
-The C o g n i t i v e - C o d e A p p r o a c h a s s u m e s that l e a r n e r s can learn ¿ill ru l e s conscioLisly so all n e c e s s a r y k n o w l e d g e r e l a t e d to l a n g u a g e s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e at all times. " C o g n i t i v e - C o d e e n c o u r a g e s o v e r - u s e of the M o n i t o r , u n l e s s all ru l e s 'fade away' as soon as the s t r u c t u r e s b e c o m e a u t o m a t i c " (Krashen, 1 9 8 2 :134).
the C o g n i t i v e “G o d e A p p r o a c h v o c a b u l a r y is e m p h a s i z e d ; e s p e c i a l l y the e x p a n s i o n of v o c a b u l a r y k n o w l e d g e for r e a d i n g p)urposes is c o n c e r n e d .
In The S i l e n t Way, s t u d e n t s begin to learn l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h its basic b u i l d i n g blocks, its sounds. "The t e a c h e r set s up sitLuations that focus s t u d e n t a t t e n t i o n on the s t r u c t u r e s of language- The s i t u a t i o n s p r o v i d e a v e h i c l e for s t u d e n t s to p e r c e i v e m G a n i n g , The s t u d e n t s r e c e i v e a g r e a t deal of p r a c t i c e w i t h a gi v e n t a r g e t language· s t r u c t u r e w i t h o u t r e p e t i t i o n for its own sake" (L a r s e r v - F r e e m a n , 1906:63). L a r s e n - F r e e m a n (1986:64) a l s o c l a i m s that s t u d e n t s "gain a u t o n o m y in the l a n g u a g e by e x p l o r i n g it and m a k i n g c h o i c e s . V o c a b u l a r y is r e s t r i c t e d at first. M e a n i n g is m a d e c l e a r by f o c u s i n g the s t udents' p e r c e p t i o n s , not by t r a n s l a t i o n . The s t u d ents' n a t i v e l a n g u a g e can, however, be use d to g i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s when n e c e s s a r y . " R i c h a r d s and R o g e r s ( 1 9 8 6 : 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ) s t a t e that " v o c a b u l a r y is s e l e c t e d a c c o r d i n g to the d e g r e e to w h i c h it can be m a n i p u l a t e d
lAjithin a g i v e s t r u c t u r e and a c c o r d i n g to its p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h i n the? c l a s s r o o m setting. In a d d i t i o n to p r e p o s i t i o n s and n u m b e r s , p r o n o u n s , q u a n t i f i e r s , w o r d s d e a l i n g w i t h temporal r e l a t i o n s , and w o r d s of c o m p a r i s o n are i n t r o d u c e d e a r l y in the c o u r s e . "
In C o m m u n i t y L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g , in the e a r l y s t a g e s of learn i n g the s t u d e n t s d e s i g n the s y l l a b u s , in that they d e c i d e w h a t they w a n t to be a b l e to say in the t a r g e t language. L a r s e n - F r e e m a n c l a i m s that (1986:102) " p a r t i c u l a r g r a m m a r points, p)ronunciation p a t t e r n s , and v o c a b u l a r y are w o r k e d with, based on the l a n g u a g e the s t u d e n t s have g e n e r a t e d . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t s k i l l s are u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s p e a k i n g the language- " V o c a b u l a r y is g a i n e d by w ay of t r a n s l a t i o n from the n a t i v e language.
In The Total P h y s i c a l R e s p o n s e M ethod, basic s p e a k i n g s k i l l s are the u l t i m a t e aim. I m p e r a t i v e d r i l l s are of s u b s t a n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e at the b e g i n n i n g level, later on c o n v e r s a t i o n a l d i a l o g s are e m p h a s i z e d - V o c a b u l a r y is t a u g h t by do i n g the a c t i o n at the b e g i n n i n g as the t e a c h e r is a model; in a d d i t i o n , p i c t u r e s , relia, s l i d e s and word c h a r t s are used. L a r s e n - F r e e m a n (1986:117) s t a t e s that " g r a m m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and v o c a b u l a r y are e m p h a s i z e d o v e r o t h e r l a n g u a g e areas. T h e s e are e m b e d d e d w i t h i n i m p e r a t i v e s ; u n d e r s t a n d i n g the s p o k e n wor d s h o u l d p r e c e d e its produc L i o n .
In The C o m m u n i c a t i v e A p p r o a c h , l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s are e m p h a s i z e d over forms, g e n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n a l s y l l a b u s is used, and a v a r i e t y of forms are i n t r o d u c e d for e a c h function. All four s k i l l s are used from the beg i n n i n g . "The s t u d e n t ' s n a t i v e l a n g u a g e has no p a r t i c u l a r role in the C o m m u n i c a t i v e A p p r o a c h . The t arget l a n g u a g e s h o u l d be used not o n l y d u r i n g c o m m u n i c a t i v e
ac t i V i t: i but al s o in e x p l a i n i n g v\jord m e a n i n g and in a s s i g n i n g liomework. The s t u d e n t s see the l a n g u a g e as a v e h i c l e for c n m m u n i c a t i a n , not just an o b j e c t to be s t u d i e d " (L a r s e n - F r e e m a n ,
1.986:134). V o c a b u l a r y is taught a c c o r d i n g to s i t u a t i o n s by us i n g relia, maps, pic t u r e s , s y m b o l s , graphs, and chart- S t u d e n t s are e x p e c t e d to u s e a p p r o p r i a t e v o c a b u l a r y a c c o r d i n g to the s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . ,
In The N a t u r a l A p p r o a c h , the goal is to e n a b l e stude:?nts to talk a b o u t ideas, p e r f o r m tasks, and s o l v e p r o b lems. " Class time is d e v o t e d p r i m a r i l y to p r o v i d i n g input for a c q u i s i t i o n - The t e a c h e r s p e a k s o n l y the tar g e t l a n g u a g e in the c l a s s r o o m , but s t u d e n t s m ay use? e i t h e r the f i r s t or s e c o n d language. If s t u d e n t s c h o o s e to r e s p o n d in the s e c o n d language, their e r r o r s are not c o r r e c t e d u n l e s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n is s e r i o u s l y i m p a i r e d " (K r a s h e n , 1 902:138). V o c a b u l a r y is seen as a basic f a c t o r in c o m m u n i c a t i o n and for the a c q u i s i t i o n process. K r a s h e n and Terrel 1 (1983:155) s t a t e that " a c q u i s i t i o n will not take p l a c e w i t h o u t c o m p r e h e n s i o n of v o c a b u l a r y . " At the b e g i n n i n g s t a g e s v o c a b u l a r y is t a u g h t by p r e s e n t a t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n of c e r t a i n key w o r d s b e f o r e p r e s e n t i n g the s u b j e c t m a t ter, i.e. a d i s c u s s i o n or a c q u i s i t i o n a c t i v i t y - K r a s h e n and T e r r e l l (1983:157) p o int out:
S u c h pre t e a c h i n g m a y or may not lead to the a c q u i s i t i o n of the s p e c i f i c w o r d s p r e s e n t e d . It will, however, help to m a k e the a c t i v i t y its e l f m o r e compre?hensi b 1 e and thus help a c q u i s i t i o n of o t h e r items a n d / o r struc: t u r e s . The goa.l of the natural a p p r o a c h is to p r o v i d e e n o u g h v o c a b u l a r y to a l l o w
l a n g u a g e u se o u t s i d e the c l a s s r o o m , and to pl a c e the s t u d e n t in a p o s i t i o n to c o n t i n u e s e c o n d la n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n .
N a t u r e of W o r d s
I n LQDJ]in^Q__ Die i: i o n ary o f C o n t e m p o rary E n g l i sh a w o rd i в d e f i n e d as "one or m o r e soiinds w h i c h can be s p o k e n (together) to r e p r e s e n t an idea, obj e c t , a c t i o n . " In W e b s t e r 's ______ W o r I d P i c tio n a r y , wor d is d e f i n e d as "1. a) a s p e e c h sound, or s e r i e s of them, s e r v i n g to c o m m u n i c a t e m e a n i n g and c o n s i s t i n g of at least one base m o r p h e m e w i t h or w i t h o u t p r e f i x e s or s u f f i x e s but w i t h a s u p e r f i x ; uni t of l a n g u a g e b e t w e e n the m o r p h e m e and the c o m p l e t e u t t e r a n c e . b) a l etter or g r o u p of l e t ters r e p r e s e n t i n g s u c h a u n i t of language, w r i t t e n or p r i n t e d u s u a l l y in so l i d or h y p h e n a ted f o r m ."
When t h ese d e f i n i t i o n s are looked at, the c o n c l u s i o n that w o r d s have c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e a s can be drawn. For e x a m p 1e ,w o r d s are c o m p o s e d of one or m o r e sounds; a letter or a g r o u p of l e t ters w h i c h r e p r e s e n t an ideaa, object, action, s e r v e to c o m m u n i c a t e me a n i n g . T w a d d e l l (1973:65) p o i n t s out a f a m i l i a r slogan: "words d o n ' t have m e a n i n g s ; p e o p l e have m e a n i n g s for w o r d s . " T h ere is a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w o r d s and a c t ions. W i l k i n s (1974:119) c l a r i f i e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p by s t a t i n g "this r e l a t i o n s h i p is 'commonly' d e s c r i b e d as the 'denotative' or
'r e f e r e n t i a 1' m e a n i n g . " E s p e c i a l l y t e c h n i c a l w o r d s are good example=?s as they have o n e v e r y s p e c i f i c m e a n i n g . For e x ample,
the word с о т ри teer has a s p e c i f i c m e a n i n g and d o e s not c a u s e any p r o b l e m for s t u d e n t s - H o w e v e r , some w o r d s have a w i d e r a n g e of d e n o t a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to the con t e x t
-Some? w o r d s have m a n y m e a n i n g s . This q u a l i t y is known as p o l y s e m y — m a n y m e a n i n g s . For e x ample, the wor d 1 eg can be used
ass “ leg of a p e r son" and “ leg of a c h a i r or a table." Zuk o w s k i/F a n s t (August, 1989) s t a t e s that “a i^jord may c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t s from p e r s o n to pers o n -“ For e x a m p l e , the wor d h o u s e may mean a tent for a nomad, a d e t a c h e d ho u s e for a p e r s o n living in a town, or a flat for a pers o n living in a city.
S o m e t i m e s a word may have the sam e form but q u i t e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s ; this q u a l i t y is c a l l e d h o m o nymy. (Bairns and R e d m a n (1906:14) d e f i n e h o m o n y my as “a s i n g l e word form w h i c h has several d i f f e r e n t m£?anings w h i c h are not c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . " For exampjle, the word bo o k as a noun m e a n s a c o l l e c t i o n of pages bound tocjether but as a v e r b book m e a n s to m a k e a r e s e r v a t i o n .
W o r d s w h i c h s o und d i f f e r e n t but have the s a m e m e a n i n g s are c a l l e d s y n o n y m s . J a c k s o n (1988:64) d e f i n e s s y n o n y m y as the q u a l i t y for w o r d s w h i c h "can be useed in terc h a n g e a b 1 y in all s e n t e n c e c o n t e x t s . " All s y n o n y m s may be i n t e r c h a n g e a b 1e d e p e n d i n g on the c o n c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . F or e x a m p l e , the w o r d s to w a t c h and to c a r e for are s y n o n y m o u s in the f o l l o w i n g con tex t :
W h i l e I w a t c h / c a r e for the baby, you may go s h o p p i n g .
Ho w e v e r , the two w o r d s are not s y n o n y m o u s in the f o l l o w i n g con tex t :
I will w a t c h TV. (not c a r e for)
A n o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of w o r d s is hy iJonymy. C a r t e r (1907:20) d e f i n e s h y p o n y m y as "a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l lexical items in that the m e a n i n g of the s p e c i f i c item is i n c l u d e d in and by the m e a n i n g of the m o r e g e n e r a l item." For e x a m p l e , c a c is tl'ie h y p o n y m y of ve h i c 1 e b e c a u s e yehicj,_e i n c l u d e s
