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AN ANALYSIS OF FOUNDATION YEAR: COURSEBOOKS AND MATERIALS IN TERMS OF INTERCULTURAL

ELEMENTS

Pınar Avcı

M.A. THESIS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

GAZİ UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

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ii

TELİF HAKKI ve TEZ FOTOKOPİ İZİN FORMU

Bu tezin tüm hakları saklıdır. Kaynak göstermek koşuluyla tezin teslim tarihinden itibaren ... (….) ay sonra tezden fotokopi çekilebilir.

YAZARIN Adı : Pınar Soyadı : AVCI Bölümü : İngilizce Öğretmenliği İmza : Teslim tarihi : 18/ 08/ 2015 TEZİN

Türkçe Adı: Hazırlık Yılı Analizi: Kültürlerarası Elementler açısından Kitaplar ve Materyaller

İngilizce Adı: An Analysis of Foundation Year: Coursebooks and Materials in Terms of Intercultural Elements

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iii

ETİK İLKELERE UYGUNLUK BEYANI

Tez yazma sürecinde bilimsel ve etik ilkelere uyduğumu, yararlandığım tüm kaynakları kaynak gösterme ilkelerine uygun olarak kaynakçada belirttiğimi ve bu bölümler dışındaki tüm ifadelerin şahsıma ait olduğunu beyan ederim.

Yazar Adı Soyadı: Pınar Avcı

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iv

Jüri onay sayfası

……… tarafından hazırlanan “………. ………” adlı tez çalışması aşağıdaki jüri tarafından oy birliği / oy çokluğu ile Gazi Üniversitesi ………... ……….. Anabilim Dalı’nda Yüksek Lisans / Doktora tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.

Danışman: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

İkinci Danışman: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Başkan: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Üye: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Üye: (Unvanı Adı Soyadı)

(Anabilim Dalı, Üniversite Adı) ………

Tez Savunma Tarihi: …../…../……….

Bu tezin ………Anabilim Dalı’nda Yüksek Lisans/ Doktora tezi olması için şartları yerine getirdiğini onaylıyorum.

Unvan Ad Soyad

Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Müdürü

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v

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Having worked for many months, I feel happy to have completed my thesis. First and foremost, I would like to express my ultimate gratitude to my advisor, Assoc. Prof. Gonca YANGIN EKŞİ, for her continuous support of my M.A. study and for her patience, motivation, enthusiasm and knowledge. She has continuously guided me in carrying out my research and writing this thesis, and she was not only an advisor, but also a mentor in this process. My deep thanks go to my co-supervisor, Asst. Prof. Servet ÇELIK, for reviewing for my thesis and providing his comments and suggestions. I would also like to thank my former advisor, Prof. Neslihan ÖZKAN, for her valuable comments and support.

My sincere thanks also go to Assoc. Prof. İskender Hakkı SARIGÖZ for his support in the beginning stages of writing, as well as to Asst. Prof. Cemal ÇAKIR for his course, Academic Discourse, in which I learned a great deal about academic writing. Last but not least, I would like to express my sincere and ultimate gratitude to my family, especially my mother and brother, for their continuous support and trust throughout my M.A. stud

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HAZIRLIK YILI ANALİZİ: KÜLTÜRLERARASI ELEMENTLER

AÇISINDAN KİTAPLAR VE MATERYALLER

Yüksek Lisans Tezi

Pınar Avcı

T.C GAZİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ

EĞİTİM BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ

18 Ağustos 2015

ÖZ

İngilizce uluslararası küresel bir dil olduğu için kültürlerarası iletişim yeterliliğinin önemi ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu durum, yabancı dil öğretimini de etkilemiştir. Dil, ana dilin kültürünü, İngilizcenin konuşulduğu ve diğer kültürleri yansıtmada ana araçlardan biri olmuştur. Bu araştırma, İngilizce öğretiminde kullanılan kitaplarda ve materyallerde hangi kültürün en çok kullanıldığı ve hangi kültürel açıların yer aldığını ortaya çıkarmak için yapılmıştır. Araştırma, ayrıca Gazi Üniversitesi’nin Yabancı Diller Bölümündeki hazırlık hocalarının kültürlerarası anlayış ile ilgili ne düşündüklerini ve bunu başarmak için ne yaptıklarını ortaya çıkarmayı hedeflemiştir. Amacı gerçekleştirmek için araştırmada tasvirsel araştırma modeli kullanılmış ve nitel veriler toplanmıştır. Nitel veriler toplamak için mülakatlar, nicel veriler toplamak için de doküman analizi yapılmıştır. Kitaplar ve materyaller dört kültürel açıdan incelenmiştir: Kişi, ürün, bakış açısı ve pratik. Mülakatlar, hazırlık hocalarının izinleri alınarak kaydedilmiştir. Bulgular göstermiştir ki kitaplar ve materyaller çoğunlukla İngilizce konuşan ülkelerin kültürlerini ele almıştır. Bakış açısı genellikle en çok kullanılan kültürel açı olmuştur. İnanışlar, dünya görüşleri, batıl inançlar ve gelenekler ilgili çok fazla bilgi bulunmamıştır. Diğer ülkelerin iletişim kurarken hangi tabirleri kullandıkları ile ilgili hiç bilgi bulunmamıştır. Sonuç olarak, kitapların kültürlerarası farkındalığa sınırlı bir katkısı olduğu ve okutmanların bu konuya yer vermeleri için yeterince zamanlarının olmadığı görüşlerine varılmıştır.

Bilim Kodu:

Anahtar Kelimeler: Uluslararası dil, kültürlerarası iletişim yeterliliği, kültürlerarası duyarlılık, kültürel farkındalık, kültürel açı ve kültür.

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viii Sayfa Adedi: 2

Danışman: Doç. Dr. Gonca YANGIN EKŞİ İkinci Danışman: Yrd.Doç.Dr. Servet ÇELİK

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AN ANALYSIS OF FOUNDATION YEAR: COURSEBOOKS AND

MATERIALS IN TERMS OF INTERCULTURAL

ELEMENTS

M. A. Thesis

Pınar Avcı

T.C GAZI UNİVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES

August 18, 2015

ABSTRACT

As English has gained status as an international language, the importance of intercultural communicative competence has increased, which has in turn affected foreign language teaching. In this respect, language has become one of the main tools for reflecting home, English speaking and other cultures. This study has been carried out to reveal which culture among these is used most prominently, as well as which cultural aspects are involved, in the coursebooks and materials employed in language teaching. The study also aimed to determine what the instructors in the Department of Foreign Languages at Gazi University think about intercultural awareness and what they do to promote the development of intercultural awareness in language learners. In doing so, a descriptive research model was employed according to a qualitative research design. Interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data from the instructors, while document analysis was utilized in collecting quantitative data from the teaching materials. Through this process, the coursebooks and other materials were analyzed according to four cultural aspects: person, product, perspective and practice. The interviews were recorded with permission from the instructors. The results indicate that the coursebooks and other materials mainly focus on English speaking cultures. Generally, perspective was the most frequently observed cultural aspect, including information about beliefs, worldviews, superstitions and customs. On the other hand, little cultural information about other countries was found, especially in terms of practice, and no information was found in terms of expressions that speakers in other countries use to communicate. It was concluded that the coursebooks offered a limited contribution to intercultural awareness and that the instructors lacked the time to focus on this issue in their teaching.

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x Science Code:

Key Words: International language, intercultural communicative competence, intercultural sensitivity, cultural awareness, cultural aspect, culture.

Page Number: 2

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gonca YANGIN EKŞİ Co-supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Servet ÇELİK

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LIST OF CONTENTS

ÖZ ... vii-viii ABSTRACT ... ix-x LIST OF TABLES ... xiv-xv LIST OF FIGURES ... xvi CHAPTER I ... 1 INTRODUCTION ... 1-11 Background to the Study ... 3-4 Statement of the Problem ... 4 Purpose and Scope of the Study ... 4-5 Significance of the Study ... 5 Research Questions ... 5-6 Overview of the Methodology ... 6 Limitations and Assumptions ... 6-7 Definition of Terms ... 8-12 CHAPTER II ... 13 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ... 13-40 Culture and Language Learning ... 13-15 Definition of Culture... 15-17 Culture in Pragmatics and Semantics ... 17-18 Culture as Context for Language Use ... 18 Issues related to Culture and Language Learning ... 18 Cultural Relativism ... 19 Culture Shock ... 19-20 Linguistic Imperialism ... 20 Acculturation ... 20-21

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Enculturation ... 21-22 The Fluent Fool ... 22 Ethnocentrism ... 22-23 Stereotyping, Prejudice and Bias ... 23-24 Cultural Conflict ... 24 English as Lingua Franca ... 24 A Historical Perspective on Lingua Franca ... 24-25 English as an international language and Implications for ESL/EFL .. 25-26 Teaching Languages for Awareness... 26 Cultural Awareness ... 26 The Need for Cultural Understanding ... 27-28 Intercultural Competence ... 28 Intercultural Communicative Competence ... 28-30 Disciplines Related to Culture ... 30-31 Theories Related to Culture ... 31-32 Approaches and Techniques Related to Teaching Culture ... 32-33 Semiotic Approach... 33 The Cultural Iceberg Model ... 33-34 Culture in Language Learning Approaches and Methods ... 34-36 Techniques and Materials in the Language Classrooms ... 36-37 Cross - Cultural Topics ... 37 Textbooks and Language Learning Materials ... 37 Presentation of Culture in Textbooks and Materials ... 38-40 CHAPTER III ... 41 METHODOLOGY ... 41-46 Research Design ... 41-42 Context of the Study ... 42 Participants ... 42 Data Analysis and Collection ... 42-45 Materials / Textbook Evaluation ... 45-46

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CHAPTER IV ... 47 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 47-77 Findings and Discussions ... 47 Textbook and Materials Evaluation ... 47-65 Interviews with Instructors ... 65-77 CHAPTER V ... 79 CONCLUSION ... 79-82 Limitations of the Study ... 82 REFERENCES ... 83-95 APPENDIXES ... 96-163 Appendix 1. Examples of Cultural Aspects ………..96-112 Appendix 2. The Transcript of the Interviews ... 113-163

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xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Three Components of Intercultural Communicative Competence………29

Table 2. Criteria for Determining Cultural Elements: Person, Product, Perspective, Practice ……….40

Table 3. Speak out Starter ………..48

Table 4. Speak out Elementary ……….50-51 Table 5. Speak out Pre-intermediate ……… 52-53 Table 6. Speak out Intermediate ………54-55 Table 7. Reading Key 1 ………56-57 Table 8. Reading Key 2 ………58-59 Table 9. First Steps in Academic Writing 1 ………..60

Table 10. First Steps in Academic Writing 2 ………61

Table 11. Supplementary Materials for the Fall Term in in the Gazi University School of Foreign Languages ………62-63 Table 12. Supplementary Materials for the Spring Term in the Gazi University School of Foreign Languages………64-65 Table 13. Experiences with English Speaking or other Cultures ……….66

Table 14. Acting as an Intercultural Mediator………...66

Table 15. Learners' Cultural Sensitivity……….67

Table 16. Providing Learners with Authentic Materials………68

Table 17. Talks and Discussion about Cultural Issues………...68

Table 18. Culture Quizzes and Tests during the Lesson………....69

Table 19. Study and Travel Abroad Experiences………...70

Table 20. Native Speakers at School ……….70

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Table 22. Enough Time for Intercultural Sensitivity………72

Table 23. Inventories for Intercultural Development ………..72

Table 24. Stereotypes during the Lesson………...73

Table 25. Prejudice and Gaining Tolerance……….73

Table 26. Intercultural Understanding ………....74

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Person in speak out starter student's book ………43

Figure 2. Product in speak out elementary student's book………44

Figure 3. Perspective in first steps in academic writing 1……… …44

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CBI Content Based Instruction EFL English as a Foreign Language

ELF English as a Lingua Franca ELL English Language Literature ELT English Language Teaching ESC English Speaking Countries

ICC Intercultural Communicative Competence L2 Second Language

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Language and culture should always be thought of as one, because one cannot be developed if the other is absent. Tang (1999) asserts that culture and language are affected by one another, as culture is the context in which linguistic interaction occurs, shaping what is said. He suggests that people should think in the language they are speaking, and if they achieve this, then their thoughts and speech may become more powerful. In terms of applied linguistics, culture has come to mean “membership in a discourse community that shares a common social space and history, and common imaginings” (Kramsch, 1998, p. 10). Culture is the manifestation of the lifestyle of a given community, and language is affected by the way the members of the community live. Thus, culture comprises the context for language, and as numerous scholars have emphasized, context plays a significant role in the relationship between culture and language (Byram and Feng, 2005; Halliday, 2007; Kramsch, 1993). According to Halliday (2003), language consists of a semiotic system, or a system of meaning that allows people to understand one another; this system is grounded in the culture from which it arises.

According to Tomalin and Stempleski:

Culture is the evolving way of life of a group of people consisting of a shared set of practices associated with a shared set of products, based upon a shared set of perspectives on the world and set within specific social contexts (as cited in Moran, 2001, p. 17).

Culture reflects a society’s lifestyle, way of thinking, emotions and beliefs, and it can be categorized according to four cultural aspects: namely, person, product, perspective and practice. Hofstede (1994) explains that “culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another” (p. 5). While the value of culture changes from person to person in relation to their individual perspectives, Spencer-Oatey (2008) asserts that, overall:

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Culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioral conventions that are shared by a group of people, and that influence each member’s behavior and his/her interpretations of the ‘meaning’ of other people’s behavior (p. 3).

As previously noted, understanding the culture of the native speakers of a language is critical to engaging in meaningful interactions. Moreover, in interactions between people who do not share a native language, English is often employed as a common language, lending to its status as lingua franca. As Firth (1996) explains, “A lingua franca is a contact language between people who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture,” and for a vast proportion of the world population, “English is the chosen foreign language of communication” (p. 240). Crystal (2003) outlines numerous reasons why English is used as a global language:

 migration by English speakers;  colonialism by the British;  the spread of new technology;  media and films;

Media and films have a particularly great impact on intercultural understanding in the modern world, since they may convey a wide range of environments against the backdrop of many different cultures. In terms of understanding a given culture, Byram (1988) described culture learning as a three-step process:

 Learners explore their own culture;

 They discover the relationship between language and culture;  They analyze and compare cultures.

In the process of teaching about culture, Dahmardeh (2006) asserts that English language teaching materials (e.g., textbooks) can affect the language instruction process; and in contexts where other cultural materials are difficult to access, textbooks are one of the most suitable materials for reflecting the culture of the target language. These books may discuss cultural values directly or indirectly; this is referred to as a 'hidden curriculum' (Cunningsworth, 1995; Holly, 1990), which many educators believe to be more effective than an official curriculum. Risager (as cited in Cunningsworth, 1995) states that foreign language textbooks no longer simply develop concurrently with foreign language pedagogy in a narrow sense, but they increasingly participate in cultural transmission in the educational process and

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in society in general (p. 90). Therefore, coursebooks should be examined in detail to understand the underlying system, as it may be provided either directly or indirectly (Kılıçkaya, 2004). In this sense, given the status of English as a lingua franca, it has been argued that the representation of culture in teaching materials should not be limited to those cultures that exemplify native English speakers alone (Alptekin, 2002; Cortazzi and Jin, 1999; Çelik and Erbay, 2013), but should include content related to the source culture of the students, as well as the target culture and international cultures (Cortazzi and Jin, 1999). Presenting a balanced view of culture may aid in developing students’ skills in intercultural communication through supporting intercultural awareness.

Culture can be considered from several aspects, including practice, product and perspective. In this respect, Yuen (2011) explains that practice means what to do, when and where. Bennett, Bennett, and Allen (2003) define products as institutions, artifacts and everyday behaviors, while perspectives involve such concepts as myths and worldviews (Yuen, 2011).

Background to the Study

As Çelik and Erbay (2013, p. 337) point out, “the global spread of English as a lingua franca has developed the notion of intercultural communicative competence, a concept which has great significance in the field of foreign language education” (p. 337). English is one of the most significant tools for communicating with people from all around the world and learning to appreciate their values (Brooke, 2005). Since people from all around the world use English to understand each other, communication and culture have become the focal point of English language instruction.

Intercultural understanding can be achieved when individuals come to know new people and appreciate new values. This understanding, which may also be identified as intercultural effectiveness (Stone, 2006) or global competence (Deardorff, 2006), is a key factor in globalization. According to the 2001 UNESCO Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UNESCO, 2001), cultural diversity can be characterized as:

a source of exchange, innovation and creativity as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature… it is one of the roots of development, understood not simply in terms of economic growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence.

As such, cultural diversity may be seen as adaptation to existing values. Because of the intertwined nature of language and culture, Bennett, Bennett and Allen (2003, p. 237) point

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out that “the person who learns language without learning culture risks becoming a fluent fool”. In order to prevent learners from becoming fluent fools, teachers should include culture as an integral aspect of language instruction.

Statement of the Problem

Intercultural awareness is necessary in order to develop international and cross-cultural tolerance and understanding. Therefore, in learning a language, it is necessary to learn about the culture related to that language in order to eliminate the boundaries that inhibit intercultural understanding. Without familiarity with different cultures, misinterpretations may occur in the communicative process, and this may create negative attitudes toward foreigners, as well as the language they speak. As a result, prejudice and cultural conflict may emerge. If language learners gain the appropriate intercultural awareness, prejudice and misinterpretations may be eliminated, and they may be better prepared to face the unfamiliar. As part of the process of developing cultural awareness in language learners, textbooks and teaching materials play a major role. Therefore, it is critical to understand how these resources represent culture, including learners’ home culture, as well as target and international cultures. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study is to determine (1) how textbooks and teaching materials represent intercultural elements and (2) what language instructors do to involve cultural elements of different countries and to represent English as an international language. The secondary aim of the study is to explore the extent of importance that is given to intercultural awareness by instructors, coursebooks and teaching materials.

Purpose and Scope of the Study

The study was conducted at the Gazi University School of Foreign Languages in order to:  Determine the intercultural elements that are represented in language textbooks and

teaching materials and how they are represented.

 Reveal what kind of information is included in the textbooks and teaching materials in relation to intercultural understanding.

 Investigate whether instructors believe intercultural understanding is important and how they call attention to English speaking cultures and other cultures.

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 Identify how instructors employ the textbooks and teaching materials in the teaching of English as an international language in terms of intercultural understanding.

The study was conducted at the Gazi University School of Foreign Languages in April and May, 2014. The department instructors and the staff in the materials and curriculum offices took part in the interview process. The language teaching and learning materials that are used in the foundation year intensive language program were targeted for the purposes of the study.

Significance of the Study

Sharifan (2009) notes that “for better or worse, by choice or force, English has ‘traveled’ to many parts of the world and has been used to serve various purposes” (p. 1). In today’s world, everybody speaks English, and it is increasingly becoming an international language, employed in many situations as a common language between people who do not share a native language. As the main aim of today’s language education is to provide learners with necessary skills to communicate with people from all parts of the world, language can be considered as a means to open a window to all cultures. Because teachers act as mediators in the process of learning English as an international language, as well as employing textbooks and teaching materials in EFL contexts, it is important to understand their views and how English speaking and other cultures are presented in the classroom. Thus, studies such as this one that shed light on these issues are necessary.

Teachers, coursebooks and teaching materials are among the most easily available resources for representing intercultural elements; and teachers may be among the most influential individuals in terms of developing students’ perspectives on culture. Therefore, we focus on those three important factors to determine the extent of importance given to intercultural awareness.

Research Questions

The following research questions have guided this thesis:

1. What kind of intercultural elements appear in teaching materials and coursebooks, and how

are they represented in the one-year intensive language program at the Gazi University School of Foreign Languages?

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2. Do instructors employ textbooks and teaching materials in English as an international

language in terms of promoting intercultural awareness? If so, how?

3. Do instructors involve their personal experiences in terms of raising intercultural

awareness?

Overview of the Methodology

In this study, a descriptive research model was employed to reveal the presentation of intercultural elements in all language learning materials, including textbooks, used in the Gazi University, School of Foreign Languages Foundation Year intensive language instruction. The quantitative data were collected via document analysis of the language learning and teaching materials; and the qualitative data were collected through interviews with the instructors and materials developers.

The administration permitted ten instructors to be interviewed for the purpose of the study; accordingly, eight females and two males were selected at random. Of these ten instructors, four were in charge of the materials and test offices, as well as actively teaching. The instructors were selected for the interviews to determine how they engage intercultural elements in teaching English as an international language.

Document analysis was carried out in order to determine content of the textbooks and other teaching materials in terms of their intercultural elements; while content analysis was conducted with the interview transcripts. In examining the language materials and coursebooks, the intercultural elements were classified according to four different aspects. In addition to the “Three P’s” of products, practices, and perspectives earlier discussed, a fourth “P,” representing “persons,” (Yuen, 2011) was added to the analysis, as with Erbay and Çelik (2013).

Limitations and Assumptions

This study was limited to the representation of intercultural elements in the teaching materials and coursebooks used in the one-year intensive language program in the Gazi University, School of Foreign Languages; as well as to the reporting of the course instructors on their engagement of intercultural elements in their teaching. The degree of intercultural

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understanding and intercultural competence possessed by students before and after an intensive language program is beyond the scope of this study. Because the study is based on a descriptive model, we cannot determine whether the learners in the course show improvement in terms of intercultural understanding. An experimental study may be applied to determine whether there is improvement in learners’ cultural awareness. Furthermore, this study was limited to the Foreign Languages School of Gazi University; to provide more general results, similar studies may be applied in other institutions. Furthermore, in this case, only ten instructors were chosen to take part in the research; additional participants may provide a more comprehensive view. In addition, the instructors' replies may not have reflected their actual classroom practice. Moreover, native culture should be investigated in the coursebooks and other teaching materials, as this is likely to engage Turkish students’ attention, as well. In conclusion, learning culture complements language learning; and English is the language in which everybody can communicate and which can serve as a bridge among various cultures. Language is the indicator of culture.

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Definition of Terms

The following section provides definitions of the terms related to culture that are discussed throughout the paper.

Acculturation: A process in which changes in the language, culture, and system of values of

a group occur through interaction with another group with a different language, culture, and system of values (Richard and Schmidt, 1985, p. 5).

Biculturalism: The ability to know the social habits, beliefs, customs, and so on of two

different social groups (as stated in the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, p. 53).

Big “C”: Lee (2009, p. 78) refers to culture as representing “a set of facts and statistics

relating to the arts, history, geography, business, education, festivals and customs of a target speech society”. In this sense, Lee (2009) refers to Big “C” as the deep structure of culture.

Culture: Culture includes the knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs, and any other

capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a given society (Tyler, 1870).

Cross cultural communication: An exchange of ideas and information between persons

from different cultural backgrounds (as stated in the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, p. 147).

Cultural awareness: Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004, p. 3) describe cultural awareness as “an increased understanding of your own and other people’s cultures, and a positive interest

in how cultures both connect and differ”.

Cultural conflict: Turner (2005, p. 87) refers to this phenomenon as a conflict caused by

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Cultural diversity: The common heritage of humanity, which should be recognized and

affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations (UNESCO, 2001).

Cultural imperialism: “… the transmission of ideas about a dominant culture during the

course of teaching (i.e. via textbooks, the choice of content, etc.) in which certain cultural stereotypes and values are presented as universal and superior while others (either by omission or by direct presentation) are viewed as inferior” (as stated in the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, p. 136).

Cultural relativism: According to Herskovits (1955, p. 52), Cultural relativism “deals with

more than just morals, ethics and values; it is also concerned with judgments of time and space and volume, differences in perception and cognition, as well as of conduct.

Cultural self-perception: “… the way in which an actor expresses a cultural community as

the one he or she identifies with” (Titley, 2004, p.86).

Culture shock: “Strong feelings of discomfort, fear, or insecurity, which a person may have

when they enter another culture. For example, when a person moves to live in a foreign country, they may have a period of culture shock until they become familiar with the new culture” (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, p. 139).

Cultural stress: “… the stress that occurs when you change to a different way of living in a

new culture. It is what you experience as you move beyond understanding the culture to making it your own so that you accept the customs, becoming comfortable and at home with them” (Koteskey, 2015, p. 88).

Enculturation: The process of socialization to the norms of one’s indigenous or heritage

culture, which include the values, ideas, and concepts that are important to the indigenous or heritage culture (Herskovits, 1948).

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Ethnocentrism: “… the belief that the values, beliefs and behaviors of one's own group are

superior to those of others” (as stated in the Encyclopedia of Global Studies, p. 524).

Fluent fool: Bennet, Bennet and Allen (2003, p. 237) asserted that “the person who learns

language without learning culture risks becoming a fluent fool”. As such, “the importance of developing intercultural communicative competence alongside linguistic competence is rooted in the need of students to interact effectively with people from other cultures” (Learning English Culture through its Literature, p. 2).

Intercultural approach: Corbett (2003, p. 19) explains that “an intercultural approach to

second language learning aims to develop an understanding of how a community or language group uses language and how the values and beliefs are articulated and negotiated within the particular language group”.

Intercultural competence: Deardorff (2008, p. 33) describes intercultural competence as

“the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes”.

Intercultural communicative competence (ICC): In Byram’s (2000, p. 297) view, ICC is

“the ability to interact effectively with people of cultures other than one’s own”.

Intercultural sensitivity: Bennett (1993, p. 3) defines intercultural sensitivity as “the

construction of reality as increasingly capable of accommodating cultural difference that constitutes development”.

English as lingua franca (ELF): English as a lingua franca is generally conceived as “a

contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication” (Firth, 1996, p. 240).

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Linguistic imperialism: This concept refers to “the … theory that languages may be seen as

occupying a dominant or dominated role in a society” (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, p. 341).

Little “C”: The Little “C” of culture includes native speakers’ ways of behaving, eating,

talking and dwelling, as well as their customs, beliefs and values (Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, p. 277).

Person: This aspect of culture may include “… famous individuals (such as Stephen

Hawking and Aung San Suu Kyi) as well as others, who can be fictitious or unknown people” (Yuen, 2011, p. 464).

Perspective: The “perspective” element of culture refers to the underlying beliefs and values,

inspirations, myths, superstitions, and world views of a particular society (Yuen, 2011).

Practice: The practices of a culture consist of social interactions; the use of products; the

knowledge of what to do, when and where; and awareness of how to interact and communicate with people (Yuen, 2011).

Product: This cultural aspect encompasses tangible products, such as books or paintings, and

intangible products, such as oral tales or traditional dances (Yuen, 2011).

Proxemics: This concept can be defined as "the interrelated observations and theories of

man's use of space as a specialized elaboration of culture" (Hall, 1966, p.1).

Semiotic approach: This entails an examination of the sign itself, the codes or systems in

which the signs are organized, and the culture in which these signs operate (Barthes, 1964).

Stereotyping: Generalized beliefs about the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of

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Transcultural approach: In a transcultural approach, speakers of EIL/ELF will be able to

maintain their native cultural integrity whilst learning to adapt their preconceived schemas concerning other cultures in order to fully understand and make allowances for any differences (Abad, 2013).

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The following section includes a definition of culture, as well as information about culture and language learning, culture in pragmatics and semantics, and culture as context for language use. The theories and issues related to culture, such as ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, culture shock, linguistic imperialism, acculturation, enculturation, the ‘fluent fool,’ stereotyping, prejudice and bias, and cultural conflict are likewise discussed. English as lingua franca, cultural awareness, the need for cultural understanding are also among the subjects detailed in this section. Furthermore, intercultural competence, intercultural communicative competence, approaches and techniques related to culture such as the cultural iceberg model, culture in textbooks and language teaching materials, cross cultural communication, and four cultural aspects are introduced.

Culture and Language Learning

Language and culture are indispensable parts of each other; they cannot be separated (Rivers, 1981, p. 315). If we learn a language without its culture, we cannot fully gain skill in the language or feel motivated to learn it. Intercultural understanding is highlighted as a means to remove misunderstandings and negative feelings toward a foreign language. Tang (1999) emphasizes this concern in the context of language teaching, noting that an individual must be able to think in a language in order to speak it well. This assessment is support by Brown (1994, p. 165), who describes the relationship between language and culture as follows: “A language is a part of a culture and a culture is a part of a language; the two are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture”. “In word, culture and language are inseparable” (cited in Jiang, 2000, p. 328).

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In this sense, Hall (1959) underscores the nature of culture as communication; as he explains, people from different cultures have different backgrounds, and their ways of speaking are the result of their cultural environment. Thus, he points out that individuals from different cultural backgrounds may interpret the same interaction in different ways.

Because of the intertwined nature of culture and language, both of these should be addresses in language teaching; as Liddicoat (2003) stresses, all levels of language are dependent of culture; and furthermore, language enables people to recognize what culture is (Kramsch, 1998). In this respect, Paige and Stringer (1997, as cited in Report on Intercultural Language Learning, p.16) identify a five-element model for language and culture learning;

 learning about the self as a cultural being;

 learning about culture and its impact on human language, behaviour and identity;  culture-general learning, focusing on universal intercultural phenomena, including

cultural adjustment;

 culture-specific learning, with a focus on a particular language and culture;  learning how to learn about language and culture.

Integrating culture in the language learning process allows learners to achieve linguistic competence within the context of intercultural communicative competence, thus allowing them to interact successfully with people from a range of different cultures.

With this in mind, Tomalin and Stempleski (1993, pp. 7-8) modified Seelye’s (1988) ‘seven goals of cultural instruction’, outlining the following goals for the teaching of culture:

 to help students develop an understanding of the fact that all people exhibit culturally-conditioned behaviours;

 to help students to develop an understanding that social variables such as age, sex, social class, and place of residence influence the ways in which people speak and behave;

 to help students to become more aware of conventional behaviour in common situations in the target culture;

 to help students to increase their awareness of the cultural connotations of words and phrases in the target language;

 to help students to develop the ability to evaluate and refine generalizations about the target culture, in terms of supporting evidence;

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 to help students develop the necessary skills to locate and organize information about the target culture;

 To stimulate students’ intellectual curiosity about the target culture, and to encourage empathy towards its people.

Stern (1992) expresses that culture teaching typically involves a cognitive component, an affective component and a behavioral component. The cognitive component relates to various forms of knowledge: geographical knowledge, knowledge about the contributions of the target culture to world civilization, and knowledge about differences in ways of life, as well as an understanding of the values and attitudes expressed in the L2 community. The affective component relates to L2 learners’ curiosity about and empathy for the target culture, and the behavioral component relates to learners’ ability to interpret culturally relevant behavior and to conduct themselves in culturally appropriate ways.

Definition of Culture

Culture is the link between human beings and the bridge between generations. Culture comprises “… a learned meaning system that consists of patterns of traditions, beliefs, values, norms, meanings, and symbols that are passed down from one generation to the next and are shared by varying degrees by interacting members of a community” (Ting-Toomey and Chung, 2012, p. 28). Culture is the heritage which is passed from one generation to another and shaped by the qualities of the consecutive generations.

In the Standards for Foreign Language Learning (1999), culture is classified according to two major categories. "Big C" culture refers to "formal" culture, including social, political and economic institutions; the great figures of history; and those products of literature, fine arts and the sciences that were traditionally assigned to the category of "elite culture" (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, p. 48). In contrast, "little c" culture constitutes "those aspects of daily living studied by the sociologist and the anthropologist: housing, clothing, food, tools, transportation and all the patterns of behavior that members of the culture regard as necessary and appropriate" (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, p. 40). As such, “little c” culture defines the worldview of a given group. Since a worldview is dependent on a specific group of people, the way they perceive the world can be changeable.

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Thus, Hall (1976) contends that “culture is not genetically inherited, and cannot exist on its own, but is always shared by members of a society” (p. 16). It is carried from generation to generation, but it is shaped by people. Similarly, Hofstede (1980, p. 21-23) defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group from another”, and which is passed from generation to generation; it is changing all the time, because each generation adds something of its own before passing it on. Each generation is different, and culture has been affected by this difference and transformed. Furthermore, according to Hofstede's, culture can be divided into six categories, or dimensions (Hofstede and Minkov, 2010, p. 8):

Power distance: the extent to which individuals, organizations and institutions accept that power is distributed unequally.

Uncertainty avoidance: a society's tolerance toward ambiguity.

Individualism & collectivism: people in individualistic societies lack close relationships with one another. On the other hand, people in collectivist societies are strongly integrated.

Masculinity & Femininity: in masculine cultures, taboos often play a great role in society. In feminist culture, there should be a balance between two genders.

Long-term & short-term orientation: in societies with long-term orientation, what is conceived as either good or evil depends on the circumstances, but there are universal guidelines about what constitutes good and evil. Societies with short-term orientation typically focus on the present or past and consider them more important than the future. With short-term orientation, tradition, the current social hierarchy, and fulfillment of social obligations are valued, and immediate gratification is given greater importance than long-term fulfillment.

Indulgence & restraint: the first relates to a society in which individuals give importance to their own needs in order to enjoy their lives. The second denotes societies in which the needs of individuals are controlled by strict social rules.

As these dimensions illustrate, each society has its own rules. In some societies, ambiguous situations cause difficulties; while in others, individuals exhibit tolerance when they face something unknown or different. Some societies attach importance only to men, viewing as the most important members of the family, as they earn money and support their children. Furthermore, the views of what is good and evil can change from one society to another; and some may focus on the consequences of a behavior, but others may give priority to the intention in terms of judging an act. All of these issues are determined by the culture of a given society.

In this sense, Hall (1959) views culture as a silent language consisting not only of verbal, but also non-verbal communication. This affects the way people think, behave and speak. Moreover, he notes that culture can be traditionally divided into two parts: high-context and low-context:

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In a higher-context culture, many things are left unsaid, letting the culture explain. Words and word choice become very important in higher-context communication, since a few words can communicate a complex message very effectively to in-group members (but less effectively outside that group), while in a low-context culture, the communicator needs to be much more explicit, and the value of a single word is less important (Hall, 1976, p. 105 – 116).

In other words, in a high-context culture, there is no deep explanation required in communication, because cultural context gives clarity to what is being said. However, in low-context cultures, individuals use a greater number of words to make meaning clear, and things are expressed directly in order to be explicit.

In expanding on the meaning of culture, Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952, p. 181) assert that: Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, and on the other as conditioning elements of further action”.

Trompenaars (2000, p. 6) offers another perspective, explaining that “a useful way of thinking about where culture comes from is the following: culture is the way in which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas”. In other words, culture is the manifestation of how people approach life through what they have learned, and this understandings results from the ways in which people in a given culture perceive the world. As Alptekin (1993, p. 136) explains:

Culture, aside from its reference to the artifacts of a given community, involves socially acquired knowledge. This knowledge is organized in culture-specific ways which normally frame our perception of reality such that we largely define the world through the filter of our world.

Furthermore, “culture affects how people interact, the meanings that people place on different interactions, and how various interactions are organized. Because cultures vary in important ways across societies, the behavior of individuals also differs across societies” (Ekşi, 2009, p. 319). Thus, culture is a helpful tool that enables people to interact with each other, reflect their perspectives, and even change them if necessary.

Culture in Pragmatics and Semantics

In discussing pragmatics, Missikova (2009, p. 64) argues that:

The role of pragmatics includes not only the language use but also the language users to our analysis. It can contribute by pointing out the acts performed by people when they use language, how they try to be polite, relevant and cooperative.

Pragmatics depend on individual perspectives; therefore, they can change from person to person, and they can be shaped by what the exact situation requires. On the other hand, “semantic analysis reveals lexical relations between the words and sentences, but does not

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seem to account for the meanings which arise from the situational or verbal context of an utterance” (Missikova, 2009, p. 74). Semantics is analyzed whether there is a relationship between words and sentences; however, it is not based on the fact that the meaning can change from context to context.

Culture as Context for Language Use

As previously stated, culture provides the context for language; essentially the ways that people speak are completely influenced by their ways of living. Allwood (1990, p. 1) explains this issue as follows:

Language and culture are also connected with context. The term context here includes both the linguistic context (sometimes called context) and the extralinguistic context. Linguistic communication always takes place in a context which is constituted partly by nature and partly by culture. The natural context includes such factors as the noise level, the visibility conditions, the temperature, and the temporal and spatial difference between the communicators.

Therefore, in teaching a foreign language, culture and language may be presented in an authentic context in order to allow learners to feel that what they are learning is relevant in real life. This context can be formal or informal; it can be based on language rules or the natural use of language. In this sense, Allwood (1990, p. 2) points out that:

A consequence for language teaching is that relevant, adequate and correct use of language can be taught independently of context neither when it comes to productive skills such as speaking and writing nor when it comes to receptive skills such as perceptual discrimination, identification and understanding.

If we would like to teach the correct use of language, we can avoid context; however, when teaching the communicative skills of speaking and writing, context is necessary. In particular, speaking is a clear manifestation of a culture, as it directly reveals how people believe, think and behave. Conversely, it has a great impact on culture, and context is a tool that reflects a given culture. Moreover, according to Vygotskyan sociocultural theory, which claims that human cognition is formed through social activity (Lantolf and Johnson, 2007; Cheon 2008), social interaction is an integral process in language. Learning a language through social interaction is easier and more efficient, because learners encounter the use of the language within a real communicative context.

Issues related to Culture and Language Learning

The following section details some of the common issues related to culture that may have an impact on language learning.

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Each society has a particular set of values that are commonly accepted and applied; these values differ from one culture to another, people tend to interpret the values of other cultures in terms of their own cultural understanding. This phenomenon, known as cultural relativism, is explained by Herskovits (1972, p. 15) as follows:

Judgments are based on experience, and experience is interpreted by each individual in terms of his own enculturation. Those who hold for the existence of fixed values will find materials in other societies that necessitate re-investigation of their assumptions. Are there absolute moral standards, or are moral standards effective only as far as they agree with the orientations of a given people at a given period in their history? We even approach the problem of the ultimate nature of reality itself. Is reality not defined and redefined by the ever-varied symbolisms of the innumerable languages of mankind?

Some of the common assertions of cultural relativists (Rachels, 2003, p. 18 - 19) are described below:

 Different societies have different moral codes.

 There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societal code better than another.  The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is merely one among many.  There is no universal truth in ethics; that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all people at

all times.

 The moral code of society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society.

 It is mere arrogance for us to try to judge the conduct of other peoples. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance toward the practices of other cultures.

In other words, issues such as morality are related to culture; namely, each society has its own unique moral rules, and there is no absolute morality. An action may be judged as right or wrong in a given society; yet the same action may be viewed differently in another society. Therefore, it is necessary to suspend judgment and demonstrate sympathy when viewing the morals of other cultures.

Culture Shock

Culture shock is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when an individual who is immersed in a foreign culture faces the unfamiliar on a daily basis (Oberg, 1960). Oberg (2006, p. 142) describes some of the symptoms of culture shock as follows:

 excessive washing of the hands;

 excessive concern over drinking water, food, dishes and bedding;  fear of physical contact with attendants and servants;

 absent-mindedness;  far-away stares;

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 a feeling of helplessness and a desire of dependence on long term residents of one’s own nationality;

 fits of anger over delays and other minor frustrations;

 delay and outright refusal to learn the language of the host country;  excessive fear of being cheated, robbed, or injured;

 great concern over minor pains and irruptions of the skin;  and finally, terrible longing to be back at home.

Each person may be affected by these symptoms differently, since each individual comes from a different set of experiences. Although culture shock has some negative effects, learning about the culture can mitigate the difficulties.

From another perspective, Adler (1975, p. 13) defines culture shock as “primarily a set of emotional reactions to the loss of perceptual reinforcements from one’s own culture, to the new cultural stimuli which have little or no meaning, and to the understanding of new and diverse experiences”. In other words, culture shock is the process of adaptation to the unfamiliar. In this sense, several different types of culture shock have been distinguished. Byrnes (1966), for instance, identified role shock, which occurs due to lack of knowledge about the rules of behavior. Language shock occurs due to problems with an unfamiliar language and inability to communicate properly (Smalley, 1963); while culture fatigue occurs due to tiredness and the need for constant adjustment to a new cultural environment (Taft, 1977). Transition shock comprises a negative reaction to change and adjustment to a new cultural environment, or the inability to interact effectively within a new environment (Bennett, 1977). All of these types of culture shock arise from unfamiliarity.

Linguistic Imperialism

Linguistic imperialism refers to the international status of a language, wherein it becomes more dominant than others. Phillipson (1997, p. 238-239) refers to linguistic imperialism as:

… a theoretical construct, devised to account for linguistic hierarchisation, to address issues of why some languages come to be used more and others less, what structures and ideologies come to be used more and others less, what structures and ideologies facilitate such processes, and the role of language professionals.

In this sense, English, in particular, is seen as dominating other languages, given its particular status as lingua franca.

Acculturation

According to Berry (2005, p. 698), “acculturation is the dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural

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groups and their individual members.” When two people from two different cultures meet, they may be faced with new values, and they may learn to accept these and change their worldviews accordingly. This entails many advantages; for instance, individuals may learn each other’s languages, as well as developing appreciation for and understanding of individual differences and the demands of different cultures.

The acculturation model, developed by Schumann (1978), is based on both social and psychological factors. Schumann believes that the level of language proficiency a learner achieves depends strictly on the degree of acculturation he or she undergoes. Brown (as cited in Barjesteh and Vaseghi, 2012, p. 581) postulates that the process of acculturation in the natural environment of the target language consists of four stages:

 Euphoria- learners are excited over the newness of the surroundings;

 Culture shock- individuals begin to feel the intrusion of more and more culture differences into their own images of self and security;

 Cultural stress- gradual recovery: some problems of acculturation are solved, while others continue for some time. The learner starts to understand the differences in thinking. The learner's problems center on the question of identity, as she/he may no longer perceive himself/herself as belonging to one culture in particular.

 Full recovery- adaptation, assimilation or acceptance of the new culture. In gradual recovery, some of the problems related to acculturation are solved, while others continue; however, in full recovery, all problems resolved as individuals adapt to the new culture and accept it.

Enculturation

While acculturation entails getting to know new cultural forms while maintaining one’s own culture (Kim, 2005), enculturation refers to the process of adapting to the cultural forms that surround them through socialization (Kim, 1988). . This process is begun during childhood through conditioning to fundamental habits, such as eating, sleeping, speaking, and personal hygiene – “whose inculcation has been shown to have special significance in shaping the personality and forming the habit patterns of the adult in later life” (Herskovits, 1955, p. 327). In this sense, Herskovits held that individuals go through an “unconscious” stage of learning in the early years of life, unconsciously internalizing the surrounding culture. However, in later years, the individual reaches a “conscious” stage of learning. On the other

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hand, Mead (1963) notes that, while the words socialization and enculturation have been used interchangeably, they are not one and the same. Instead, she defined socialization as “learning as a universal process” and enculturation as “the process of learning a culture as it takes place in a specific culture” (Mead, 1963, p. 185).

The Fluent Fool

Bennet (1993, p. 9) describes the fluent fool as “someone who speaks a foreign language well, but does not understand the social or philosophical content of that language”. In other words, no matter how perfect today’s learners’ performance in the target language in terms of grammar and syntax, awareness of its culture is essential to meaningful communication. To prevent learners from becoming fluent fools, it is necessary to develop intercultural competence so that they can use a language effectively. By providing pragmatic conditions for language use, learners may gain a better understanding of how to employ language appropriately, as supported by Demirezen (1991), who noted that social and situational contexts affect the understanding of language and its use. Intercultural communication is also dependent on this competency. According to Van Ek (1986), the purpose of learning a lingua franca such as English is not only concerned with developing communicative skills, but also with improving the personal and social development of an individual. In this sense, as Byram (2002) asserts, intercultural communication is not about creating new information or changing existing information, but about forming relationships and communicating with people from all around the world.

Ethnocentrism

The term ethnocentrism was first used in 1906 by Sumner to describe a cultural narrowness in which the “ethnically centered” individual rigidly accepted those who were culturally alike while just as rigidly rejecting those who were culturally different. Ethnocentrism has many commonalties with stereotyping, mirroring, prejudice, discrimination, xenophobia, racism, scape‐goat theory, and enemy images and entails lacking acceptance of cultural diversity and of exhibiting intolerance for outgroups (Berry and Kalin, 1995). This lack of acceptance of cultural diversity has a strong tendency to lead to negative stereotypes toward other cultural/ethnic groups and to fostering prejudice and negative behaviors toward these group members. According to Berry and Kalin (1995, p. 303), ethnocentrism is “the synonym for

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general antipathy toward all out-groups. What people understand stems from their presuppositions (Bukhdal, 1967); and an ethnocentric orientation can manifest as an avoidance of cultural difference. Patrikis (1988) warns about the dangers of this assumption - of stereotyping. “Cultural presuppositions and cultural self-perception will also be tools to grab ethnocentrism, as ethnocentrism is the way you see your own culture as the natural centre, and comparing others cultures with your own sovereignty” (Jensen, 2003, p. 9). ”. Lin and Rancer (2003) assert that this general intolerance of cultural diversity reduces the level of intercultural-willingness-to-communicate. In the context of language education, learners may exhibit negative attitudes towards English speaking cultures and other cultures. By promoting knowledge of learners’ own culture, fostering familiarity with other cultures, and drawing comparisons between them, they may see the world from a wider perspectives. Therefore, reducing ethnocentrism is one of the most significant means for helping people to overcome their prejudices and appreciate the unfamiliar. By developing intercultural communicative sensitivity and multiculturalism, ethnocentric attitudes may be eliminated; thus, language teachers should work to build conceptual bridges between the culturally familiar and the unfamiliar in order to prevent conflicts in learners.

Stereotyping, Prejudice and Bias

As mentioned in the previous section, Berry and Kalin (1995, p. 303) describe ethnocentrism as “a lack of acceptance of cultural diversity, a general intolerance for outgroups, and a relative preference for one’s in-group over most outgroups”. Such a lack of acceptance of cultural diversity creates a strong tendency to negative stereotypes, and prejudice against other cultural/ethnic groups, as well as negative behaviors toward those group members. Likewise, “Stereotypes are false or misleading generalizations about groups held in a manner that renders them largely, though not entirely, immune to counterevidence” (Blum, 2004, p. 251). Stereotypes and ethnocentrism have in common in the ways in which they may impel individuals to deal with new situations. Stereotypes lead to the overgeneralization of cultural characteristics and behaviors, and these overgeneralizations can result in prejudice, which is commonly defined as “an unfair negative attitude toward a social group or a member of that group” (Dovidio and Gaertner, 1999, p. 101). Thus, prejudice involves intolerance toward other values, and it stems from a lack of information about people who think, behave and speak differently. Teachers in the language classroom may encounter these issues; however, they may avoid addressing them in their teaching out of fear of having insufficient

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information about English speaking or other cultures. Furthermore, they may be burdened by an overcrowded curriculum that does not leave them enough time to involve culture in the language instruction process.

Cultural Conflict

Cultural conflict results from misinterpretations, ethnocentrism and prejudice. In defining conflict as cultural, it is not important why there is a dispute, but what the conflict involves. Three domains of culture come into consideration in this respect: religion, language and history.

Conflict is typically followed by problem-solving when people know how to behave in various situations. In this respect, effective conflict management requires knowledge and respect for different worldviews. In advocating for effective conflict management, Rahim and Bonoma (1979) categorized conflict styles into two basic dimensions: concern for self and concern for others. These two dimensions result in five distinct behavioral conflict management strategies, including integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding, and compromising. By applying these conflict management strategies, intercultural sensitivity may be enhanced, leading to flexibility and the ability to become accustomed to what is new.

English as Lingua Franca

A Historical Perspective on Lingua Franca

The majority of the world’s English users live in the countries of Kachru’s (1985) Expanding Circle, where English is generally considered to function as a “foreign language” in largely international domains, with few in-country uses; Bolivia, Chile, Greece, Turkey, Thailand, Indonesia, China, Japan and Korea exemplify Expanding Circle countries. The use of English in the expanding circle refers to its function as a lingua franca. As is well known, the term as a nomen proprium originally referred to a vernacular adopted as an auxiliary language among traders, soldiers, and pirates who spoke different languages along the Mediterranean coast between the 13th and 18th centuries. This vernacular was based on a Romance tongue and was mixed with, above all, Arabic and Greek elements (cf. Barotchi 1994, p. 2211; Beneke 1995, p. 61). Today, lingua franca, as a nomen appellativum, describes a language used by people who do not speak the same native language.

Şekil

Table  2.  Criteria  for  Determining  Cultural  Elements:  Person,  Product,  Perspective,  and  Practice
Figure 4. Practice in first steps in academic writing 2
Table 10. First Steps in Academic Writing 2
Table 11. Supplementary Materials of the Fall Term in Foreign Languages of Gazi School
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