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A THESIS P R E S ENT ED BY NiLGtiN S U N G U R T E K i N EROZ
TO THE INSTITUTE O F E C O N O M I C S A N D SOCIAL SCIENCES IN P A RTIAL F U L F I L L M E N T OF THE R E Q U I R E M E N T S
FOR THE DE G R E E OF M A S T E R OF A R T S
IN THE T E A CH I N G OF E N G L I S H AS A FORE IGN LANGUAGE
B I L K E N T U N I V E R S I T Y A U G U S T 1997
Title; O b s e r v i n g Change in T each ing B e h a v i o r T h r o u g h R e f l e c t i o n
A u t h o r : Nilgiin S u n g u r t e k i n Eröz
Thesis Chairperson: Dr. T h e o d o r e S. Rodgers
B i l k e n t University, M A TEFL P r o gra m
Co m m i t t e e Members: Dr. Bena Gül Peker Dr. Tej Shresta
B i l k e n t University, M A TEFL P r o g r a m
This stud y i n v e s t i g a t e d h o w t eacher trainers and trainees o b s e r v e d changes in the te a c h i n g b e h a v i o r of the trainees who a t t e n d e d a t h r e e - w e e k p r e - s e r v i c e t rain i n g course. D e t e r m i n i n g the results of tea che r t rai ning in terms of changes in t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r has b e e n a rese arch theme of c o n t i n u i n g imp o r t a n c e and interest in the field of E n g l i s h L an g ua g e Teaching. Since often such changes can not be o b s e r v e d directly, p e rc e p t i o n s of t r a in ed teachers and t e acher train e r s are sometimes u s ed as r e s e a r c h probes.
Past studies have sho w n that teachers p e r c e i v e change as a result of a t t e n d i n g teacher t r a i n i n g
programs. For example, O z g i r i n ' s study (1996) e x a m i n e d to what extent p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the D T E F L A tra ining p r o g r a m ch a n g e d teachers in terms of knowledge, skills.
changes in p r e d e t e r m i n e d areas but tries to find out if change in teach i ng b e h a v i o r of teachers who a tten ded a p r e - s e r v i c e course can be o b s e r v e d through ref l e c t i o n (by u s i n g the w o r d "to o b s e r v e " the intent t h ro ugh out this stu d y is to m e a n "to p e r c e i v e " ) .
This study was c a r r i e d out in the following way. Three t e acher trainers and five n e w l y h i r e d e x p e r i e n c e d and i n e x p e r i e n c ed teachers at the M id d l e East Technical U n i v e r s i t y (METU), at the D e p a r tm ent of Basic E n g l i s h
(DBE) p a r t i c i p a t e d in this study. All of these teachers p a r t i c i p a t e d in a DBE p r e - s e r v i c e tra i n i n g course taught p ri o r to b e g i n n i n g their teach i n g at METU. Thr ou g h o u t this study, p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g and p r e - s e r v i c e
o ri e n t a t i o n are u sed i nterchangeably. This p r e - s e r v i c e train i n g course was p r e s e n t e d a c cord ing to a d e t a i l e d w r i t t e n syllabus p r e p a r e d bef o r e train ing began.
The subjects were aslced to re view and r eflect on the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus p r e p a r e d b y the trainers w o r k i n g at the department. The subje c t s were asked to r eflect on the com p on e n ts of the syllabus and discuss them. Thus, data for this study was o b t a i n e d p r i m a r i l y via think- alo u d p r o t o c o l s (TAPs) b a s e d on syllabus reflection. How the trainers and the train e e s o b s e r v e d change in the
Interviews w ere e m p l o y e d i mm e d i a t e l y after the TAPs to i n v e s tigate further the issues whi c h were not
m e n t i o n e d in the TAPs c o n c e r n i n g h o w the trainees and the trainers o b s e r v e d change. Data o b t a i n e d from the TAPs and the interviews were a n a l y z e d first by t r a n s c r i b i n g the TAPs and the interviews and then coding the
transcriptions. The t r a n s c r i p t i on s were also c o ded b y a second coder to achieve i n t e rcoder reliability.
The results of the stu d y show that change in the teach i n g b e h a v i o r of the trainees can be o b s e r v e d through trainees' and trainers' r e f l e c t i n g on the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus. H o w they p e r c e i v e change seems to be a w a y to o bserve changes in teachers as o b s e r v i n g change d i r e c t l y is difficult. The results of the study indicate that in the f ollowing com p o n e n t s of the syllabus change can be o b s e r v e d the most: Demo (of a lesson), Lesson Plan nin g P r e p a r i n g the C ontext (in p r e s e n t i n g a new topic),
ad visor Dr. Bena Giil-Peker for her inv aluable support and help. I am also grateful to Prof. Dr. Theodo re S.
Ro dgers for his inv a l u a b l e guida nce and support
thr o u g h o ut m y research. I w o u l d also like to express m y deepest a p p r e c i a t i o n to Ms Te r e sa Wise for m a k i n g m m a n y helpful s u g g estions and giving con tin uous encouragement. M y special thanks goes to Dr. Tej Shresta for fri endly p r e s e n c e .
I am i nd e p t ed to Ms Banu B arut lu and Ms Naz Dino for giving me r e m is s i o n to at t e n d the M A TEFL program. I w o u l d like to express m y grat i t ut e to the teac her
trainers and trainees at M E T U for their p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the study.
M y most special thanks are for Zeynep, Samer, Serap, Dilek, Jiilide, A y l i n and N a f i y e for b ei n g great a nd fun s u p porters throughout. I w o u l d also like to ex press m y grat i t u t e to all m y c l a s s m a t e s for their friendship.
M y g re a t e st thanks go to m y friends D i d e m and G ür kan for their love and kindness throughout.
Finally, I w o u l d like to express m y de ep e s t gr ati tute to m y family. I tha n k m y mother, m y father and m y sister for their endless love, p a t i e n c e and co nt i n u o u s support and m y h u s b a n d for his e n dless love and e n c o u r a g e m e nt w i t h o u t w h o m this thesis w o u l d never have b een completed.
B I L K E N T U N I V E R S I T Y
INSTITUTE OF E C O N O M I C S A N D SOCIAL S CIENCES M A THESIS E X A M I N A T I O N RE SUL T FORM
A U G U S T 1, 1996
The e x a m i n i n g c o m m i t t e e a p p o i n t e d by the Institute of Econ o m i c s and Social Sciences for the thesis e x a m i n a t i o n
of the M A TEFL student
Nilgiin S u n g u r t e k i n Erdz
has read the thesis of the student.
The comm i t te e has d e c i d e d that the thesis of the student is satisfactory. Thesis Title Thesis A d v i s o r C om m i t t e e M e mb e rs : O b s e r v i n g Change in Teach i n g B e h a v i o r T h r oug h R e f l e c t i n g : Dr. B e n a Giil-Peker B i l k e n t University, M A TEFL P r o g r a m : Dr. Ted Rodgers B i l k e n t University, M A TEFL P r o g r a m Dr. Tej Shresta B i l k e n t University, M A T E F L P r o g r a m
We c e r t i f y that we have r ead this thesis and that in our c o m b i n e d o pi n i o n it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of M a s t e r of Arts.
oO
(Committee Member)
A p p r o v e d for the
Institute of E c o n o m i c s and Social Sciences
To
MY FAMILY and m y H U S BAN D for their n e v e r - e n d i n g love,
TABLE OF CON TEN TS LIST OF TABLES ... ix C H A P T E R 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N ...I B a c k g r o u n d of the S t u d y ... 4 S tatement of the P r o b l e m ...6 Purpose of the S t u d y ... 7 S ig n i f ic a nc e of the S t u d y ... 7 R es e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s ... 10 C H A P T E R 2 L I T E R AT U R E R E V I E W ... 11 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 11 U n d e r s t a n d i n g C h a n g e ... 11 Implications of C h a n g e ... 13
Init i at i n g Change t h rough Teacher T r a i n i n g ... 14
U n d e r l y i n g Pri n c i p l e s of In itiating C hange through T e acher T r a i n i n g ... 16
P r e - S e rv i c e T e acher T r a i n i n g ...18
O b s e r v i n g Change in T e a chin g B e h a v i o r ...20
Reflection: A Mea n s for O b s e r vin g C h a n g e ... 22 T h i n k - A l o u d P r o t o c o l s ... 23 C H A P T E R 3 M E T H O D O L O G Y ... 27 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 27 S u b j e c t s ... 28 M a t e r i a l s ... 30 P r o c e d u r e ... 31 Data A n a l y s i s ... 34 CH A P T E R 4 A N A L Y S I S O F THE D A T A ... 3 6 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 36 Data An a ly s i s P r o c e d u r e s ... 36
Results of the T h i n k - A l o u d Protocols and I n t e r v i e w s ...40 C H A P T E R 5 C O N C L U S I O N ... 66 I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 66 O ve r v i e w of the S t u d y ... 66 S u m ma r y of the Findings and C o n c l u s i o n ... 68 D i s c u s s i o n ...70 L i m i t a t i o n s ... 70 E d u c a t io n al I m p l i c a t i o n s ... 71
Implications for Future R e s e a r c h ...72
A p p e n d i x B: C o d i n g L i s t ...86 A p p e n d i x C: TAP 7 (Trainee 4 ) ... 88 A p p e n d i x D: TAP 8 (Trainee 5 ) ... 104 A p p e n d i x E: TAP 3 (Trainer 1 ) ... 115 A p p e n d i x F: A b b r e v i a t i o n s u s e d in t r a n s c r i p t i o n s ... 132
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1 A Sample from Trainee 5's T h i n k - A l o u d
P r o t o c o l ...34 2 A Sample from T r ainee 5's T h i n k - A l o u d
P r o t o c o l ...39 3 TAP R e f l e ct i on s of T r ainee 1 ... 42 4 A n a l y s i s of In te r v i e w Commen t s of T r ainee 1 ... 43 5 TAP R e f l e c t i on s of Trainee 2 ...45 6 A n a l y s i s of Interview Commen t s of Tr ainee 2 ... 47 7 TAP R e f l e c t io n s of T r ainee 3 ...49 8 A n a l y s i s of Int e r v i e w Comments of Trainee 3 ... 51 9 TAP R e fl e c t i o n s of T r a i n e e 4 ...52 10 A n a l y s i s of I n terview Commen t s of Trainee 4 ... 54 11 TAP R e f l e c t io n s of T r ainee 5 ...55 12 A n a l y s i s of In te r v i e w C o m m e n ts of T r ainee 5 ... 56 13 TAP R e f l e c ti o n s of Tr a i n e r 1 ... 57 14 A n a l y s i s of Interview C o m m e n ts of Trainer 1 ... 59
15 TAP R e fl e c t i o n s of T r ainer 2 ...60 16 A n a l y s i s of I n t erview Comme n ts of Trainer 2 ... 62 17 TAP R e f l e c t i o n s of T r ainer 3 ...63 18 A n a l y s i s of In te r v i e w Comments of Tr ainer 3 ... ....64 19 C o m p o ne n ts of the Pr e - S e r v i c e Syllabus in w h i c h Change Can be O b s e r v e d the M o s t ... 69
We are living in an age of change in e d ucat ion as well as all other aspects of life, and as we app roa ch the end of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y the speed of change seems to accelerate. R a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t of k nowledge is qu i c k l y r e p la c i n g e x i s t i n g knowledge. As Dean (1991) points out "The speed of change and the expl o s i o n of knowledge are r e q u ir i n g peo p l e to learn af resh at intervals t h r o ug h o u t their lives" (p. 1).
This has an important impact on e d ucat ion in the sense that teachers as well as institutions have to keep up w i t h the pace of change. This is f r e que ntly done t h rough some form of training. Tra i n i n g aims at h e l p i n g teachers to develop, change and be more e f fec tive in terms of knowledge and t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r (Freeman, 1990).
Teachers who want to change are more likely to adapt to s o c i e t y ’s c h a n gi n g goals, methods, values, and
expectations. Palmer (1993) agrees that b e h i n d e v e r y teacher training p r o g r a m there sh oul d be an u n d e r l y i n g desire for changes in t e a c h i n g behavior. T ea c h e r change then, seems to be n e c e s s a r y if " . . . t each ers are to beco me r e s p o n s i v e to students and to fulfill their own
aspirations. No w h e r e m a y change be more import ant than in the p r o f e s s i o n of teac h i n g " (McNergney & Carrier,
routines and thus be c o m e u n r e s p o n s i v e to n ew teaching m e t h o d s or c l a s s r o o m experiences.
The issue of h o w teachers can keep up to date wit h the c h a n g i n g pace and e x p l o s i o n of knowledge then becomes crucial. One w a y of e n a b l i n g change in terms of teaching b eh a v i o r is t h rough training. Teachers m a y change their teach i n g b e h a v i o r d u r i n g and after t rain ing courses.
T r a i n i ng is u s u a l l y mea n t as some form of e d u c a t i o n w ith support and ass i s t a n c e from a trainer as Giil-Peker
indicates (1996). T r a i n i n g can allo w teachers to e s t a b l i s h a b a c k g r o u n d of t e a c h i ng b e h a v i o r and thus
initiate d ev e l o p m e n t w h i c h is " c areer long, s tar t i n g w i t h initial train i ng and c o n t i n u i n g until r e t i remen t" (Dean 1991, p. 7). The aim is to help teachers to acquire skills, knowledge and u n d erstanding. G r a d u a l l y these aspects are e x p e c t e d to be c o m e i nt e r n a l i z e d so that they be c o m e part of teachers' nat u r e and are ava ilabl e
w h e n e v e r needed.
H a r g r ea v e s (1991) explains that e d u c a t i o n a l is t s r e g a r d train i n g as " d e v e l o p i n g bet t e r te ac h i n g methods, of i m p r o v i ng instruc t i o n " (p. 9). He notes that
" t r a i n i n g teachers in n e w c l a s s r o o m m a n a g e m e n t skills, in active learning, c o- o p e r a t i v e learning, o n e - t o - o n e
Lange (1990) d e fines the t er m of teacher trainin g as "a t e r m u s e d in the l i t erature to describ e a process of c ontinual intellectual, e x p e r i e nti al and att itudinal gr ow t h of teachers, some of w h i c h is g e n e r a t e d in
p r e p r o f e s s i on a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l in-service programs", by w h i c h he refers to p r e - s e r v i c e and in-service pro gra ms
(p. 250). However, Palmer (1993) notes that "in teacher t r a i n i n g there is often a large gap b e t w e e n what happens in an i n -s ervice course and what su b s e q u e n t l y happens in the c l a ssroom" (p. 166). In addition, o b s e r v i n g changes in teachers' teach i n g b e h a v i o r is difficult. Breen, Candlin, Dam, and G a b r i e l s e n (1989) point out that it is diff i c u l t to ob serve and focus d i r e c t l y on change in teachers' t e ac h in g b e h a v i o r s as it is a long term m a t t e r rather than immediate.
To sum up, t ra i n i n g improves the knowledge and skills of teachers w i t h the a s s ista nce of the trainer. It can be st at e d that it is not easy to d ete rmi ne w h e t h e r or not teachers in their classrooms, use some of the
skills d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g their training. As R e a - D i c k i n s and G e r m ai n e (1993) p o i n t out, it is not known w h e t h e r the t e a c hi n g b e h a v i o r of these teachers a c t u a l l y changes as a result of the training. A l t h o u g h te acher t rain i n g aims at a t t e m p t i n g to change teachers' t ea c h i n g behavior.
c h a n g e .
B a c k g r o u n d of the Study
This study rep r e s e n t s a familiar t e c hni que -thin k- a l o u d - a p p l i ed to a n e w focus; rereading, rethinking, reca l l i n g and r e a c t i n g to a w r i t t e n syllabus on whi c h a r e c e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d t r a i n i n g was based. The hope is to gain further insight into the r el ation shi p of teacher train i n g to ch a n g e d teach i n g behavior.
The M i d d l e East Technical U n i v e r s i t y in Ankara,
Tu rk e y (METU, hereafter) is an E ng l i s h m e d i u m u n i v e r s i t y where 20,000 students s t udy at d i f fer ent departments.
The context of this study is the D e p artm ent of Basic E n g l i s h (DBE, h e r e a f t e r ) , School of Foreign Languages
(SFL, hereafter) w i t h i n METU. The DBE p rov ides a one- year intensive E n g l i s h language p r o g r a m for students to enable t h e m to conti n u e w i t h their academ ic studies in their departments. Students who are ne w l y a d m i t t e d to the u n i v e r s i t y have to take an Engl i s h p r o f i c i e n c y exam. Those who get b e l o w 65 (out of 100) are p l a c e d accord ing to their level of E n g l i s h in classes at the DBE so that they learn or improve their English. The DBE, wit h 225 in s t r uctors and 3500 students, has an i mportant role in the success of the university.
course o f f e r e d b y the U n i v e r s i t y of C a m bridg e Local E x a m i n a t i o n Synd i ca t e (UCLES), p r e - s e r v i c e orientation, i n- s ervice and inset programs.
The p r e - s e r v i c e o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m is a three-weelc intensive course d e s i g n e d for the new l y h i r e d teachers, bo t h e x p e r i e n c e d and inexperienced. This course comprises five days of i n s t r u c t i o n per week, and six hours per day. The p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g is d e s i g n e d to equip teachers w it h the k nowledge and skills that will help than
overcome any d if f i c u l t i e s they m a y encou nte r w h e n they start teaching. At the end of the three weeks, wit h the b e g i n n i n g of the n e w acade m i c year, these n e w l y h i r e d teachers have to p a r t i c i p a t e in a f o u r-mon th further
train i n g ca l l ed in- s e r v i c e w h i c h is a c o n t i n u a t i o n of the p r e - s e r v i c e o r i e n t a t i o n course.
The p r e - s e r v i c e o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m w h i c h will be the focus of this stu d y is d e s i g n e d to equip teachers w it h the knowledge and skills that will h elp t he m to
o v e r c o m e any d i f f i c u l t i e s they mig ht enc o u n t e r and assist t hem once they have a c t u a l l y s t arted to teach. The
trainees of these tr a i n i n g p r o g ram s are e x p o s e d to new ideas and sources of i n f o r m a t i o n and skills. As a
result, the trainees' t e a c h i n g b e ha viors are e x p e c t e d to change. This stu dy examines the p r e - s e r v i c e tra i n i n g to
Stat e m e n t of the P r ob lem
As stated above, t e acher t rain ing p ro grams are d e s i g n e d to help teachers to be w e l l - e q u i p p e d and to o v e r c o m e their p ro b l e m s in their actual tea ching
experience. Previous studies such as, O z giri n's (1996) and Yildiz's (1996) s u g g e s t e d that teacher t r a ining p ro g r a m s m a y be effe c t i v e in p r o m o t i n g changes in participants' t e a c h i n g behaviors.
However, how this change can be o bs e r v e d is not easy to answer. This is so b e c a u s e changes m a y not be
i d e n t i f i e d wi t h ease. In addition, even w h e n change can be observed, it is d i f f i c u l t to say wh et h e r such change can be d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to training. A seco nd p os s i b l e reason m a y be that as Fr eeman (1989) suggests change "is not n e c e s s a r i l y immediate or complete" (p.
38). A n o t h e r reason w h y o b s e r v i n g change is dif f i c u l t is b e c a u s e "some changes are d i r e c t l y ac cessible b y the
co l l a b o r a t o r and t he r e f o r e quantifiable, wher e a s others are not" ( p . 38 ) . It was in the hope of o v e r c o m i n g some of these b ar r ie r s in o b s e r v i n g teacher change that the p r e s e n t study was designed. In order to show one w a y in w h i c h change can be observed, the r e se arche r asked both trainees and trainers to review the t rai nin g syllabus and
tr a i n i n g course that the trainees atte n d e d and the trainers p r e p a r e d and conducted.
Pu rpose of the Study
The pu r po s e of this study is to explore h ow change in the teachi n g b e h a v i o r s of the trainees who a t t ende d the p r e - s e r v i c e t ra i n i n g can be observed. The p r e
service traini n g course was ch o sen as the focus of this study. The reason for this is that the trainers and the DBE a d m i n i s t r a t or s b e l i e v e that this train ing course is e ssential for the n e w l y r e c r u i t ed teachers. The
r ationale b e h i n d this is that the p r e - s e r v i c e traini ng p r o g r a m orients the b e g i n n i n g teachers to the tea ching situ a t i o n at the DBE. In addition, it is an intensive, short and recent t r a i n i n g thus, a good focus to test the m e t h o d o l o g y p r o p o s e d for this study.
S i g n i f i c a n c e of the Study
This study attempts to offer insights into how change in the t e a ch i n g b e h a v i o r of the trainee s who p a r t i c i p a t e d in the p r e - s e r v i c e traini ng p r o g r a m can be observed. It is h o p e d that the findings w ill be
b e ne f i c i a l to the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and the t eacher trainers at the DBE. The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s or the trainers w o r k i n g at the DBE m i g ht be able to m a k e any n e c e s s a r y changes in
also p r o v i d e a chance for the trainers to find out w h i c h com p o n e n ts of the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus can m os t lead to change in teach i ng behavior.
In addition, this study provi des a mea ns of
o b s e r v i n g change b y r e f l e c t i n g on the syllabus of the p re - s e r v i c e t r a in i ng course, hence the TAPs. From the teachers' point of view, this a ct i v i t y m a y also serve as a model for one type of teacher reflection, taking
r e f l e c t i o n from the abstract to the specific. If this whole p r ocess of r e - t h i n k i n g of the p r e - s e r v i c e trai ning turns out to be useful for the trainers as well as the trainees, then the TAP mig h t be c o n s i d e r e d as one w ay of o bt a i n i n g feedback on the train in g course w h i c h migh t be useful for the f ollowing years. This study's m e t h o d of data collection, the TAP u s e d for a reflec tiv e review of b oth trainees and trainers on r e cen tly c o m p l e t e d
training, m a y serve as a mod e l for review w h i c h can be i n c o r p o r a t e d into future p r e - s e r v i c e train ing courses.
This study builds on studies done by O z g i r i n (1996) and Yildiz (1996) w h i c h i n v e s t i g a t e d change a mong
trainees who in p a r t i c i p a t e d traini ng courses. O z gi rin e v a l u a t e d the e f f e ct i v e n e ss of the in- ser vice course- D T E F L A (Diploma for Teachers of En gli sh as a Foreign Language) at BUSE L (Bilkent U n i v e r s i t y School of E n g lish
skills, attitude, awareness and per f o r m a n c e as a result of the D T E F L A course. This study however, brings a
further d i me n s i o n in that it does not investigate how far teachers change in terms of the specific factors
m e n t i o n e d above. However, it focuses on h ow teacher trainers and trainees o b serve change in the tea ching b e h a v i o r of the trainees. The focus of this study will be a p r e - s e r v i c e o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m - a similar course to D T E F L A in terms of content but shorter in length and not leading to a diploma.
A n o t h e r study, done b y Yildiz (1996), aim e d to find out how pa r t i c i p a n t s v i e w e d the u s e ful nes s and
e f f e c t i v e n e ss of the i n - service teacher t rain ing course, COTE (Certificate for Overs e a s Teachers of English) at Y A DIM (English P r e p a r a t o r y School of Çu kurov a
University). This study is similar to Yildiz's study but w i t h a diff e r en t focus on how change in the teac hin g
b e h a v i o r of trainees who p a r t i c i p a t e d in p r e - s e r v i c e
train i n g course can be observed. This study differs from the two studies m e n t i o n e d above m a i n l y in terms of its m e thodology. In other words, in this study onl y
qu a l i t a t i v e data were collected. However, in the other two studies both q u a l i t a t i v e and q ua n t i t a t i v e data were o b t a i n e d t hrough interviews and questionnaires.
R e s e a r c h Questions
This study will address the following r esearch q u e s t i o n s :
1. Can change in t ea c h i n g b e h a v i o r amongst trainees who c o m p l e t e d a t ra i ni n g course be o b s e r v e d by usi n g think- alo u d p r o to c o l s ?
2. If so, w h i ch com p o n e n t s of the syllabus can be u s ed to o bserve change?
This first chapter gave an i n t r o duc tion an
b a c k g r o u n d to the resea r c h topic. Chapter 2 pre s e n t s the re v i e w of relevant literature.
C H A P T E R 2 L I T E R A TU RE R EVIEW
I n t r o d u c t i o n
The aim of this s t u d y is to investigate how change in the teach i n g b e h a v i o r of teachers can be observed. It is diff i cu l t to o b serve t e a c h e r change directly, hence, "r e f l e c t io n on a syll a b u s " is p r o p o s e d as an instrument to investigate teach i n g change. As b a c k g r o u n d for this study, u n d e r s t a n d i n g change, implications of change,
ini t i a t i n g change th rough teacher training and u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s of ini t ia t i n g change through te acher train ing will be discussed. In addition, p r e -se rvice teacher training, o bs e r v i n g change in teaching behavior, and r e f l e c t i o n as a mea ns for o b s e r v i n g change will be examined. Finally, t h i n k - a l o u d p r o tocol s will be discussed.
U n d e r s t a n d i n g Change
Traini n g courses are e x p e c t e d to br i n g about change in the teachi n g b e h a v i o r of teachers and as B a i l e y (1989, p. 2) points out "change has been e xpl i c i t l y i denti fie d as a key element in t e a c h e r development". However, change is a complex issue to define and there can be a n u m b e r of ways to do this. It seems ea sier to look for the factors that support change rather than to define change itself. Thus, what can work bet t e r is an
id e n t i f i c a t io n of factors w h i c h can help to u n d e r s t a n d c h a n g e .
Change is an e v e r - p r e s e n t aspect of our lives as teachers. For Fullan and H a r g r e a v e s (1992) "successful change involves learning h o w to do s ometh ing new" (p. 1). Freeman (cited in Bailey, 1989) stipulates four points in respect to change:
1. Change does not n e c e s s a r i l y m ea n doi ng som ething differently; it can m e a n a change in awareness. Change can be an a f f i r m a t i o n of current practice. 2. Change is not n e c e s s a r i l y immediate or complete. Indeed some changes occur over time, wi t h the
c o l l ab o r a to r s e rving o nly to initiate the process. 3. Some changes are d i r e c t l y a c c essi ble by the c o l l ab o r a to r and ther e f o r e quantifiable, w h e reas others are not.
4. Some types of change can come to closure (short term) and others are o p e n - e n d e d (long-term) (p. 1) Har gr e a v es (1994) draws a t te n t i o n to teachers' c a p a c i t y for change and their desires for it. This
desire m ust stem from a n e e d to change w h i c h can o nly be bro ugh t about b y an awar e n e s s of one's own t e a c hin g
practice. H ar greaves e x p l a i n s that desires for change are c o n s t r u c t e d on factors like purpose, person, polit ics and w o r k p l a c e constraints. In orde r for these desires to p r o d u c e change, Harg r e a v e s emp h a sizes that change sought
should fit the context, suit the pe rs o n and be in tune w ith the purpose.
In addit i o n to the n e c e s s i t y of desire in the pr ocess of change, " o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s and readiness to u n d e r s t a n d the feelings and p o s iti ons of others" is essential for e ffective change (p. 84). C oli bab a lists some of the fa cilitators of change as follows: (Colibaba, 1995, p. 86).
- climate of mut u a l support and o ng o i n g c o - o p e r a t i o n - teacher m o t i v a t i o n and commitment
- individual and col l e c t i v e refle cti on on i ns t i tutional realities
- problem-solving, risk taking, critical d i a l ogu e are e n c ou r a g e d
- action o r i e n t e d p o l i c y a l lowin g for ex perim ent w ith e v al u a t i v e feedback from all actors in the inst i t u ti o n
Implic a t i o n s of Change
Change in the t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r of teachers is
u l t i m a t e l y s u p po r te d b y changes in attitudes and think ing and thus it is a v er y c o m p l e x process. Fullan (1991) suggests that the im p l i c a t i o n s for the in dividual teacher i n v o l v e d in change are as follows:
2. The initial stages of any substantial change always involve an xiety and uncertainty.
3. On g oi n g technical and p sy c h o l o g i c al support is crucial if the a n x i e t y is to be coped with.
4. Change involves learn i n g n ew skills through p ra c t i c e and feedback; it is incremental and
d e v e l o p m e n t a l .
5. Successful change involves pressure, but it is p r e s s u r e th rough i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h peers and o ther
technical and ad m i n i s t r a t i v e leaders.
Change, as Fullan (1991) points out, "is di ffi cult b e cause it is r i ddled w i t h dilemmas, ambi val ences and p a r a d o x e s " (P. 350). However, w i t h a clear vision, open- m i n d e d n e s s and readiness, trainer and trainee w o r k i n g c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y can initiate change.
D ifferent v i e w points on the issue of change
indicate that there is not a formu lat ed p r e s c r i p t i o n as to what change is. As n o t e d earlier, it appears to be easier to sp e c i fy the factors that support change than to define change itself.
Initiating Change t h r o u g h Teacher T r a i n i n g
T e acher training is said to be one of the ways to affect changes in teach i n g behavior. Freeman (1989) e mp hasizes that train i n g is a " st r a t e g y for direct i n t e r v e n ti o n by the c o l l a b o r a t o r to wo r k on specific
aspects of the teacher's teaching. The inte rve ntion is focused on specific o u t c o m e s that can be a ch i e v e d thro ugh a clear sequence of steps, c o m m o n l y w i t h i n a s p e c ifi ed p e r i o d of time" (p. 31), A c c o r d i n g to Freeman, through tr a i n i n g teachers are e x p e c t e d to improve the
e f f e c t i v en e ss of their t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r in the classroom.
T e acher train i n g courses can pro vide i n s p ir ati on for practice, W i d d o w s o n (1990), for example states that such courses " provide, at least, a sense of p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m munity" (p. 65), The i n s p i r at ion that t r a in ing courses generate m a y be c a r r i e d over into the te ach i n g b eh a v i o r of teachers who at t e n d these courses. Freeman
(1989) points out that it is p o s s i b l e for teachers to learn concrete skills such as, h ow to pres e n t m a t e r i a l s hand out assignments, p r e p a r e lesson plans thro ugh
training.
T e acher train i n g courses are exp e c t e d to enable teachers to m ake the input of the course a part of their own teach i ng behavior. W o o d w a r d (1991) explains that, in most training courses, trans f e r takes place in the sense
that "when people are e x p o s e d to new patterns, they
u n d e r s t a n d them, grasp the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n b e h i n d them and intr o d u c e t hem into their own b e h a v i o r " (p. 118).
W i l l i a m s (1989) draws a t t e n t i o n to m a j o r pri nci p l e s of t e acher t r a i ni n g courses, w h i ch can be listed as follows :
- t e acher tr a i n i n g courses are developmental,
- there is emphasis on reflecting, t h e o r i s i n g and p r o c e s s i n g information,
- t hey are n o n - p r e s c r i p t i v e and the course content s hould be n e g o t i a t e d whe r e possible,
- the source of knowledge is not onl y top down, the trainees' ex p e r i e n c e is valua b l e also,
- the needs of d i f f e r e n t teach i ng si tuations and cultures m ust be considered.
U n d e r l y i n g P r i nciples of Ini tia tin g Change throug h T ea c h e r T r a i n i n g
U s i n g the above m e n t i o n e d u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s several d i f fe r en t mo d e l s of t e acher t ra ini ng have been developed. A l t h o u g h it is not the focus of this study to i n v e s t i g a t e d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s of teacher training, for the p ur p o s e s of the stu d y a short re view of the mo de l s seems n e c e s s a r y to attempt to i d e n t i f y those mo d e l s w h i c h are m or e like l y to initiate change in teaching behavior.
A fa i r ly c o m m o n l y u s e d model in teacher tra i n i n g is one w h e r e input comes o n l y from the trainers. This model is known as " course b a s e d m o d e l " (Bell & Day, 1991).
pr o b l e m s w it h this model. He explains that "the teachers can all come out the same... and be ha v e in ce rta in ways be c a u s e that is what is e x p e c t e d of them by the trainer"
(p. 5). This m a y lead to short t erm results but perha ps later a b a n d o n m e n t of practices. This change in tea chi ng b e h a v i o r m a y last o n l y d u r i n g or until sh or t l y after t r a i n i n g .
A n o t h e r t e acher t r a i n i n g model, put forward by W i liams (1989), is m o r e d y n a m i c and the t eacher is
a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d in the p r ocess becau se input comes from b o t h t e acher and trainer. Teachers' p revio us ideas about teach i n g are r e s p e c t e d b e c a u s e a p a r t i c u l a r idea m a y be right for that t e acher in a p a r t i c u l a r s itu a t i o n and context. This type of teacher tr ai n i n g r e p rese nts a l i f e - l o n g pr o c e ss of d e v e l o p m e n t and thus the teacher will receive a l i fe - l o n g rather than short term service. Change in te a c h i n g b e h a v i o r m a y also be a l ife-l ong pr ocess as teachers will be p r o c e s s i n g i n f orma tio n and ideas " m ap p i n g n e w onto old" (Williams, 1989, p. 5).
R o s s n e r (cited in Duff, 1988) defines teacher t ra i n i n g as pr o g r a m s w h i c h include "slcill foc use d p ro g r a m s w i t h m a i n l y p r a c t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n " (p.43).
R o s s n e r ' s d e f i n i t i o n seems to include p r e - s e r v i c e courses as they fr e q u e n t l y p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on cer tai n skills that can be a p p l i e d to practice.
T e acher t ra i n i n g can be seen as r efl e c t i n g a vi e w of t e a c h i n g as a skill w h i c h has finite compone nts w h i c h can be learnt (Kennedy, 1993), These com pon ents involve, a c c o r d i n g to Crook al l and O x f o r d (1992), e xp e r i e n c e s that will h elp these in d i v i d u a l s c o n ti nue to de v e l o p as
teachers thr o u g ho u t their careers.
P re - s e r v i c e T e a c her Tr ainin g
P r e - se r vi c e t e acher is a kind of t eacher trai nin g w hi c h m a y initiate change in teaching b e h a v i o r of
teachers. This type of teacher t rai nin g is u s u a l l y
p r o v i d e d be f o r e a teacher takes his or her first job. In this study, p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g is taken to refer to the initial t ra i ni n g of n e w l y r e c r u i t e d teachers, b o t h
e x p e r i e n c e d and inexperienced. The p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i nin g course of this kind does not u s u a l l y last long perhaps, three to four weeks, and teachers atten d the course be f o r e t hey a c t u a l l y start t e a c h ing at an institution.
As Gow e r (cited in Duff, 1988) suggests, p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g tries to acqua i n t teachers w i th bas ic c l a s s r o o m skills, tec h ni q u e s and m e t h o d s c u r r e n t l y in use. P r e service t r a i n i n g courses are g e n e r a l l y b e n e f i c i a l to trainees, e s p e c i a l l y to those at the b e g i n n i n g of their careers, b ec a u s e n e w ideas and p r a c t i c e s are i n t r o d u c e d to them (Harmer c i t e d in Duff, 1988). In addition, n e w l y h i r e d teachers are oft e n p r o v i d e d w i t h i n f ormat ion
r e g a r d i n g the textbooks they will use, an i n t r o d u c t i o n to co l l a b o r a t i v e and groupwork, and pra c t i c e in c l a s s r o o m p l a n n i n g and m anagement.
In the light of the views m e n t i o n e d above, p r e service t r ai n in g seems to be i mportant for n e w l y h i r e d teachers. Cross (1995) points out that p r e - s e r v i c e
train i n g p r o g r a m s "s h o u l d be o b l i g a t o r y and s hou l d have a strong bias towards the practical. In this w a y trainees will i m m e d i a t e l y p e r c e i v e the value of mo s t c u r r i c u l u m c o m p onents in terms of w o r t h w h i l e c l a s s r o o m obje ct i v e s "
( p . 3 4 ) .
The p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m is likely to be p a r t i c u l a r l y i mportant b e c a u s e it m a y be the first formal t r a i n i n g course for some teachers. In ord er to be of o p t i m u m b e ne f i t to the participants, the content of the p r e - s e r v i c e course sho u l d be c a r e f u l l y designed. M a r i a n i
(cited in Holden, 1979) argues that a p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g course sh ou l d b e g i n well in advance of the actual time w h e n teachers s h o u l d start service, the reason b e i n g to ensure suf f i c i e nt a v a i l a b i l i t y of time and r esources w h i c h will be u s e d in the t ea c h i n g program. Second, the p r e - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m shou ld include b o t h t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e so as to create a r e a l isti c mo del for n e w l y h i r e d teachers. Third, the p r e - s e r v i c e p r o g r a m sh o u l d be real and aut o no mou s in order to ensure authenticity.
Thus in terms of the views d i s c u s s e d above, it is p o s s i b l e to say that p r e - s e r v i c e t r ain ing courses are e s s e n t i a l for n e w l y h i r e d teachers. One of the reasons p r e - s e r v i c e is vital is that it f amiliarizes new comers w i t h the basics of i n s t i t u t i o n al ex pec tatio ns for
c l a s s r o o m practice.
O b s e r v i n g Change in T eac hing Beha v i o r
Several studies on change in teachers in terms of their t e ac h i n g b e h a v i o r have b e e n c o n d u c t e d to observe change. One of them is an ex p e r i m e n t a l stud y done b y Stallings
(cited in Fullan and Hargreaves, 1992). The stud y was c o n d u c t e d over a p e r i o d of eight mo n t h s w it h twelve in- se rvice ELT teachers. Stallings found that teachers are m o re li k e ly to change their t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r and
c o n t i n u e to use n e w ideas und e r the f ollowing conditions: 1. T h ey be c o me aware of a n e e d for improvement
t hr o u g h their analysis of their own o b s e r v a t i o n profile. 2. They m ak e a w r i t t e n c o m m itm ent to try new ideas in their c l a s s r o o m the next day.
3. T h ey m o d i f y the w o r k s h o p ideas to wo r k in their c l a s s r o o m and school.
4. T h e y try the ideas and evalu ate the effect. 5. T hey o b se r ve in each o t her's cla ssrooms and a nalyze the data.
6, They report their success or failure to the g r o u p .
7. They d iscuss p r o b l e m s and solutions r e g a rd ing in d i vidual students and/or t e a c hin g subject matter.
A n o t h e r stu d y on change in teachers' teachi ng
b e h a v i o r was c o n d u c t e d by B e lleli (in Edge & Richards, 1993). The re s e a r c h was b a s e d on the de p l o y m e n t of an A c t i o n R e s e a r c h mode l of c o u n s e l i n g w ith a group of seven
in-service teachers, once week, for a p e r i o d of six months. This s tudy was d e s i g n e d to asses changes in teachers' t e a c h in g b e h a v i o r s and in their
c o n c e p t u a l i za t i o n s of teach i n g w h i le they were taking part in the sessions as after t hey h ad c o m p l e t e d the
training. D u ri n g the ref l e c t i o n and d e v e l o p i n g a ctio n phases of the study, field notes were kept, observations,
i nt e r p r e t a t io n s and reactions were not e d in a diary. The results of the stud y a s s e s s e d changes in the teachers' t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r t h rough r e f l e c t i o n on the effects of action. As in the ex ample of this study, b ala n c e of act i o n and r ef l e c t i o n p r o v i d e s teachers w i t h the
o p p o r t u n i t y to "c o n c e p t u a l i z e m ore complex a p p roac hes to teac hin g " as well as "to o b serve specif ic p r a c t i c e s and p r a c t i c e specif i c t e c h n i q u e s " (p. 73).
R e f l e c t i o n on p ast and p r e s e n t experience, in the case of this s t u dy on pre-service, m a y result in
be c a u s e the trainees and the trainers i d e n tif ied and e x a m i n e d aspects of their teach ing duri n g their
r e f l e c t i o n on the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus.
Reflection: A M e a n s for O b s e r v i n g Change R e f l e c t i o n m a y be a means of o b s e r v i n g change. Dew e y (cited in G r immet & Erickson, 1988) defines
re f l e c t i o n as a s p e c i a l i z e d form of thinking. He further explains that "It stems from doubt and p e r p l e x i t y felt in a d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d s i t u a t i o n and leads to p u r p o s e f u l inquiry and p r o b l e m resolution. Inferences... of past e x p e r i e n ce are tes t e d on the basis for future action" (p. 6). As a s i t ua t io n of p e r p l e x i t y is t r a n s f o r m e d into one of c l a r i t y and conformity, m a k i n g inferences comes into view. D e w ey d e sc r ib e s infe r e n c e as "the pro cess of a r r i v i n g at an idea of what is absent [in a given
situation] on the bas i s of w hat is at h and ... it involves a j u m p f rom the kno w n to the unknown" (p. 7), Therefore, i nference takes p l a c e t h r o u g h the d i r e c t l y e x p e r i e n c e d situation. Gr i m me t (1988) states that " R e f l e c t i o n involves the rigorous t e s t i n g of inferences b y mental e l a b o r a t i o n and overt a c tion" (p. 7).
A c c o r d i n g to Locke (cited in Tar vin & Al-Arishi, 1995) there are two general p r o c e s s e s in reflection: " i n t e g r a t i o n and judg m e n t " (p. 16). "In the first, the ideas of s e n s a t i o n are sl o w l y i nt e g r a t e d into the
ex p e r i e n c e of c o mplex ideas, i n volving such faculties of the m i n d as d i s c e r n i n g and d i s t i n g u i s h i n g one s e nsor y idea from another, c o m p a r i n g and compounding, n a m i n g and a b s t r a c t i n g " (p. 16). As for the second process, Locke
(cited in Ta r v in & Al-Arishi) explains that "judgm ent al alters the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n we make of the ideas we receive from s e n sation" (p. 16).
B a r t l e tt (1990) in Richa r d s and Nunan, suggests that " I m p r o v e m en t of t ea c h i n g m a y be achi e v e d throug h
re fl e c t i o n " (p. 204). B a r t l e t t further explain s that b e c o m i n g r e f l e c t iv e enables teachers to be more critical to themselves as individual s e c o n d language teachers. Thus, teachers m a y have an o p p o r t u n i t y to improve c l a s s r o o m practice. To conclude, r e f l e c t i o n can be c o n s i d e r e d as one m e a n s of o b s e r v i n g change.
T h i n k - A l o u d Protocols
P s y ch o l o gi c al re s e a r c h e r s are now i n v e s t i g a t i ng the i n t e r m e d i at e steps of thought p r oce sse s after a long p e r i o d of time s tu d y i n g o nly h u m a n behavior. D e t a i l e d
i n f o r m a t i o n about thought p r o c e s s e s m ay be o b t a i n e d th r o u g h subjects' verbal reports on their think ing
(Faerch & Kasper, 1987). In verbal reports subjects
report what t hey are d o i n g d u r i n g their p e r f o r m i n g of the task (Hölscher & Mohle, 1987) .
V e r b a l reports have b e e n u se d in d i ffe ren t fields of research. However, the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l status of verbal reports has b ee n an issue of c o n t r o v e r s y (Grotjahn,
1 9 8 7 ) e s p e c i a l l y b e t w e e n c o g n i t i vi sts and b e h a v i o r i s t s . V e r b a l reports w ere d i s c r e d i t e d dur i n g the era of
behaviorism. However, they b e g a n to flourish in the 1 9 7 0 ' s as one of the m a j o r mea n s of o b t a i n i n g data for cogn i t i v e r e se a rc h (Ericsson & Simon, 1993).
There are three m a i n types of verbal reports; w h i c h are also c h a r a c t e r i z e d as verbal report o b s er vatio ns
(Ericsson & Simon, 1984):
1. P e r f o r m an c e o b s e r v a t i o n s (e.g., r eacti on time and a c c u r a c y of the r e s p o n s e ) : These are o b s e r va tio ns b a s e d on the total p e r f o r m a n c e of a task. The rea c t i o n time is the p e r i o d from the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the p r o b l e m to the p r o d u c t i o n of the answer. Individual p r o c e s s i n g steps also compose the sum of the r e a c t i o n time.
2. p r ocess o b s e r v a t i o n s (e.g., think-aloud, in w h i c h subjects turn the h e e d e d i n f o r m a t i o n into a v e r b a l i z e d form in order to v o c a l i z e it and talk a l o u d ) : Subject reports i n f o r m a t i o n on the individual p r o c e s s i n g steps, like sp ont a ne o u s v e r b a l i z a t i o n s while he/sh e solves a task.
3. P o s t - p r o c e s s o b s e r v a t i o n s (e.g., recall p r o t o c o l s ) : This type of verbal report involves
of p r e s e n t e d information, m e m o r y of thought p r o c e sse s du r i n g the task.
In a n um b e r of s e c o n d language a c q u i s i t i o n studies verbal r ep o r t i n g has b e e n a p o p u l a r technique. However, in this study the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h i n k - a l o u d
protocols, a type of verbal report, is in a sense a c o m b i n a t i o n of what has b e e n d e f i n e d as proce ss
o b s e r v a t i on s and p o s t - p r o c e s s observations. The subjects were ask ed to th i n k - a l o u d to v o cal ize m e m o r y of thought p r ocess not d u r i n g the task but six months after it was completed. In other words, TAPs in this stud y are
i m p l e m e n t e d to have the trainees who a tt e n d e d the p r e service course and the trainers who c o n d u c t e d the course reflect on c o n s eq u en c e s of the t ra i n i n g as d e f i n e d b y the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus. The reason TAPs were u s e d was to have the subjects of the stu d y reflect on a past action, w h i c h in this case is the p r e - s e r v i c e course.
TAP m e t h o d o l o g y for e l i c i t i n g i n f o rmat ion from subjects consists of three steps. This m e t h o d o l o g y was d e v e l o p e d by E r i c s s o n and Simon (1984):
1. instructions: Be f o r e start ing the protocol, the subjects are ask ed by the r e s e a r c h e r to v erba l i z e
e v e r y t h i n g that pa ss e s t h r o u g h their minds and e v e r y t h i n g they can remember. These i n s tructions are g e n e r a l l y
2. warm-up: U s u a l l y in TAPs subjects are given initial w a rm - u p p ro b l e m s in order to a c c u s t o m the m to b e i n g tape recorded. T h r o u g h the w a r m - u p the res ea r c h e r can find out w h e t h e r the subjects v e rba lize as
instructed.
3. reminders: In TAPs the r e s e arc her u s u a l l y reminds subjects to speak w h e n t hey fall into silence or guide t hem to keep to the topic they are talking about.
For the p ur p os e s of this study TAPs were ca rr i e d out since they are a rich source of data, p r o v i d i n g
i n f o r m a t io n about the thoughts of the subjects w i t h m in i m a l guida nc e and m a n i p u l a t i o n on the resea rch er's s i d e .
C H A P T E R 3 M E T H O D O L O G Y
I n t r o d u c tion
The aim of this d e s c r i p t i v e study was to investigate h o w trainers and trainees o b serve change in the teac hin g b e h a v i o r of the trainees who a t t e n d e d an intensi ve p r e service o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m at the DBE (Department of Basi c E n g l i s h ), at M E T U (Middle East Technical
U n i v e r s i t y ) . This c h a p t e r desc ri bes the subjects, i n s t r uments and data c o l l e c t i o n p r o c edu res that were e m p l o y e d in c a r r y i n g out the research.
This study b o rrows from two p r evi ous studies. One of the studies, w h i c h was c a r r i e d out by O z g i r i n (1996), e v a l u a t e d the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the i n -serv ice course- D T E F L A (Diploma for Teach e r s of En g l i s h as a Fore ign La n g u a g e ) - a t B USEL (Bill<ent U n i v e r s i t y School of E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e ) . The a i m of the oth e r study, done b y Yildiz
(1996), was to find out h o w p a r t i c i p a n t s v i e w e d the u s e f u l n e s s and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the teacher t r a inin g course, COTE (Certificate for Overseas Teach ers of
English) at Y A D I M (English P r e p a r a t o r y School of Ç u k ur ova University). This study is similar to Ozg i r i n ' s and
Y il d i z ' s studies in terms of i n v e s t i g a t i ng how effective tr a i n i n g courses are in i n i t i a t in g change. However, the focus of this stu d y is d i f f e r e n t from these two studies in the foll ow i n g ways:
1. It investigates a p r e - s e r v i c e course w h i c h is d i f f e r e n t from D T E F L A and COTE in that it does not off er a d iploma or a c e r t i f i c a t e and it is a three- w e e k intensive p r o g r a m for b e g i n n i n g teachers.
2, It aims at f i nding out h ow teacher trainers and trainees o b serve change in the teach ing b e h a v i o r of the trainees who a t t e n d e d the pre-service. This i n v e s t i g a t i o n is c a r r i e d out by havin g the trainers and trainees reflect on the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus u s i n g a t h i n k - a l o u d p r o c e d u r e whereas, the two p r e v i o us studies a t t e m p t e d to dete rmi ne train ing outcom e s on the basis of interviews and
q u e s ti o n n a i re s c o n d u c t e d w i t h trainees and teacher t r a i n e r s .
Subj ects
The subjects of the stu d y w ere the t eacher trainers c u r r e n t l y w o r k i n g at the DBE and the new ly h i r e d
instructors. There w ere eight subjects, all of w h o m are n o n - n a t i v e speakers of E n g l i s h and hold a B A degre e in d i f f e r e n t areas such as A m e r i c a n Literature, C hemical E n g i n e e r i n g and ELT. Thus there were three groups of subjects: 1. trainees w i t h t e a c hi ng experience, 2. trainees w it h no experience, 3. trainers.
The first c a t e g o r y c o n s i s t e d of two female trainees. One of the trainees has a COTE (Certificate for Overs eas
Teachers of English) c e r t i f i c a t e and w o r k e d as a teacher of E n g l i s h in another i n s t i t u t i on for 14 years. The
other subject in this c a t e g o r y h ad teachi ng e x per ience of three years at ano t he r institution.
The subjects in the s e c o n d category, trainees w i t h no experience, are three female trainees. A l t h o u g h one of the subjects had two years and the other, one year of t e a c h i n g e x p e r ie n ce at a n o t h e r institution, they were b o t h i n c lu d ed in the i n e x p e r i e n c e d group by the trainers. The re a s o n the trainers p l a c e d t hem in the i n e x p e r i e n c e d group was that these teachers had w o r k e d as ELT teachers in p r i v a t e language i n s t i t u t i o n s but not universities. The third subject in this c a t e g o r y h a d no e x p erie nce in t ea c h i n g English. However, in u n d e r g r a d u a te she taught E n g l i s h in several h igh schools as part of her
u n d e r g r a d u a t e courses.
The third ca t e g o r y of subjects is c o m p o s e d of three female trainers all of w h o m h old an M A degree in E n g l i s h Langu a g e T ea c h i n g ELT. One of the trainers has b e e n w o r k i n g as a t r ainer and R S A tutor for 11 years. One of the r e m a i n i n g two trainers has b e e n w o r k i n g as a p r e service and i n - service t r a i n e r for 2 years, the other for one year.
These subjects w ere s e l e c t e d in order to o bt ain d i f f e r e n t v ie w p o i n t s c o n c e r n i n g the issue of change and to find out h o w the trainers and trainees ob se r v e change.
The m e t h o d of doi n g this was to have subjects reflect and co mment on the w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n of the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus (see A p p e n d i x A ) . It was also a ss u m e d that the teachers who were s e l e c t e d as subjects w o u l d be
r e p r e s e n t a t iv e of a larger group of teachers since they r e p r e s e n t e d the larger group at the DBE in terms of their age, sex, e x p e r i en c e and e d u c a t i onal background.
M a t e r i a l s
The m a t e r i a l s for this d e s c r i p t i v e study c o m p r i s e d the w r i t t e n syllabus for an i n tensive t h r ee -week p r e
service train i ng course, think alou d p r ot ocols (TAPs) and interviews w ith the trainers and trainees. The p r e
service t r a i n i n g course is an inte nsi ve p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d for the n e w l y h i r e d teachers, b o t h e x p e r i e n c e d and
inexperienced. TAPs w ere c o n d u c t e d to have the subjects (trainers and trainees) r e v i e w the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus and comment on the com p o n e n t s that they thought r e s u l t e d in change in the t e ac h i n g b e h a v i o r of the trainees.
The p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus (see A p p e n d i x A) was d e s i g n e d b y the trainers who are also r es p o n s i b l e for c o n d u c t i n g the th r e e - w e e k p r e - s e r v i c e t r ainin g course. Two d i f f e r e n t syllabi (one for the i n e x p e r i e n c e d teachers and one for the e x p e r i e n c e d teachers) were d e s i g n e d by the t e a c he r trainers.
Interviews were u s e d to sup plem ent and v ali date data o b t a i n e d from the TAPs. The interviews wi t h the trainers and trainees w ere m a i n l y f ollow-up quest ions to
i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d d u r i n g the TAPs. The subjects' answers to these ques t i o n s p r o v i d e d further i n f o r m a t i o n on h o w the subjects o b s e r v e change. The interviews with the subjects also o f f e r e d data on the issues that were not b r o u gh t up in the TAPs c o n c e r n i n g h o w the subjects o b s e r v e d change.
P r o c edure
The first step was to pil o t an i n t ervie w w i t h a t e acher t r ainer from the DBE about the p r e - s e r v i c e
syllabus to find out h o w m u c h of it could be r e c o l l e c t e d b y the subjects. A f t e r this first pilot, a dd iti onal pilot TAPs and i n t erviews were c o n d u c t e d in orde r to
ensure r e l i a b i l i t y and validity. A teacher tr ainer from BUSEL (Bilkent U n i v e r s i t y School of En gl i s h Language) was a sked to reflect on the in- s e r v ic e syllabus of BUSEL. In a dd i t i o n a recent g r a d u a t e of the Royal S oc i e t y of Arts
(RSA) course was a s k e d to reflect on the R S A course syllabus. The subjects r e v e a l e d h ow muc h they c oul d reco l l e c t from the t r a i n i n g courses they attended. The p i l o t i n g of the TAPs e n a b l e d the r e s ear che r to d e t e rmi ne what the subjects w o u l d be able to r ecollect in terms of details of past action by r e f l e c t i n g on the t r a i ning
syllabus. Recalls of pilot subjects were quite detailed, thus, it was d e c i d e d that TAPs could be the majo r
ins t r u m e nt of the stu d y to i n v e s tigate how change can be observed.
The p i l o t i n g was also e ssential as it ena b l e d the r e s e a r c h e r to c a t eg o r i z e the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus of DBE into some m a i n com p o n e n t s w h i c h c ou l d then be u se d with the subjects w h e n r e f l e c t i n g on it. The nee d for such a c a t e g o r i z a t i o n arose in the pilot phase, since the
subjects r e p o r t e d that they n e e d e d some kind of
s y s t e m a t i c c a t e g o r i z a t i o n on w hat to discuss. It also raised the a wareness of the r e s e a r c h e r on the n e c e s s i t y to tell and remind the subjects what they should focus on w he n they were c ar r y i n g out the T A P s .
The r e s e a rc h er m a d e contacts w i th the trainers and the trainees at the DBE and set appo int ments to arra nge m e e t i n g time w i th each subject. The subjects were asked
to v i e w the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus befo r e the m e e t i n g so that they w o u l d have some idea on what they w o u l d talk about in the meeting.
At the meeting, the aims of the study and how the TAPs w o u l d be c o n d u c t e d were e x p l a i n e d to the subjects. In addition, the subjects were a sk e d some ques tions re g a r d i n g b i o g r a p h i c a l information. The subjects were g i ven a copy of the p r e - s e r v i c e syllabus. Then the m a j o r points of the course, some of w h i c h are listed below.
were a n n o u n c e d to subjects to enable t hem to start d i s c u s s i n g the points (for a complete list of all the com p o n e n ts see A p p e n d i x B ) . The subjects read, recalled, and r e f l e c t e d as they v i e w e d the syllabus.
• D i s c u s s i o n • M i c r o t e a c h i n g • W o r k s h o p • Handout • Journal • Dai l y F eedback • C o n n e c t i n g • P r e s e n t a t i o n (of n e w language) • Insights • C o n t r o l l e d p r a c t i c e
TAPs were c o n d u c t e d w i t h the trainers and trainees. The interviews w ere c a r r i e d out i m m e d i a t e l y after the TAPs w ere completed, on the same dates.
The TAPs and the interviews, whi c h took an average of one h our for each subject, were taped w i t h the
p e r m i s s i o n of the subjects. Notes were also taken by the r e s e a r c h e r to s u p pl e m e n t the r e c ordings and data
analysis. Table 1 p r e s e n t s a segment of TAP c o n d u c t e d w it h t r ainee 5 (for compl e t e TAP t r a n s c r i p t i on see A p p e n d i x D ) .
Table 1
A Sample from T rainee 5^s T h i n k - A l o u d Protocol
I found demos very interesting and beneficial because they showed me there is always a variety for everything,
there isn't only one way of doing something, for example, in presenting a new language.
Data A n a l y s i s
In this study, q u a l i t a t i v e data were c o l l e c t e d
t h r o u g h TAPs and interviews w h i ch e nab l e d the re sea r c h e r to o b t a i n i n f o r ma t io n c o n c e r n i n g how the trainers and the trainees o b serve change in the trainees who a t t e n d e d the p r e - s e r v i c e train i ng course. The instruments use d in this study were mean t to d i s p l a y h ow the trainees and the trainers o b s e r v e d change t h r o u g h r e f l e c t i n g on the p r e service syllabus and v e r b a l i z i n g w hat they r e m e m b e r e d of the com p on e n ts and how these t r ai n i n g compo nen ts might have i n f l u e n c e d trainees' c l a s s r o o m teaching.
The TAPs and the interviews, as m e n t i o n e d earlier, were taped and t r a n s c r i b e d by the researcher. The
tr a n s c r i p t s w ere a n a l y z e d by co d ing each component. The trainees' and the trainers' r e c o l l e c t i o n s were a n a l y z e d and c o d e d to d e t e r m i n e w hat com po nen ts the subjects thought w ere i n d icators of change in the t e a ch ing b e h a v i o r of the trainees. In orde r to achieve
reliability, two TAP and two i n te r v i e w t r a n s c rip tions w ere c o ded by a se c o n d cod e r who works at METU, the DBE
as an ELT instructor. The results were then com p a r e d and any d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n the two analyses was d i s c u s s e d and s e t t l e d b y the two coders.
In the next chapter, the data analysis pro ced u r e s and results will be d i s c u s s e d in detail. In addition, cod e d data will be d i s p l a y e d in tables.
C H A P T E R 4 D A T A A N A L Y S I S
Intr o d u c t i on
This study i n v e s t i g a t e d how trainers and trainees can o b serve change in the teach ing b e h a v i o r of the
trainees who a t t e n d e d a t h r e e - w ee k p r e - s e r v i c e t r a in ing program, at the De p a r t m e n t of B asic E n g l i s h (DBE) at METU. The subjects of the study were five new l y hired, e x p e r i e n c e d and i n e x p e r i e n c e d teachers who a tt e n d e d the p r e - s e r v i c e o r i e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m and three teacher
trainers at METU, the DBE.
The study em p l o y e d two kinds of data c ollec t i o n p r o c e d u r e s :
(a) T h i n k - a l o u d p r o t o c o l s (TAPs) (conducted in E n g l i s h and Turkish) b a s e d on ref l ec tiv e rev iew of a teacher traini n g course and its syllabus.
(b) Interviews (conducted in E n g l i s h and T u r k i s h ) . The interviews were e m p l o y e d i m me d i a t e l y after the TAPs to further inv e s t i g a t e the issues rai sed in TAPs as well as issues w h i c h were not b rought up in the TAPs c o n c e r n i n g h o w the trainees and trainers o b s e r v e d c h a n g e .
Data A n a l y s i s P rocedures
The foll ow i ng steps were taken durin g the data analysis of the TAPs and the interviews:
