SELÇUK ÜNIVERSITESI
SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
İNGİLİZ DİLİ VE EDEBİYATI
TEACHING ONE ACT PLAYS WITH THEIR FILM
PRODUCTIONS TO UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
SAFA N SALMAN
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
DANIŞMAN
Yrd. Doç. Dr. AYŞE GÜLBÜN ONUR
TABLE OF CONTENT ÖZET ... V SUMMARY ... VI PREFACE ... VII Introduction ... 1 CHAPTER 1 ... 5
1.1.The one act plays ... 5
CHAPTER II ... 13
TEACHING THE ONE ACT PLAYS ... 13
2.1 Teaching drama (one act plays) ... 14
2.1.1 Methods used in teaching: ... 17
2.1.2 What factors are considered in selecting a play? ... 18
2.1.3 Analyzing a one act play: ... 19
Read with a Pencil ... 21
Visualize the Characters ... 21
Contemplate the Setting ... 22
Research the Historical Context ... 22
Sit in the Director‟s Chair ... 22
2.2 ―Trifles‖ by Susan Glaspell ... 23
2.2.1 Type of Work and Year of Publication ... 24
2.2.2 The Title's Meanings ... 24
2.2.4 Character List ... 26
2.2.5 Theme of the play ... 28
2.2.6 Symbolism ... 31
2.3 How to teach Trifles ... 32
2.3.2 Glossary of Terms ... 34
2.3.3 Quotes ... 36
2.4 How to Stage Trifles ... 41
Trifles) Instructions 42 2.3 Riders to the Sea by John Millington Synge ... 43
Riders to the Sea ... 43
2.3.1 Plot summary ... 43
2.3.2 Setting ... 44
2.3.3 Language of the play ... 45
2.3.4 Character list ... 45
2.3.5 Theme of the play ... 46
2.3.6 Symbols ... 46
2.3.7 Cinema and Opera ... 48
2.3.8Glossary of terms ... 48
2.3.9 Quotations ... 49
CHAPTER III ... 51
Teaching “Trifles” and “Riders to the Sea” to the third and fourth class students of English literature department in Selcuk University ... 51
3.1.Working with the fourth class students on the play Trifles ... 51
3.1.1.Setting ... 51
3.1.2.characters ... 55
3.1.3.images and symbols ... 61
3.2.Watching the film and using the Venn diagram ... 68
3.3 Teaching Trifles and Riders to the Sea with the film productions ... 70
3.3.1 Trifles, its film version and the Venn diagram ... 70
3.3.2 Riders to the sea, its film version and the Venn diagram ... 71
CHAPTER IV ... 73
CONCLUSION ... 73
PREFACE
The present study aimed to teach one act plays with the film productions to university students, and get the results of using this method in teaching this form of drama. A test was conducted for students of the fourth and third years at Selcuk University in order to know the effect of the methods used in teaching the plays.
I am extremely grateful to my supervisor Asst. prof. Dr. AYŞE GÜLBÜN ONUR for her support to my study and for lots of her great inspiration, ideas and comments. I would like to thank prof. Dr. Faisal al Muqdadi for his time and the information he provided me with about the one act plays and theater.
Moreover, I would like to show my gratitude to my family especially my dear parents for their love, encouragement and moral support.
Finally I would like to thank the third and fourth year students of Selcuk University English department for their cooperation.
Introduction
The research is a brief study on the role of one act plays while learning how to approach drama at a university level. The study will also include one act plays importance and characteristics at the present time and at the beginning of its appearance. The first chapter of the research is a general introduction on the one act plays. In this chapter the main characteristics of drama is introduced briefly. Also some famous play writers are mentioned. The techniques they used for writing one act plays, the aim and the purpose of writing such plays are underlined in this part of the research. One act play is a kind of drama which consists of only a single act with a few scenes with no more than three or four characters. One act plays is a kind of drama which is used to pass or kill time generally and strike the reader and to give a message in an impact form to influence its reader in an effective way because these plays are short and interesting. The events and the actions are usually taken from real life and from life‟s events. Writing a one act play is not easy. The writers are limited by time and diction and they are responsible of making their audience like and understand their work. Another important point I‟ve mentioned in the chapter is the differences between the one act plays and the full length drama. In short, the one act plays are not complicated as the full length drama. They differ in their climax and conclusion, in the one act plays the climax is usually close to the conclusion, and it is performed without a break. Most of the time, they even differ in actors, the one act plays are sometimes enacted by non professional actors. In the second chapter of the research a short discussion is given on teaching drama and its ways with the methods the teachers use in classes. It will also point out which factors are considered in choosing a play to teach. There are some tips which help and show students how to read a play, this really helps the student to understand the play in an easy way. Then I chose the two plays (Trifles by Susan Glaspell, and Riders to the sea by J. M. Synge) to analyze them in turns. After analyzing them in details I tried to show some different ways in teaching these plays, how to read, understand and discuss the plays with the students. Plot summary, characters list, type of work, setting, major themes, and glossary of terms are given in teaching these plays. The last part of this chapter concentrates on the teaching of the two plays, which includes some important quotes from the characters and also teaching vocabulary. The reason why these two plays are chosen is because they are modern and timeless plays. This chapter will help the students to read and understand the plays
easilywhile at the same time it will also help the teacher in discussing the plays with the students without facing difficulties. The film productions of the plays are used as well in teaching the plays. It is a new concept to teach such kind of plays with their film productions. That will be useful for the students to facilitate understanding the play and discussing it in the class. I wanted to show the importance of the visual art here in teaching one act plays. And to know how much it will serve for the creativity of the student ideas and imaginations before and after watching the films. My aim in choosing this subject and this kind of drama is that, the one act play as I mentioned earlier are short, different and enjoyable which attracts the attention of readers for its being different from other literary works in its shape, characteristics, components and its goals. And it is not a routinework for the students. Especially watching the film production of the play will attract the attention of the students and enable them to be more active and cooperative in a very short time.This will also give the chance for discussion. Such an approach in teaching drama in classes will showthe importance of the stage productions in our day as well.
I think this approach is productive in the class because it includes two art forms. After reading and discussing the plays and watching the film version of the two plays with the third class students from Selcuk University English department, I applied a different method for getting the result of this project, which includes the Venn diagram. It is a diagram of two circles to represent sets, with the position and overlapping of the circles it indicates the relationships between the sets. For example, drawing one circle within another indicates that the set represented by the first circle is a subset of the second set. What I have done is drawing two circles within another and in each circle the film version and the text of the play is discussed by the students. In the joint point of the two circles the similarities and the differences of both the film and the text are given by the students again. Different points of view are given by the students concerning the film and the text of the play. There are those who preferred reading the play without watching the film version of it, and their reason is that it makes the student imagine the events and the details better than seeing it visually. They claimed that itbroadens their imaginative world. Thosestudents who preferred watching the film version after reading the text explain the reason of their preferring the film. Visualizing the events, setting, and the characters make the play easy to understand, that it gives them more information about each detail in the play. After applying this method, as a result, the percentages of a successful comprehension by the students were calculated. Those who preferred the film and at the same time that preferred readig the text at first were
evaluated.The examples are constituted by students‟ answers and diagrams which are shown in the appendix chapter. Applying this method of teaching one act plays with their film productions leads the students to be more imaginative and creative, using the Venn diagram for proving the result contributesto the aim of the study. Teaching the one act play with its film version adds a lot to the knowledge of the students and displays how effective this method is.
There are some similar researches. Not exactly the same but their subjects deal with one act plays. A book by B. Ronald LEWIS, professor and head of the department of English in the University of Utah, has carried out a study with the title“Contemporary One Act Plays” 1922; it gives the outline study of one act plays and bibliography. The plays have been selected and the introduction prepared to meet the need of the student or teacher who desires to acquaint the students with the one act play as a specific dramatic form. The outline analysis and the plays in this volume are sufficient material, if carefully studied, for an understanding and appreciation of the one act plays. They are explained as a specific dramatic type. Then the proper approach to the study is given. After a dramatic analysis and construction of plays are given in details, inthe last part of the book it includes different examples from one act plays.
Another example for this work is a graduation project prepared by college students in University of Salahaddin College of Education for human sciences English department, the project title is “Testing one act plays‖ 2009. The first chapter of the research is about the historical background of the one act plays and its emergence. Importance and techniques were explained briefly. A play is chosen and taught in the second part of the project. Then a test of two questions is designed and students are asked to answer the questions. The last part consisting ofthe result and discussion and this ends with the conclusion of the test, and the project.
The third example is an article about “A Creative Genre-Study on One Act Plays” 2004
by Danielle Angie. There are definitions of drama and one act plays, what distinguishes a full
length drama from a one act play, what components define a one act play is explained with examples.
Another example is “Teaching Film Drama as Film Drama‖ 1956, by Gerald WEALES, the quarterly of film radio and television. Published by University of California press article.The study tries to point out that watching the film after reading the text is important. This is why
drama teachers insist that no play can be really understood until it is given flesh and form by actors, sets on stage.
Another research on using films is; “Is film an affective teaching tool for high school literature?‖ 2009, by Geoffrey Thomas Smith. A master research project presented to the faculty of the college of education, Ohio University.This study presents the effectiveness of film as a tool for teaching the students how to react and discuss on certain topics. A simple test is given in order to test its theories and the result shows a positive relationship between using the film in the classroom and the student achievement.
Although the steps which are followed are almostthe same in this work, but the aim in this study is different, this will be clearly understood after considering the content of the research. A new method is followed in teaching the plays by using film productions and a comparison with the read text is completed with using diagrams in teaching and getting the results.
CHAPTER 1
1.1.The one act plays:
The one act plays take place in one act or scene; they are often presented in series. One act plays are not like other plays which are published one play per book, one act plays are usually published in collection. The one act play is a form of drama which proved itself obviously and became appropriate to the modern behavior, and the way of looking at reality. One act play was a kind of dramatic entertainment. The one act play successfully pared its own way among full length playsinthe beginning of the modern age. The one act play successfully started to improve among full length plays and developed gradually as a different and independent form of drama.
Before 1890 one act plays were used especially in “vaudeville” programs or sometimes as a short play performed before the main play at the evening shows. They were being used as curtain raisers in London theatre for the purpose of killing time. However, with the little theater movement, interest to the one act play increased and it was adopted by such play writers as J.M. Barrie. A.W. Pinero, Chekhov and G.B. Shaw. The beginning of the one act plays started with “Pashkin‟s” play “Motsart and Salary”; also “Gogole‟s ” “The Gamblers” and “Chekhov” when he tried to talk about specific fields about human in his “vaudeville” and “Makseem Gorky” in his play “Children”. We may be surprised to know that one-act plays have been around since Ancient Greece. One of the oldest still surviving in its totality is “Cyclops‖ by Euripedes who lived between 480 BC - 406 BC. The first presentation of the play is not known exactly, but it is estimated that it was at the end of his life around 408 BC.
Programs which are composed for presenting a one act play were very few. Sir James Mathew Barrie is usually credited with being the first in England to write one act plays intended to be grouped in a single production. A program of this character has been uncommon in the commercial theatre in America. (B. Roland Lewis, 1922, p: 3,Contemporary One act plays)
An “act” is a unit of time within a drama during which a part of the story exposes. The length of time for an act ranges from 30 to 60 minutes it also can be shorter or longer. One act plays can range from one minute to one hour long. A one act play is usually between 10-40 pages
long. There is a limitation of characters numbers in a one act play. There may be one or more main characters, and that depends on the story. In some short plays the roles of the characters are balanced equally in others some roles may only have just a few lines. The space of the playwright is limited at the arrangement of the events and if he introduces too many characters, it would result in overcrowding and reducing the effect of the drama. Of course, there is no hard and fixed rule to the number of the characters in a play. But generally there are not more than two or three principal characters. The dramatist has no time to present the characters through the different stages. Not all the different aspects of a character are presented. The attention is focused on only one or two notable aspects of character and they are brought out by putting the characters in different situations, roles and circumstances.
When the writing competitions became popular , 10 minutes one act plays have become very popular of late (also called flash drama) in which the writer is given a limited time period incorporated specified elements, such as 2-3 characters, a certain prop, a line of dialogue, or some form of set. The shortest play which lasts just 35 seconds is written by Samuel Beckett called “Breath‖. (An article on one act play scripts, 2008,http://www.1actplays.com/articles/)
The one act play is not an easy work, the play writer is limited by time and diction and he tries to make his work easily understood by the audience. His dialogue must obvious, and the language must be short and clear and explain what needs to be said without using unnecessary words.Dialogue is very important in the One Act Play. As the drama is short, the unimportant things should be avoided. Every word must be chosen carefully and sentences must be brief and compact. Whatever is to be said, it should be said in the least possible words. Long speeches and arguments and long sentences should not be used because that would lessen the charm and interest of the play. The writer should not use unnecessary details, mysterious events, long and difficult words and speech, one mustavoid using complicated plots because all of these do not exist in this kind of drama.
One act plays can contain more than one scene while they have only one act. A scene is like a division of an act, in which a certain part of the play unfolds. Scenes are usually separated by time (in the morning, then the following evening…), or location (in the bedroom, at the dinner table…). The numbers of the scenes are depending on how the writer has structured the play.
The differences between the full length drama and the one act play are that the full length drama is usually consisting of 2 and 5 acts, and that depends on how the writer has structured the play. Before the 18th century plays were mostly written in 5 acts. Each act reveals a portion of the story. In plays act 1 is introductory, introducing the characters, location and settingof the story. Act 2 shows the conflict or obstacles that the characters face. Act 3 is the climax of the story and finally its resolution.
What makes good one act plays deceptively to write is that all “introduction, obstacle and resolution” is achieved in a very short time frame, and must be managed in a believable way.
The differences between a one act and the full length drama are not only the differences ofsize and length. The one act play is intended to be called as such; it cannot be called a full length play and cannot be extended to multi act play. The one act play deals with more probable situations and trusted people and its themes and ideas are taken from the real life. The subjects of one act plays are about the daily life and events, contemporary modern life and culture, the subjects of one act plays are common. One act plays represent or show the characters as if they are in their natural behaviormost of the time with no exaggerated or super human act about them. The climax and conclusion in the play should not be complicated. The conclusion follows the climax usually closer than the full length plays. The one act plays focus on the explanation of the ideas not like the full length play which does not give much important. One act plays are usually performed in a short time without break, while the full length plays are performed in a longer time with one or more breaks.
The players in the one act plays are generally amateur and non professionals in universities and schools or experimental theatre. The audiences mostly are friends, colleagues and acquaintances of the players. The amateurs have done a great deal to popularise this kind of drama. It is short, does not require detailedsetting and costumes, which makes it easy to be staged in amateur dramatic societies and clubs. The detailed stage directionsare fixedly introduced by the dramatist in the One Act Play. The writer cannot supply us with detailed information through a lengthy exposition or during the actions of the play itself and that is because the space at the actions of the playwright is limited. This purpose is served by the stage directions. Moreover these stage directions, describing the minute details of the scene, give an air of realism to the drama.
Besides, the play is not intended only for acting but for reading as well. The reader of some plays can know of the entire scene through the stage direction and can appreciate the real spirit of the drama. These stage directions make the play perfectly clear to the reader.
The one-act play is with us because there are many events taken from our real life, and is asking for consideration.In both Europe and America it is one of the conspicuous factors in present day dramatic activity. Theatre managers, stage designers, actors, playwrights, and professors in universities recognize its presence as a vital force. Professional theatre folk and amateurs especially are devoting zestful energy both to the writing and to the producing of this shorter forms of drama. (B. Roland Lewis, 1923, p: 7, contemporary one act plays, a study in dramatic construction)
The one-act play is claiming recognition as a specific drama type. It may be said that, as an art form it has achieved that distinction. The short story, as everyone knows, was once an embryo and an experiment; but few nowadays would care to hold that it has not developed into a specific and worthy literary form. This shorter form of prose fiction was once apologetic. And that not 80 many years ago; but it has come into its own and now is recognized as a distinct type of prose narrative. The one-act play like the short story also has come into its own. No longer is it wholly an experiment. Indeed, it is succeeding in high places. The one-act play is taking its place among the significant types of dramatic and literary expression. Artistically and technically considered, the one act play is quite as much a distinctive dramatic problem as the longer play. In writing either, the playwright aims so to handle his material that he will get his central intent to his audience and will provoke their interest and emotional response thereto. The one act play must be presented at a “single setting": it must start quickly at the beginning with certain definite dramatic elements and pass rapidly and effectively to a crucial movement without halt or digression. Naturally, the material of the one-act play is a bit episodical. It deals with but a single situation. No whole life's story can be treated adequately in the short play, and that no complexity of plot can be employed. Various problems connected with the life of the individual could be discussed. Thus various sorts of things love, marriage, divorce, justice, crime, punishment, law, superstitions, customs and manners are all suitable themes for a One Act Play. According to its theme the One Act Play can be divided into different types as realistic plays, problem plays, phantasies, costume plays, satire, romance, etc. In short, the playwright has a large and varied choice of subjects which can be discussed equally well in the One-Act Play. The One
Act Play, like the longer drama, should have a beginning, middle and an end. It may be divided into four stages: The Exposition. The Conflict, the Climax and the Denouement. All these stages may be distinctly marked as in the larger play, but more often than not they tend to over-lap in a One Act Play.(B. Roland Lewis, 1918,p: 9, The technique of one act play; a study in dramatic construction.)
The Exposition gives as an introduction to the play. The important characters are introduced and also the situation and the themes of the play are explained to the audience. The part of the story that has already happened is also told to the audience, which it is necessary to know for an understanding of the play. But as the One Act Play is very short, the dramatist cannot give much time to this introduction and explanation. So the exposition of a One Act Play is usually brief.
The exposition is followed by the conflict. The action of the drama develops through the conflict. The conflict means a struggle between two opposing forces. It may take different forms. There may be a struggle between two opposite interests, ideas, persons, group of persons, or the hero and his fate or circumstances. There may also be an inner conflict in the mind of the hero between two opposite ideas or urges, who may not be able to decide what to do and so may suffer great distress of spirit as a consequence. The conflict is the back-bone of the One Act Play. Complications arise and the readers are in constant anxiety about the result of the conflict.After the conflict reaches the climax. It is the turning point of the play. One of the two forces now gains domination over the others. It is now clear which of the two would win in the end. The climax is an important part of the One Act Play and creates its moment of maximum interest.The final stage of the One Act Play is the Denouement. The play now reaches its end. One of the two forces now definitely gets victory over the other and the action of the drama concludes. As the space at the actions in a play is limited, the denouement is very brief and often overlaps with climax. The plays come to an end just after the climax.
There are three dramatic unities which are observed in the One Act Play as far as possible.The unity of time, unity of placeand unity ofaction. If these three unities are observed in a drama so it becomes probable and natural.
Unlike the longer play, the shorter form of drama does not show the whole man except by passing hint but a significant moment or experience, a significant character trait. However,
vividly this chosen moment may be interpreted and the one act play must be vivid much will still be left to the imagination. It is the aim of the one-act form to trace the causal relations of but one circumstance so that the circumstance may be intensified. The writer of the one-act play deliberately isolates so that he may throw the strong flashlight more searchingly on some one significant event, on some fundamental element of character, on some moving emotion. He presents in a vigorous, compressed, and suggestive way a simplification and idealization of a particular part or aspect of life. Often he opens but a momentary little vista of life, but it is so clear-cut and so significant that a whole life is often revealed thereby. The one act play is a vital literary product. To segregate a bit of significant experience and to present a finished picture of its aspects and effects; to dissect a motive so searchingly and skillfully that its very roots are laid bare; to detach a single figure from a dramatic sequence and portray the essence of its character; to bring a series of actions into the clear light of day in a sudden and brief human crisis; to tell a significant story briefly and with suggestion; to portray the humor of a person or an incident, or in a trice to reveal the touch of tragedy resting like the finger of fate on an experience or on a character these are some of the possibilities of the one-act play when handled by a master dramatists.(B. Roland Lewis, 1918, p: 23, 24, 25, The technique of one act play; a study in dramatic construction)
Like all drama, one act plays are made up of the same elements that are necessary for short stories: Theme, Plot, Character, and dialogue.
Theme:
The one act needs to have a theme just as a full length does. Whatever your choice, it needs to be clear in your mind what your theme is. Characters, plots, and subplots need to point to and support the theme in a full length play. The one act is not different, except the subplots will likely be missing. What has the author prepared that the reader or hearer shall understand, think, or feel? What is the play about? What is its object and purpose? Is it a precept or an observation found in life, or is it a bit of fancy? Is it artificially didactic and moralizing? What are the fundamental elements in human nature does it have to do with: Love? Sacrifice? Faithfulness?Patriotism?Fear?Egotism and self-centeredness?
Plot:
This is much different in the one act than in the full length. In the full length play, the plot is made of series and sequence of events that lead the protagonist (and the audience) on the
journey. In a one act play there is only one significant event. This is the determining place for the hero, where all is won or lost. Events that lead up to this must be inserted into the script and the audience will not be able to see them. And any events that follow must be inferred or understood by the audience.
Character:
There is really only enough time in this to get to know one character well the hero. In a short time the one act play takes place, it is the hero's event that the audience is experiencing; again, there isn't time for more than explaining other characters. Some characteristics of the supporting characters will need to be portrayed for the story to move forward, including the antagonist, but it is the character of the protagonist that is necessary in the story.
Dialogue:
Economy is important here. Each line must be used carefully to focus on the theme, the incident, and the character of the protagonist. The dialogue need not be short or brief, but must be full of meaning. Any lines that do not focus on the events of the play should be carefully considered whether they are needed or not.
The one act plays had been pushed forcefully by the dramatic life of the stage show and what‟s more is that the dramatic action can‟t live the progress without it.
Whereas this type comic, tragic proved its priority and its clear activity to different stage parts in fine arts institute and colleges and schools considering it as one of the modern dramas. It was said; (they are tiny fantastic pictures never decreasing in front of the huge emotions and struggles through wide boundaries and it is picking up the complex psychological problems and it is talking about the biggest different human destinies, historical and modern, revolution and human, uprising and individuality). The one act plays show the way to the authors to focus on events which satisfy the readers and authors in their works, they deal with human problems. What attracts writer‟s attention to this kind of art is the freedom a “democracy” in the one act plays. The hard or difficult situations of the problems make the readers and audience in the end to utter their own ideas and opinions about the plays.(Personal communication with Dr. Prof Faisal ALMUQDADI, 2009, Arbil, Iraq.)
The one act play is in reality a new phenomenon, is spite of the use that has been made of the form by playwrights like Pinero, Hauptmann, Chekhov, Shaw and others of the first rank, that it is still generally ignored in books on dramatic workmanship. None the less, the status of the one act play is established and a study of the plays of this length, which are rapidly increasing in number, discloses certain tendencies and laws which are exemplified in the form itself. Clayton Hamilton in “(1881–1946) an “American Drama Critic” sums up the matter well when he says: “the one act play is admirable in itself, as a medium of art. It shows the same relation to the full length play as the short story shows to the novel. It makes a virtue of economy of means. It aims to produce a single dramatic effect with the greatest economy of means that is consistent with the utmost emphasis… the author must suggest the entire history of a soul by seizing it at some crisis of its career and forcing the spectator to look upon it from an unexpected and suggestive point of view. A one act play in exhibiting the present should imply the past and intimate the future… the form is complete, concise and self sustaining; it requires an extraordinary force of imagination.” (Helen Lewis Cohen, PhD, 2010, one act plays by modern authors, the workmanship of the one act play)
The most important devise that the classicals left for our writers is that the author of the one act plays should be a psychological learner and studier and comical portrayer and tragic writer more than the authors of the drama of several acts especially if the one act play is of the monodrama kind, which has only one character that talks about hidden things and secrets in one situation with life and psychological struggles with exact, accurate and sincere expression. There is no strangeness when authors show their abilities in their works and dedicate their aims in this kind of plays to attempt educational expression for their audience because this can be a motivation for them to push the life forward with the privacy of one act plays in their mental and psychological features which is based on:
1. Choosing the theme and idea with one organic vitality. 2. Unity of time, place and character.
3. Serious, clear and brief conflict between the incompatible aims and content. 4. To let events rise towards the climax to end the struggle at the changing point. 5. The conflict should produce an exciting event.
6. A brief, meaningful and understandable language.
7. A useful, successful and convincing treatment of the directors in choosing the act and the fan to watch the professional art.
8. A reasonable adjustment with the material and artistic capabilities of the performance group. (Personal communication with Dr. Prof Faisal ALMUQDADI, 2009, Arbil, Iraq)
There are only a very few generalizations that can be made to the structure or the classification of the one act play. The laws of the structure of the one act play are in the nature of dramatic art no less flexible. It can be said that in order to secure that singleness of impression that is as essential to the one act play as to short story, a single well sustained theme is necessary, a theme announced in some fashion early in the play. A one act play has many structural features. Its plot must from beginning to end be dominated by a single theme; its crises may be the crises of character as well as conflicts of will or physical conflicts; it must by a method of foreshadowing sustain the interest of the audience unflaggingly, but ultimately relieve their tension. It must achieve swift characterization by means of pantomime and dialogue; and its dialogue must achieve its effects by the same methods as the dialogue of longer plays. But when all is said and done, the success of a one act play is judged not by its conformity to any set of hard and fast rules, but by its power you interest, enlighten, and hold an audience. (Helen Lewis Cohen, PhD, 2010, p: 13, one act plays by modern authors, the workmanship of the one act play)
CHAPTER II
2.1 Teaching drama (one act plays):
Teaching drama is a paradigm for active learning and reflective teaching of literature, because teaching itself is a dramatic art and takes place in a dramatic setting. For a teacher of dramatic literature the theatrical metaphor is reflected in the structure of learning experience and we waste much of our abilities if we do not take advantage of these parallels. But many teachers ignore them. Some teachers say that when they teach high school students, before they give any assignments they ask students to do a bibliography about the play. They must find ten critical essays about the play, read them and summarize them, just to be sure that they have indeed read the essays. That is to teach them the play and show them ways and means of critical speech of that play. So their intention is to make the students to find a single key to the play. Many teachers of drama prefer to focus on the reading of plays which gives value to every detail of the text, because reading offers more imaginative freedom. Other focus on the dramatic performance studies came to dominate the field of methods and activities of teaching. They define the performance teaching as: theatrical production, reading scenes in classroom workshop, using films and videos, attending live productions, studying the stage history of the plays and also involving the teachers and students together in dramatic explanation of character structure and action. Acting approach in teaching plays gets students involved, gets them speaking, talking, so it is an effective way to bring drama to life in the classroom. Performance teaching provides a model of active engagement for the student of literature that we can use as a base for thinking about teaching other genre and topics. (Ali R.&Salman S., 2009, a graduation project ontesting one act plays)
There is a general agreement that drama education is centrally concerned with encouraging students to reach new understanding by shaping and developing ideas in the process of making and performing drama, and gaining insights into diverse dramatic, theatrical and performative practice, histories and traditions. In the drama practice, the role of the teacher is not one of didactic instruction, but of guided intervention. Guidance is almost invariably embedded in the practical activity of the classroom where teachers monitor and evaluate student progress, and introduce appropriate resources, information and materials to consolidate and challenge their learning as the work develops. In drama, as a physical and ephemeral art form, one of the ways to introduce new ideas and ways of working is through modeling practice and providing clearly identified frames for their work. Both processes of “modeling and framing” are forms of „scaffolding‟; they enable students to recognize and
understand the structures and conventions of the dramatic form within which they are working. By responding to and, interacting with, the work of others, the students learn how to use a particular aspect of drama for themselves. (Nicholson Helen, 2000, teaching drama 11-18)
Jennifer Simons in chapter 1 (Teaching Drama 11-18 edited by Helen Nicholson), gives a careful analysis of the place of modeling in role play, and particular ways in which the device of teacher in role can encourage younger students to engage in dramatic story telling. Also in chapter 3 of the book, Denise Margetts, which her class of 14 year olds, frames their dramatic writing by asking them to enact physically, deconstruct and interpret a playscript, while Sharon Grady in chapter 11 offers her group of 17 year old students a structure to help them „read‟ and interpret the language of kathakali dance in drama with which they were unfamiliar. In all cases, the students‟ learning is purposefully mediated by structured teaching, and is also embedded in the practice of drama as physical, active and reflective process. Finding a balance between structure and flexibility in drama education ought not to be a matter of squeezing pedagogic aims into a rigidly audited curriculum. On the contrary, drama practitioners have adopted processes of learning which are appropriate to the form itself. Neither the creative practice of making and performing drama, nor the educational practice of „scaffolding‟ is a linear process; concepts, ideas and feelings are revised, contested, reinterpreted and renegotiated. As such, learning to make, perform and respond to drama is a cyclical process, where a well structured curriculum will allow for reflection and experimentation. Part of the magic of teaching drama lies not only in introducing students to a diversity of dramatic languages, but also in giving them space and time to find the gaps and silences where meaning is made. (Nicholson Helen, 2000, teaching drama 11-18)
Some ideas to use when you starttheprocess of teaching are toinform the class about your background. Tell them how you began acting because you lost your parents at a young age and grew up in the foster care system. Tell them that acting was the means by which you escaped from the reality of your life. It was your way of hiding from the pain. You might even make a few of your students cry. Give your students the opportunity to tell the class why they got into acting. At the end of the class, let your students in on a secret. Tell them the story you told was a lie. You were acting. Live demonstration is one of the best drama teaching methods available.
Ask your students to create a character. Have them right a one or two page profile on their character that includes a back story, personality quirks, and physical characteristics. Have your students swap their character profiles with other students, give them one night to learn the character, and have the students portray their characters in class for one day.
Teach method acting. This is a style of acting in which your students use external situations to create the emotion needed to convey similar emotion in the characters they portray. This should come early in your drama classes. Reinforce the discussion with examples. Have students act out scenes in which they need to apply the method acting approach.
Consider taking students on an outing to see a live stage play. Follow the play up with a discussion of the acting seen during the play. Have students choose one of the characters in the play and write a critique of the actor's work. Ask them to give their opinions on the effectiveness of the actor's performance and to be specific about any flaws.
Engage your drama students. Instruct them to write, direct, and act in a short play as a final project. The students should work together and each have a role in the play. (Hose Carl, 1999, how to teach drama to adults)
To read a one act play merely to get its story is not in itself an exercise of any extraordinary value. This sort of approach to any form of literature does not require much appreciation of literary art nor much intelligence. Almost any normal minded person can read a play for its story with a little expenditure of mental effort. Proper appreciation of a one act play requires more than a casual reading whose chief aim is no more than getting the plot. (by various authors, the proper approach to the study of the one act plays)
If the shorter form of drama is to be appreciated properly as a real literary form, it must be approached from the point of view of its artistry and technique. This means that the student should understand its organic construction and technique, just as he should understand the organic construction and technique of a short story, a ballad, or a perfect sonnet, if he is to appreciate them properly. (By various authors, the proper approach to the study of the one act plays, http://blevins-michael.angelfire.com/OneActPlays/study.html)
The student should know what the dramatist intends to get across the footlights to his audience, and should be able to detect how he accomplishes the desired result.
It must not be thought that the author urges a study of construction at the expense of the human values in a play. On the contrary, such a study is but the means whereby the human values are made the more manifest. Surely no one would argue that the less one knows about the technique of music the better able is one to appreciate music. Indeed, it is not too much to say that, within reasonable limits, no one can really appreciate a one-act play if one does not know at least the fundamentals of its dramatic organization. (By various authors, the proper approach to the study of the one act plays, http://blevins-michael.angelfire.com/OneActPlays/study.html)
In fact, students of the one-act play recognize in its constructive regularity not a hindrance to its beauty but a genuine power. This but lends to it the charm of perfection. The sonnet and the cameo are admirable, if for no other reason than their superior workmanship. The one-act play does not lose by any reason of its technical requirements; indeed, this is one of its greatest assets. And the student who will take the pains to familiarize himself with the organic construction of a typical one-act play will have gone a long way in arriving at a proper appreciation of this shorter form of drama. (By various authors, the proper approach to the study of the one act plays, http://blevins-michael.angelfire.com/OneActPlays/study.html)
2.1.1 Methods used in teaching:
Teaching drama in schools is a tricky thing to do. Although it is important for the students to get a feel for all types of drama and have their horizons broadened, it is also true that if students are not having at least a little bit of fun, they are unlikely to listen to anything that is being said or taught. A teacher who can find this balance is a teacher who is able to effectively teach the importance of drama in the courses. (Buleen Chad, how to teach drama in schools)
Few students will learn to appreciate drama by simply reading words on a page. Drama texts which are just performed cannot be considered complete. Therefore, we have to make the students visualize while reading the text. In addition, turning the class into a drama workshop "gets students involved, gets them speaking, talking and on their feet" states Elaine Showalter, author of "Teaching Literature." Scheduling active learning activities aids in keeping students interested in the course. Teaching drama can be used in interactive group activities. Playing
can be good for adults, and it helps to free the mind and the body to react naturally. Impromptu games are and can help actors to create realistic characters.The teachers must stay abreast of the latest trends in theater and movies, and this will give them new and different ways to prepare their students for theater and for life. Discuss interesting topics. You don't necessarily have to delve into the human psyche in the course in detail, but discuss different options for a person‟s actions as a class can help shed light on the scene created and monologues this can lead to find out what you individual students enjoy outside of class and pick scenes and study works that will cater to those interests. Especially in a school setting where drama may be a requirement for a certain degree, try to draw your students in the act. Teach from experience and from texts. Require your students to read and watch and discuss in a group different plays from different writers. A well rounded drama student will be more successful in dealing with different scripts. (By an eHow contributor, how to teach drama, http://www.ehow.com/how_2083328_teach-drama.html)
Teach drama with passion, and it will carry over into the lives of your students.
Begin each class with a warm-up session: this should relate to the topic that will be discussed in the class. For example, if you will read from "Romeo and Juliet," it may be better to talk about teenage dating in current times and compare it to the dating in Shakespeare's time.
Set rules and define them well: There are cases when some students have difficulty taking subjects seriously. For example, if the story deals with mature themes, students sometimes have a tendency to laugh. Discuss with your class how they should react be when mature topics are mentioned. Try to control the class. If the teacher shows respect for the play, students also willdo that and show respect as well.
Be well prepared in the class. Although drama is about creativity and expressing oneself, there are certain topics that must be taught so that the items that need to be taught are covered during the lesson in that day.
Teacher leads a discussion on “What factors should be considered when selecting a play”. The teacher will list the factors on the board and students will copy down their final list after discussion and debate. As this list develops, the interest to a certain time sense should arise naturally in the discussion. When it does, the teacher should use that to naturally go into what items should be included in preparing a play and share information about the time it includes. At this point, allow students to view play production catalogues so that they can have a brief idea on the budget. Continue discussion to enliven the play in their imagination. The teacher then presents three one-act plays for the class to choose one to discuss in detail. The students can be divided into three groups and given a character to read as the play is read aloud in the three groups. Teacher will rotate between the three groups to answer questions and to monitor participation. After each group is finished, they are to discuss the play and prepare a summary to the class, including their opinion of the play, and answers to the list they created earlier. At the end of all of the presentations, students should vote on the play they wish to study in detail. (Dunn Coy, 2003, contextual teaching unit Drama)
2.1.3 Analyzing a one act play:
Here are some tips which help a student or a teacher to analyze a play. This is a useful way before teaching a play. The teacher will be prepared for teaching the play in class.
1. Plot and Character
A. First Impression, the strongest impressions upon reading the play the first time. Include impressions of character, theme, language, visual aspect, etc.
B. Given Circumstances, the components of the "playwright's setting" which are revealed in the play as follows:
1. Environmental factors: what effect the factors have upon the action of the play.
a. Geographical location: the place in which the play occurs, including climate and weather factors.
c. Economic environment, factors of wealth or poverty that impact upon the play. d. Social environment, social institutions that impact upon the play.
e. Religious environment
In each of the above cases, explain what effect the factors have upon the action of the play. 2. Previous action
a. Discuss the background events which have led to the play's present action C. Protagonist, antagonist, central conflict, dramatic action.
1. Identify the protagonist, key antagonist(s) 2. Identify the central conflict of the play. 3. Identify the dramatic action.
In some cases you may be able to combine all above elements into a single statement.
4. Character Attributes and Opposing Attitudes, the characteristics of personality, and the attitudes and/or points of view held by the play's principal characters which affect relationships with other characters and profoundly affect courses of action.
D. Point of Attack, exact point at which the play's equilibrium is broken and dramatic action begins.
E. Moment of Climax, the point at which the outcome of the play hangs in the balance, its action incomplete and its conclusion imminent, but still in question.
F. Resolution, what happens as the play's dramatic action is concluded and resolved. What has changed? How has the world of the play (and of its characters) been affected? Include a statement describing what you wish for the audience to take from your production in the way of a message or theme.
II. Thought
A. Ideas: the most important ideas at work in the play, other than the theme.
B. Theme: the underlying theme of the play, what is the central lesson that the playwright and you, as director, want the audience to learn from it?
III. Language (poetry, dialects, specific vocal quality) is a major factor? (Hint: Language is always important, except in the case of a silent pantomime.)
IV. Music/Sound
Specify the factors of music and/or sound and how they contribute to the action. V. Visual Elements
Describe the visual elements in terms of emotional impact, mood and/or visual impressions. Elucidate your vision in a way which will inspire designers of scenery, lights and costumes. (Analysis model for directing one act play, http://www.ecu.edu/cs-cfac/theatredance/facultystaff/upload/thea)
2.1.3 How to read a play
What are the ways to go about reading a play? At first, the student might feel as if he is reading something credible. Most plays contain dialogues along with cold, calculating stage directions. Yet, a play can be a moving literary experience. Dramatic literature presents several challenges to students and makes the reading experience different than poetry or fiction. Here are some tips for students to make the most out of reading a play. (Bradford Wade, reading a play, about.com plays/drama)
Read with a Pencil
Mortimer Adler wrote a terrific essay titled “How to Mark a Book?” To truly embrace the text, Adler believes the reader should jot down notes, reactions and questions directly onto the page or on the text. Students who record their reactions as they read are more likely to remember the characters and various subplots. Best of all, they are more likely to actively participate in class discussion and ultimately recieve a better grade.
Visualize the Characters
Unlike fiction, a play does not usually offer a lot of vivid detail. Typically, a playwright will briefly describe a character as he or she enters the stage. After that point, the characters might never be described again. Therefore, it is up to the reader to create a lasting mental image. What does this person look like? How do they sound? How do they deliver each line? Many students prefer movies more than literature. In this case, it might be fun to mentally cast contemporary actors into the roles. What current movie star would be best to play Macbeth? For an entertaining class activity, instructors should have the students work in groups to write a movie trailer for the play.
Contemplate the Setting
High school and college teachers select plays that have stood the test of time. Because many classic dramas are set in a wide range of different eras, it will behoove students to have a clear understanding of the story‟s time and place.
For one, readers should try to imagine the sets and costumes as they read. They should consider whether or not the historical context is important to the story.
Sometimes the setting of a play seems like a flexible backdrop. For example, A Midsummer Night's Dream takes place in the mythological age of Athens, Greece. Yet most productions ignore this, choosing to set the play in a different era, usually Elizabethan England. In other cases, the setting of the play is vitally important.
Research the Historical Context
If the time and place is an essential component, students should learn more about the historic details. Some plays can only be understood when the context is evaluated. Without knowledge of the historical context, much of the story‟s significance could be lost. With a little bit of research into the past, students can generate a new level of appreciation for the play they are studying. (And the internet makes this easier than ever before)
Sit in the Director’s Chair
Here comes the truly fun part. To visualize the play, the student should think like a director.
Some playwrights provide a great deal of specific movement. However, most writers leave that business to the cast and crew.
It begs the question: What are those characters doing? Students should imagine the different possibilities. Does the protagonist rant and rave? Or does she remain eerily calm, delivering the lines with an icy gaze? The reader makes those interpretive choices.
So, get comfortable in that director‟s chair. Remember, to appreciate the dramatic literature, a student must imagine the cast, the set, and the movements. That is what makes reading dramatic literature a challenging yet invigorating experience.
2.2 “Trifles” by Susan Glaspell
2.2.1 Type of Work and Year of Publication:
Trifles is a one-act play centering on two women who discover murder clues that county officials regard as trivial. But the play is not a murder mystery. Rather, it is a cultural and psychological study that probes the status of women in society and their intuitive grasp of reality. Glaspell wrote the play in 1916 for the Provincetown Players, a Massachusetts acting group that she and her husband, George Cram Cook, founded in Massachusetts in 1915. (j. comings Michael, 2008, trifles study guide)
2.2.2 The Title's Meanings:
The title refers to more than the items in the Wright home that Peters, Henderson, and Hale regard as irrelevant and Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale regard as significant. It also refers to the men's view of the women as trifles and their observations as unimportant. It is likely also that the murder victim regarded the bird as an annoying trifle. To Mrs. Wright, it was apparently one of her few sources of joy. (j. comings Michael, 2008, trifles study guide)
2.2.3 Plot summary:
The opening scene of the play, “Trifles” by Susan Glaspell is very carefully described and takes place in the untidy and empty farmhouse of John Wright, The setting for Susan Glaspell Trifles, a bleak, untidy kitchen in an abandoned rural farmhouse, quickly establishes the claustrophobic mood of the play. While a cold winter wind blows outside, the characters file in one at a time to investigate a violent murder: the farm‟s owner, John Wright, was apparently strangled to death while he slept, and his wife, Minnie, has been taken into custody as a suspect in the crime. (Triflessummary, may 24, 2013, www.enotes.com) The main characters in the play by Susan Glaspell, the Sheriff, his wife, the County Attorney and a man named Hale and his wife all enter and gather near the fire that has been laid to keep the house warm overnight. The sheriff, Henry Peters, is the first to enter the farmhouse, followed by George Henderson, the attorney prosecuting the case. Lewis Hale, a neighbor, is next to enter. The men cluster around a stove to get warm while they prepare for their investigation. Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale follow the men into the kitchen; yet, they hesitate just inside the door.
They are obviously quite disturbed by what has happened in the house and proceed with more care than their husbands.( Triflessummary, may 24, 2013,www.enotes.com)
As they settle in, the Sheriff questions Mr. Hale about what happened the day before the action of the play. Mr. Hale begins by telling the Sheriff that he planned on stopping by the Wright farmhouse to see if John was interested in going in on a party telephone, but he knew that if he asked him in front of his wife his chances were better. When he got there he knocked at the door and thought he heard someone say “come in” and entered and saw Mrs. Wright sitting in her rocker near the door look kind of “queer” and done up and as if “She didn‟t know what to do next” while she was pleating her apron and rocking back and forth. She wasn‟t polite or impolite and seemed indifferent about her guest. Mr. Hale asks to see John Wright, her husband and she laughs and says he is dead, pointing upstairs. When he asks her what he died of, she says, “A rope around his neck” and continued with her strange distant behavior. Harry and Mr. Hale go upstairs and confirm that Mr. Wright was, indeed, dead. They came back downstairs and asked Mrs. Wright how the rope got around his neck and she claims she does not know, despite the fact that it happened while she was sleeping in bed next to him. She simply said she was a sound sleeper and moves to another chair and laughed when Mr. Hale brought up the idea of a telephone again, stopping short suddenly like she was afraid, or so Mr. Hale thought. At this point in Mr. Hale‟s story, he makes reference to the other men who came after they were notified of Mr. Wright‟s death. The county attorney goes over to a shelf in a kitchen and announces there is a mess where her fruit had frozen, breaking the jars and says in one of the important quotes “well, can you beat the women! Held for murder and worryin‟ about her preserves” to which Hale replies, “women are used to worrying over trifles” at which point the two women in the room move closer to one another as the county attorney goes around the kitchen, making comments that belittle the women in terms of how they are only concerned with tiny things that relate to their kitchen. The women do stand for her, not necessarily because they were good friends of Mrs. Wright but because they understand the nature of farm life. The county attorney continues about Mrs. Wright‟s apparent lack of housekeeping skills. As this summary suggests about the play “Trifles” by Susan Glaspell, it becomes clear at this point that the women notice things that the men don‟t, for all their criticisms. They see that Mrs. Wright had bread set, for instance, an important detail that marks what she was doing before the event. They remember when she Minnie Foster and see how sad her life was, presumably because her husband was an unpleasant man. The women wonder if she did it, but Mrs. Hale says no because she was worried about
“trifles” such as her preserves and apron and they don‟t seem to think that the ordinary things she was doing beforehand show any signs of anger or sudden extreme emotion. The two women are also bothered by the fact that it seems the men are “sneaking” around her house while she‟s locked up in town and do not know the way they criticize her housekeeping skills, especially since she didn‟t have time to clean up. (Smith Nicole, November 26, 2011, Plot summary of Trifles by Susan Glaspell, http://www.articlemyriad.com/plot-summary-trifles-susan-glaspell/)
The sheriff Henry Peters and the county attorney George Henderson arrive with the witness Lewis Hale, Mrs. Peters, and Mrs. Hale at John Wright‟s farmhouse, where the police are investigating Wright's murder. Lewis Hale recounts how he discovered Mrs. Wright acting bizarrely, as she told him that her husband was murdered while she was sleeping. Although a gun had been in the house, Wright was gruesomely strangled with a rope. The men continually disparage the women for worrying about trifles instead of about the case, but Henderson allows the women to collect some items for Mrs. Wright, who is in custody, as long as he agrees that the objects are irrelevant to the case. While the men are investigating upstairs, Mrs. Hale reminisces about how happy Mrs. Wright had been before her marriage, and she regrets that she had not come to visit Mrs. Wright despite suspecting the unhappiness she had suffered as John Wright's wife. After looking around the room, the women discover a quilt and decide to bring it with them, although the men tease them for pondering about the quilt as they briefly enter the room before going to inspect the barn. Meanwhile, the women discover an empty birdcage and eventually find the dead bird in a box in Mrs. Wright's sewing basket while they are searching for materials for the quilt. The bird has been strangled in the same manner as John Wright. Although Mrs. Peters is hesitant to flout the men, who are only following the law, she and Mrs. Hale decide to hide the evidence, and the men are unable to find any clinching evidence that will prevent her from being acquitted by a future jury which will, the play implies, most likely prove sympathetic to women. (Trifles summary by Suzan Glaspell, June, 2013, http://www.gradesaver.com/trifles/study-guide/short-summary/)
George Henderson
The county attorney, he has been called to investigate the murder of John Wright and will probably serve as the attorney for the prosecution in the event of a trial. He is young and professional in manner, but he often dismisses the female interest in minor details of domesticity, and he disparages Mrs. Wright for what he perceives as her lack of homemaking abilities. (Wang Bella, 2009, Grade saver classic notes Trifles study guide)
Henry Peters
The middle-aged local sheriff and husband of Mrs. Peters, he is at John Wright's house to examine the scene of the crime. Like Henderson, he gently teases the women about their interest in Mrs. Wright's quilt. (Wang Bella, 2009, Grade saver classic notes Trifles study guide)
Lewis Hale
A neighboring farmer, he had entered the Wright farmhouse to ask John about acquiring a telephone, only to find a strangled man and a wife acting very bizarrely. He says, "Women are used to worrying about trifles." (Wang Bella, 2009, Grade saver classic notes Trifles study guide)
Mrs. Peters
A relative newcomer to the town who never knew Mrs. Wright before John Wright married her, Mrs. Peters is "a slight, wiry woman" with a "thin, nervous face." She is married to the sheriff and prefers to follow the law, often apologizing for the behavior of the men because they are only doing their duty. Mrs. Peters understands loneliness and the world of the female domestic. . (Wang Bella, 2009, Grade saver classic notes Trifles study guide)
Mrs. Hale
The wife of the farmer Lewis Hale, she is of a heavier build than Mrs. Peters and resents the condescension shown to her by the men in general and Henderson in particular because of her gender and domestic occupation. She remembers Mrs. Wright as the young Minnie Foster, and she feels sorry for Mrs. Wright. Mrs. Hale regrets not having come to visit Mrs. Wright to alleviate her cheerless life. (Wang Bella, 2009, Grade saver classic notes Trifles study guide)
John Wright
A local farmer, he was commonly considered a good, dutiful man, but he was also a hard man and neglected his wife's happiness. He paid little attention to his wife's opinions and prevented her from singing. The play centers on the motive for his murder. (Wang Bella, 2009, Grade saver classic notes Trifles study guide)
Mrs. Wright
Born Minnie Foster, she used to be a happy, lively girl who sang in the local choir, but after she married John Wright, her life became unhappy and forlorn. Although she does not appear in the play, she is the main suspect in her husband's murder and sends Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale to collect a few minor items for her from the farmhouse. (Wang Bella, 2009, Grade saver classic notes Trifles study guide)
2.2.5 Theme of the play
Female identity
When speaking to the female characters in Trifles, Henderson and the other men make a key mistake in their assumption that the women derive their identity solely from their relationship to men, the dominant gender. For example, Henderson tells Mrs. Peters that because she is married to the sheriff, she is married to the law and therefore is a reliable follower of the law. Mrs. Peters' response is "Not--just that way," suggesting that over the course of the play, she has rediscovered a different aspect of her identity that ties more closely to her experience as a woman than to her marriage to Henry Peters. As Mrs. Hale concludes, women "all go through the same things--it's all just a different kind of the same thing." For Mrs. Hale, Minnie Wright's murder of her husband is the ultimate rejection of her husband's imposed identity in favor of the memory of the person Minnie Foster used to be.
