J Food Process Preserv. 2019;43:e13986. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp
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1 of 5 https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.13986© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
1 | INTRODUCTION
Egg is a vital component of human diet among majority of people in the world. Traditionally, they are consumed as breakfast foods, preparation of home meal, and also used as food ingredients. Among eggs from birds, those from hen and duck are the most common and also highly nutritious. Recently, there is an increase in the demand of functional foods by consumers that can prevent several diseases (Cherian, Holsonbake, & Goeger, 2002; Kaewmanee, Benjakul, & Vissanguan, 2009). Research has been conducted on the effect of heating on oil yield and fatty acid composition of eggs cooked in drying oven, microwave, and boiling (Al‐Juhaimi et al. 2017). Factors such as bird's age influences the metabolism of a breeder hen and
this can cause changes in the fatty composition of yolk (Alatas & Citil, 2013; Latour et al., 1998). Oils from egg yolk is rich in bioactive compounds like unsaturated fatty acids, pigments, and oil‐soluble vitamins. Studies have shown direct correlation between the con‐ tents of bioactive compounds in eggs and hen feed (Kovalcuks, 2015). There is variation between bioactive compounds in eggs from different birds (Anderson, 2011). Also, the ratio of omega‐6 and omega‐3 fatty acid is very essential for human health (Simopoulos, 2000; Surai, Papazyan, Sparks, & Speake, 2008) and health spe‐ cialists reported a best ratio of 4:1 or 2:1 for omega‐6 to omega‐3 (Kovalcuks, 2015). Recently, there is an increase in the study of lipid composition of eggs since egg is one of the major sources of dietary lipids (Campos et al., 2016). Furthermore, eggs are rich source of Received: 10 December 2018
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Revised: 22 March 2019|
Accepted: 16 April 2019DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.13986
O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E
Effect of boiling on fatty acid composition and tocopherol
content of hen, duck, and quail egg oils
Mehmet Musa Özcan
1| Fahad Al Juhaimi
2| Nurhan Uslu
1| Kashif Ghafoor
2|
Elfadil E. Babiker
2| Isam A. Mohamed Ahmed
2| Omer N. Alsawmahi
2 1Faculty of Agriculture, Department ofFood Engineering, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
2Department of Food Science & Nutrition, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Correspondence
Fahad AlJuhaimi, Department of Food Science & Nutrition, College of Food and Agricultural, King Saud University, Riadh, Saudi Arabia.
Email: faljuhaimi@ksu.edu.sa Funding information
King Saud University, Grant/Award Number: RG‐1435‐049
Abstract
The palmitic acid contents of control groups varied between 22.96% (duck) and 25.09% (hen), while that of boiled egg oils are found between 22.93% (duck) and 23.72% (quail). Oleic acid contents of control group oils changed between 43.04% (quail) and 64.91% (duck) while that of boiled egg oils vary between 43.18% (quail) and 64.17% (duck). Linoleic acid contents of control groups and boiled egg oils changed between 4.34% (duck) and 23.24% (quail) to 5.31% (duck) and 19.81% (quail), respectively. While DL‐α‐tocopherol contents of raw (control) egg oils change between 16.92 mg/100 g (hen) and 26.16 mg/100 g (quail), DL‐α‐tocopherol contents of boiled egg oils were found between 20.47 mg/100 g (hen) and 72.26 mg/100 g (quail). β‐Tocopherol contents of raw egg and boiled egg oils were determined between 8.46 mg/100 g (hen) and 10.41 mg/100 g (duck) to 9.10 (hen) and 13.25 mg/100 g (quail), respectively. γ‐Tocopherol contents of boiled egg oils changed between 3.27 mg/100 g (duck) and 7.43 mg/100 g (quail).
Practical applications
Eggs are consumed as breakfast foods, preparation of home meal, and also used as food ingredients. Among eggs from birds, those from hen and duck are the most com‐ mon and also highly nutritious. Recently, there is an increase in the demand of func‐ tional foods by consumers that can prevent several diseases. Egg yolk oils are rich in bioactive compounds like unsaturated fatty acids, pigments, and oil‐soluble vitamins.
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ÖZCAN etAl. high‐value proteins including fats, minerals, and fat‐soluble vitamins(Kralik & Kralik, 2017). The quality attributes of egg lipids such as nutritional composition, cholesterol level, and fatty acid composi‐ tion should be considered (Milinsk, Murakami, Gomes, Matshuta, & Souza, 2003). One of the functions of fatty acids in human body is to constitute cell membranes (Lešić, Kresic, Cvetnic, Petrovic, & Pleadin, 2017). Previous researches have focused on the importance of omega‐3 fatty acids in human and animal health. High levels of n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have been reported in eggs from birds raised outdoors and consuming a variety of diets (Simopoulos, 2000). Also, hen eggs has highest contents of n‐6 PUFA than eggs from other bird species (Kzmierska, Jarosz, Korzeniowska, Trziszka, & Dobrzanski, 2005). The aim of carrying out this study was to in‐ vestigate the effects of boiling on tocopherol contents and fatty acid compositions of boiled Hen, Duck, and Quail egg oils.
2 | MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 | Material
Hen, duck, and quail eggs were collected from a local market in Turkey. The eggs were boiled at 100°C for 10 min, then their shells were peeled and the yellow parts of the eggs were used for analysis. Analyzes were made on both raw and boiled eggs of hen, duck, and quail.
2.2 | Methods
2.2.1 | Oil extraction of raw egg yolk
The oil was extracted according to the method described by Warren, Brown, and Davis (1988) with some modifications. About 50 g from each egg yolk was added to 100 ml of ethanol: chloroform mix‐ ture (30/70, v/v). The mixture was mixed on a magnetic stir plate for 30 min, followed by filtration with Whatman 1 filter paper in a separating funnel. These processes were repeated twice and the oily phases were obtained. The solvent was evaporeted at 45°C under the vacuum and the oil obtained was used for the analysis.
2.2.2 | Oil extraction of boiled egg yolk
The extraction was done according to AOAC (1990) method in Soxhlet Apparatus using petroleum benzine for 5 hr and rotary vac‐ uum evaporator set at 45°C was used to vaporize the solvent.
2.2.3 | Determination of fatty acid composition
The oils of egg yolks were esterified as described in ISO 12966‐2 (2017) method to obtain fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). Gas chro‐ matography (GC) was used to analyze the FAMEs of the samples. The GC (Shimadzu GC‐2010) was equipped with flame‐ionization detector and column with dimensions of 60 m × 0.25 mm and film thickness of 0.20 µm (Tecnocroma TR‐CN100). The injection blockand detector have a temperature of 260°C. Nitrogen was used as mobile phase with a flow rate of 1.51 ml/min. The total flow rate and split rate were 80 ml/min and 1/40, respectively. The temperature of the column was programmed to 120°C for 5 min and raised to 240°C at 4°C/min and held 25 min at 240°C. Reference data were obtained using commercial mixtures of FAMEs to obtain relative re‐ tention times.
2.2.4 | Determination of tocopherol content (TC)
The tocopherol contents of egg yolks was performed as described in ISO 9936:2016 method. Exactly 0.1 g of oil was dissolved inn‐Hexane (3 ml) and filtered through a 0.45 µm nylon filter. The TC
was analyzed using HPLC (Shimadzu) equipped with Photodiode Array Detectors (PDA) and LiChroCART Silica 60 (4.6 × 250 mm, 5 µ; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) column. Isocratic chromatography was used to separate the TC using a mobile phase of of 0.7% pro‐ pan‐2‐ol in n‐Hexane. The mobile phase has a flow rate of 0.9 ml/min and 20 µl injection volume. Wavelenghts of 295 and 330 nm were set in the Photodiode Array Detectors (PDA) before the peaks were recorded. The sample was run for a total time of 30 min. Tocopherols (α, β, γ and δ‐tocopherol) at concentrations of 0–100 ml/l were pre‐ pared as standard solution (Spika et al., 2015).
2.3 | Statistical Analyses
The experiments were designed using a completely randomized split plot block design and analysis of variance was done using JMP ver‐ sion 9.0 (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, N.C., U.S.A). The significance of the differences among means was evaluated using ANOVA test. Tukey test was applied for the groups turning out significant, and p < 0.01 was accepted statistically significant. All analysis were performed in triplicte and the results are mean ± standard deviation (MSTAT C) of independent egg types samples (Püskülcü & İkiz, 1989).
3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 shows the fatty acid compositions of raw and boiled duck, hen, and quail eggs. When compared to control (raw eggs) groups, fatty acid compositions of boiled egg samples showed differences depending on egg types. Generally, palmitic, stearic, oleic, and lin‐ oleic acids were the main fatty acids of egg oil samples. As seen in Table 1, palmitic acid contents of control groups were found partially close compared to results of boiled egg oils. The control group egg oils had palmitic acid contents that varied between 22.96% (duck) and 25.09% (hen), while that of boiled egg oils varied between 22.93% (duck) and 23.72% (quail). When compared to raw eggs (fresh egg), differences were observed in the fatty acid composi‐ tions of boiled egg oils (p < 0.05). While oleic acid contents of egg oil samples change between 43.04% (raw quail) and 64.91% (raw duck), linoleic acid contents of oils varied between 4.34% (raw duck) and 23.24% (raw quail). Other fatty acids were found at minor levels
(p < 0.05). Linoleic acid contents of raw and boiled quail egg oils were higher than that of chicken and duck egg oils. Linoleic acid contents of chicken and quail egg oils partly decreased during boiling. In addi‐ tion, palmitic acid contents of all boiled egg oils decreased compared to raw group egg oils. Also, as saturated fatty acid, stearic acid con‐ tents of boiled duck, chicken, and quail egg oils were higher than that of stearic acid contents of raw egg oils. Statistical differences were not observed among palmitic and oleic acid contents of raw and boiled duck and quail egg oils (p > 0.05). While the lowest oleic acid and the highest linoleic acid contents were found in raw and boiled quail egg oils. Kaewmanee et al. (2009) reported that fresh duck egg oil contained 27.2% palmitic, 2.25% palmitoleic, 6.19% stearic, 47.5% oleic, 8.08% linoleic, and 0.33% linolenic. Boiled chicken egg oil con‐ tained 25.075% palmitic, 5.882% stearic, 49.735% oleic, 13.170% linoleic acids (Al Juhaimi, Uslu, & Özcan, 2017). Lešić et al. (2017) reported that commercial hen egg oil contained 2.27% myristic, 26.49% palmitic, 2.34% palmitoleic, 19.22% stearic, 37.64% oleic, 7.12% linoleic, and 0.75% linolenic acids. The amount of n‐6 in con‐ ventional eggs have been found to be in a range of 15.0%–23.8% while the ratio of n‐3 changed between 0.38% and 1.36% (Cherian et al., 2002; Petrovic et al. 2012; Skrtic et al. 2007; Woods & Fearon, 2009). The fatty acid composition of hen egg ranged between 0.7% and 42.6%, with docohexanoic and oleic acids exhibiting the lowest and highest values, respectively (Cherian et al., 2002). Also, Cherian et al. (2002) reported that total monounsaturated fatty acids ranged from 45.8% to 48.0%, and the chicken egg has oleic acid as the major fatty acid that ranged between 42% and 45%. Our findings revealed that fatty acid composition of the egg samples varies depending on hen age and this similar to other studies (Al Juhaimi et al., 2017; Cherian et al., 2002; Lešić et al., 2017; Petrovic et al. 2012). Previous studies have shown that palmitic, stearic, palmitoleic, oleic, and lin‐ oleic acid of white egg oil obtained from market were 23.75%, 7.09%,
2.58%, 37.38%, and 22.63%, respectively. Futhermore, Stibilj et al. (1999) reported that the highest and lowest fatty acids in table eggs oil were oleic (43.86%) and myristic acids (0.28%). Sehu, Kucukersan, Coskun, Koksal, and Citil (2012) found that major fatty acids in egg yolk was oleic acid. The fatty acids composition of eggs varied. Our findings revealed that cooking played an important role on fatty acid composition of eggs with partial differences with the results of sev‐ eral references. Factors such as hen's age, breed, and diet have been found to influence the fatty acid levels of egg oils (Ahn, Kim, & Shu, 1997; Cherian, Li, & Sim, 1995).
Tocopherol contents of control (raw) group and boiled egg oils are presented in Table 2. While DL‐α‐tocopherol of raw oil sam‐ ples change between 16.92 mg/100 g (hen) and 26.16 mg/100 g (quail), DL‐α‐tocopherol contents of boiled egg oils varied between 20.47 mg/100 g (hen) and 72.26 mg/100 g (quail). In addition, while β‐tocopherol of raw egg oils are determined between 8.46 mg/100 g (hen) and 10.41 mg/100 g (duck), β‐tocopherol of boiled egg oils were found between 9.10 (hen) and 13.25 mg/100 g (quail). γ‐Tocopherol contents of raw boiled egg oils changed between 3.27 mg/100 g (duck) and 7.43 mg/100 g (quail) (p > 0.05). Generally, tocopherol contents of chicken and quail egg oils increased gradually by boiling. In addition, DL‐α‐tocopherol content of quail egg was found higher compared to DL‐α‐tocopherol content (raw) of raw quail egg oil. γ‐Tocopherol contents of raw duck and quail egg oils could not be identified. Kovalcuks (2015) reported that hen egg yolk oil contained 149.96 mg/kg α‐tocopherol. Several factors like breed, gender, age, and technical factors influences egg quality (Campos et al., 2016; Imran et al., 2015; Millet et al., 2006; Nielsen, 1998; Pavlovski et al., 2011). Our findings revealed that tocopherol contents were signifi‐ cantly effected by egg types and boiled cooking method. The TC of the egg oil types were significantly different. Egg types and boiled cooking processing significantly influenced the TC.
TA B L E 1 Fatty acid composition of raw and boiled hen, duck, and quail eggs (%)
Fatty acids
Hen Duck Quail
Raw Boiled Raw Boiled Raw Boiled
Myristic 0.30 ± 0.01*d 0.28 ± 0.01e 0.37 ± 0.00b 0.35 ± 0.01d 0.49 ± 0.02a 0.36 ± 0.03c
Palmitic 25.09 ± 0.20a** 23.56 ± 0.09b 22.96 ± 0.07c 22.93 ± 0.31c 23.94 ± 0.18b 23.72 ± 0.34b
Stearic 5.93 ± 0.04c 6.54 ± 0.03b 4.56 ± 0.00f 5.21 ± 0.04e 5.77 ± 0.06d 8.72 ± 0.06a
Elaidic 0.18 ± 0.00c 0.13 ± 0.00e 0.21 ± 0.00b 0.22 ± 0.00a 0.18 ± 0.00c 0.17 ± 0.00d
Oleic 50.69 ± 0.11c 52.45 ± 0.05b 64.91 ± 0.01a 64.17 ± 0.28a 43.04 ± 0.08d 43.18 ± 0.19d
Linolelaidic –*** – 0.03 ± 0.04c 0.06 ± 0.00b 0.08 ± 0.00a 0.03 ± 0.01c
Linoleic 15.26 ± 0.03c 14.47 ± 0.04d 4.34 ± 0.01f 5.31 ± 0.02e 23.24 ± 0.03a 19.81 ± 0.09b
Arachidic 0.16 ± 0.01c 0.09 ± 0.00d 0.07 ± 0.00e 0.09 ± 0.00d 0.23 ± 0.00b 0.24 ± 0.00a
Linolenic 0.27 ± 0.00e 0.34 ± 0.00d 0.27 ± 0.11e 0.40 ± 0.00b 0.69 ± 0.01a 0.35 ± 0.00c
Behenic 0.12 ± 0.02b 0.09 ± 0.00d 0.12 ± 0.00b – 0.10 ± 0.01c 0.14 ± 0.00a
Erucic 0.46 ± 0.01d 0.38 ± 0.01e 0.73 ± 0.00c – 0.89 ± 0.02b 1.88 ± 0.01a
Arachidonic – 0.06 ± 0.01b – – 0.06 ± 0.00b 0.07 ± 0.00a
4 of 5
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ÖZCAN etAl.ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding this work through re‐ search group no (RG‐1435‐049).
CONFLIC T OF INTEREST
The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article. ORCID
Mehmet Musa Özcan https://orcid.org/0000‐0002‐5024‐9512
Fahad Al Juhaimi https://orcid.org/0000‐0001‐5617‐6476
Kashif Ghafoor https://orcid.org/0000‐0003‐1240‐5358
Elfadil E. Babiker https://orcid.org/0000‐0001‐6220‐084X
Isam A. Mohamed Ahmed https://orcid.org/0000‐0002‐6578‐0795
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TA B L E 2 Tocopherol composition of raw and boiled hen, duck, and quail eggs (mg/100 g)
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Control (raw) Boiled eggs
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β‐Tocopherol 8.46 ± 0.04b** 10.41 ± 0.01a 8.47 ± 0.04b 9.10 ± 0.31c 9.24 ± 0.02b 13.25 ± 0.47a
γ‐Tocopherol 6.41 ± 1.23b 3.27 ± 0.98c 7.43 ± 1.52a 8.67 ± 1.15b 9.68 ± 2.27a 9.47 ± 1.98a
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How to cite this article: Özcan MM, Al Juhaimi F, Uslu N, et al. Effect of boiling on fatty acid composition and tocopherol content of hen, duck, and quail egg oils. J Food
Process Preserv. 2019;43:e13986. https ://doi.org/10.1111/
