The effects of Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme on impulsive preschool children's cognitive tempo

(1)

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=gecd20

Early Child Development and Care

ISSN: 0300-4430 (Print) 1476-8275 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gecd20

The effects of Orff-based attention-enhancing

music education programme on impulsive

preschool children’s cognitive tempo

Gökhan Kayili & Özden Kuşcu

To cite this article: Gökhan Kayili & Özden Kuşcu (2020) The effects of Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme on impulsive preschool children’s cognitive tempo, Early Child Development and Care, 190:3, 390-399, DOI: 10.1080/03004430.2018.1475367

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1475367

Published online: 21 May 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 644

View related articles

(2)

The effects of Orff-based attention-enhancing music education

programme on impulsive preschool children

’s cognitive tempo

Gökhan Kayili and Özden Kuşcu

Department of Child Development, Faculty of Health Sciences, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey

ABSTRACT

This research investigated the effects of Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme on impulsive preschool children’s cognitive tempo. The research was conducted using a quasi-experimental pretest– posttest control group design. Thirty preschoolers were included in this research; 15 in the experimental and 15 in the control groups. Research data was collected using Kansas Reflection-Impulsivity Scale for Preschoolers. Impulsive children were assigned to control and experimental groups. Besides traditional preschool education programme, children in the experimental group received a 36-session Orff-based attention-enhancing music education twice a week. Results showed that impulsive children in the experimental group reduced their number of errors and increased the length of reflection time compared to those in the control group. In line with this finding, it can be suggested that Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme contributes positively to the cognitive tempo of impulsive preschool children, and it demonstrates long-term effects.

ARTICLE HISTORY

Received 25 January 2018 Accepted 8 May 2018

KEYWORDS

Impulsive children; reflective children; Orff; attention and concentration

Introduction

Music activities are one of the most important activities in preschool education. Music is a common ground for preschool children as well as for everyone. We have a natural inclination to sing, get into rhythm while singing, dance to the rhythm and create new song-rhythms. Music activities have an important place in the lives of preschool children because these activities offer them opportunities for new experiences, support developmental areas, develop creativity and provide new stimuli (Mavesky,2002).

Different types of teaching methods and techniques are utilized while planning music activities that are appropriate for the developmental characteristics and ages of preschool children. Simple percussion instruments can be used in song accompaniment, as well as to create new rhythms and soundtracks. Orff-Schulwerk is a pedagogical approach covering all these activities (Kuşcu,

2017). The Orff-Schulwerk is what Carl Orff called the principles that have an important place in chil-dren’s basic music education and offer them an opportunity to make quality music in accordance with their abilities, and support this with melodic and non-melodic rhythm instruments (Sungurtekin,

2005). Based on movement, music and dance, the Orff-Schulwerk is a child-centred music learning approach that attaches great importance to the principle of learning-by-doing and aims to encourage creativity. In Orff-Schulwerk approach, instruments, language, movement and songs are used as tools when teaching music elements (Uçal Canakay & Bilen,2006). The starting point of Orff-Schulwerk is children’s songs, plays and nursery rhymes, and it is enriched with simple percussion instruments

CONTACTGökhan Kayili gokhankayili@selcuk.edu.tr Department of Child Development, Faculty of Health Sciences, Selcuk University, Campus, Selcuklu, Konya, Turkey

EARLY CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND CARE 2020, VOL. 190, NO. 3, 390–399

(3)

(Baykara, 2003). Designed taking into account children’s needs for play, the Orff-Schulwerk is an approach which aims to improve children’s creativity, encourages improvisation, develops skills and guides children to explore. It helps children be aware of the boundaries of their bodies, recognize and distinguish between sounds, and enjoy exploring while doing them. It holds within its essence a deep attention and creativity (Kuşcu,2017).

For children to recall what they see, hear, read and do is directly related to their attention and this skill constitutes the basic element in their success. Failing to focus attention on a subject is a matter of education and it can be taught to children through exercise. Eskioğlu (2002) used the term‘attention’ synonymously with‘concentration’ and emphasized that music education is one of the best ways to do this. This is because the inner discipline of music requires a high concentration of attention and the skill of listening and performing carefully to perceive the order within the structure of music. Emphasizing that attention can be enhanced through music education, the researcher stated that this ability will have positive impacts on other areas as well.

Compared to adults, children think more simply and have different perceptions of the world. A situation that is quite simple for an adult can be quite complicated for a child. Individually, children have their own specific ways of perceiving, processing and recalling information. These are not the ability differences in which children’s performance capacities are measured. Rather, they are the differences in how they think. One way researchers have explored these differences is by describing and evaluating an individual’s cognitive style or tempo (Gander & Gardiner, 2001). The concept of cognitive style is generally known as the way to approach problems (Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, & Cox,1977), and more particularly it is known as the preferred ways of retrieving (perceiving), orga-nizing and using knowledge (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson,1998; Koçyiğit & Kayılı,2014; Woolfolk,

1998).

Researchers have identified many cognitive styles (Gander & Gardiner,2001). Different cognitive styles considerably influence the individual perspective and group conflict management and they have the power to explain general abilities in children as well as their academic achievement (Kim, Choi, & Park, 2012; Kozhevnikov, 2007). Cognitive tempo is one of the most studied cognitive styles. Reflective and impulsive cognitive tempos include definitions that cover individual differences in problem solving and they are described by their reflective– impulsive properties (Fisher,2009; Gander & Gardiner, 2001; Siegelman, 1969). These properties include response times and the chances of making an error in a problem-solving situation with high uncertainty. The tendency of an individual to respond quickly by making numerous errors is described as impulsive while the ten-dency to respond slowly but with fewer errors is explained as reflective. Impulsive individuals are inclined to respond quickly. They use very little time to analyse the data or the actions and therefore make many errors. Despite lack of control over thoughts and behaviours and the potential negative consequences, they tend to rush due to the motives or environmental demands. In addition, meeting with accidents because of careless behaviours and being impetuous are among the characteristics of children with impulsive cognitive tempo. In children with reflective cognitive tempo, it is common to take more time to think before taking an action, not to rely on intuitions, benefit from ideas, carefully weigh up choices and be inclined to work properly (Ehrman & Leaver,2003; Koçyiğit & Kayılı,2014; Pekarsky,2012; Seçer, Çeliköz, & Yaşa,2008; Seçer, Sarı, Çeliköz, & Üre,2009).

In a study on language-learning skills of reflective-impulsive children (Ehrman & Leaver,2003) it was found that impulsive students tend to respond very quickly and finish their assignments immedi-ately, they are active participants, and they think aloud and learn by trial and error. Reflective stu-dents, by contrast, prefer to think at first and then give the answer, benefit from complex ideas and tend to study systematically. However, their sluggishness may cause them to fail to complete assigned tasks. Reflective students may be identified as sluggish, especially in speech-based and time-limited tests and in some academic programmes. Nevertheless, though many of the reflective students have the problem of failing to complete the test within the test period, the parts they com-plete are mostly correct. When these children are told that they have little time to finish the test, they ask for more time to think.

(4)

In this sense, the main aim of this research is to investigate the effects of Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme on impulsive preschool children’s cognitive tempo. More specifically, the study seeks to answer the following research questions:

(1) Does the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme affect impulsive pre-school children’s number of error scores on Kansas Reflection-Impulsivity Scale for Preschoolers (KRISP)– Form A?

(2) Does the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme affect impulsive pre-school children’s reflection time scores on KRISP – Form A?

(3) Does the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme have long-term effects on impulsive preschool children’s number of error scores on KRISP – Form A?

(4) Does the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme have long-term effects on impulsive preschool children’s reflection time scores on KRISP – Form A?

Method

Design of the study

A quantitative, quasi-experimental pretest–posttest control group design was used for the study to find out the effects of Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme on cogni-tive tempo of impulsive children. Quasi-experimental design differs from the experimental pretest–posttest control group design in that it does not use random sampling method when forming the study group (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). In paired control group models, random sampling is not used to equalize the study group, but it is important to ensure that the partici-pants have similar characteristics. Only impulsive children were included in this research. When forming the experimental and control groups based on children’s pretest scores, it was ensured that children in both groups were equivalent in duration of preschool attendance, gender and age.

Sample of the study

The study group included 4–5-year-old children who received preschool education at Selçuk Univer-sity Faculty of Health Sciencesİhsan Doğramacı Applied Nursery School in 2015–2016 school year. Multi-stage sampling was used when forming the sample. The multi-stage sampling method is defined as the sampling method in which the sampling process is completed in two or more stages (Büyüköztürk, 2013). In the first stage, the applied nursery school in the province of Konya was selected using cluster sampling method based on group selection. In the second stage, impulsive children were identified using purposive sampling. In the third stage, impulsive children were assigned to experimental and control groups according to their pretest scores, gender, duration of preschool attendance and age. A total of 30 children, 15 in the experimental group and 15 in the control group, were included in the study. The demographics of the experimental and control groups was presented inTable 1.

Table 1.Demographics for the experimental and control groups.

Gender Age Duration of preschool

Girls Boys Total 4 years 5 years Total 1 year 2 years Total

Experimental group n 7 8 15 7 8 15 9 6 15

% 46.7 53.3 100.0 46.7 53.3 100.0 60.0 40.0 100.0

Control group n 8 7 15 8 7 15 8 7 15

% 53.3 46.7 100.0 53.3 46.7 100.0 53.3 46.7 100.0

(5)

The experimental group was made up of 15 children− 7 girls and 8 boys. Of these children, 47.7% were 4 years old and 53.3% were 5 years old. Sixty per cent of the children attended pre-school for 1 year and 40% for 2 years. In the control group, there were a total of 15 children– 8 girls and 7 boys. The distribution of the age groups showed that 53.3% of the children were 4 years old and 46.7% were 5 years old. 53.3% of the children attended preschool for 1 year and 46.7% for 2 years.

In order to see whether the control and experimental groups were equivalent, the results regard-ing children’s pretest mean scores on KRISP – Form A were presented inTable 2.

The data inTable 2shows that there was no statistically significant difference in the pretest mean scores regarding reflection time between the experimental and control groups (U = 108.500, p > .05). The pretest mean scores related to the number of errors indicated that there was no statistically sig-nificant difference between the experimental and control groups, either (U = 99.000, p > .05). Based on the mean rank and sum of ranks, these values confirmed that there was no statistically significant difference between the pretest scores of the experimental group children, showing that the groups were statistically equivalent regarding their cognitive tempo.

Data collection instrument

Kansas Reflection-Impulsivity Scale for Preschoolers– Form A

Developed by Wright (1971), the KRISP was used to determine the cognitive tempo of children in the experimental and control groups. The scale consists of 10 items and 10 drawings. Each item includes a page of drawing shown to children and another page of drawing which requires children to select the presented drawing from among the others. Also, apart from the 10 items, there are 5 practice items, excluded from the scoring, which intend to familiarize the children with the test procedure. Examiners first work with the child on the five items and the scale is then administered. Before the scale is administered, a stopwatch is required. The drawing in the scale item is shown to the child and the child is provided with an instruction. The stopwatch is started as soon as the instruction is given and the length of the time for the child’s response to the first choice (latency time) is recorded on the response form prepared beforehand for the child. If the child’s response is not correct, it is said that his/her choice is incorrect and the child is then directed to find the correct alternative. The number of errors the child has made till the correct response is given is also recorded on the response form. All 10 items in the scale need to be completed in one session. The total response time and the number of errors for each child are summed separately and recorded on the response form.

The validity and reliability of the scale was performed by Seçer, Çeliköz, Koçyiğit, Seçer, and Kayılı (2010). Expert views were obtained for the content and face validity of the scale and reliability was assessed using split-half, test–retest and inter-rater agreement. For the inter-rater agreement, 30 chil-dren attending a preschool in the central districts of Konya province were assessed by 2 raters. The correlation coefficient between the raters was 0.93 for the response time and 0.78 for the number of errors. A group of 303 preschoolers were selected for the test–retest reliability of the scale and the scale was administered twice at an interval of 2 weeks and the Pearson moment correlation coeffi-cient between the two tests was calculated. The coefficoeffi-cient was found to be 0.89 for the response time and 0.74 for the number of errors. Analysis of the results showed a significant positive

Table 2.Pretest scores of the experimental and control groups.

KRISP Groups n X SD Mean rank Sum of ranks U p

Reflection time Experimental group 15 23.26 2.12 15.23 228.50 108.500 .868

Control group 15 23.44 1.82 15.77 236.50

Number of errors Experimental group 15 7.53 1.30 16.40 246.00 99.000 .561

(6)

relationship (p < .01) between the two tests carried out in the same group. It was concluded based on the results that the consistency of the scale between two tests was at an acceptable level. Split-half method was used to estimate the reliability of the test. The correlation coefficient calculated using Spearman–Brown formula was found to be 0.85 for the response time and 0.71 for the number of errors (Seçer, Çeliköz, Koçyiğit, Seçer, & Kayılı,2010).

Procedure

Within the scope of the research, the KRISP– Form A was firstly applied to 4–5-year-old preschoolers, and this way impulsive children were identified. These impulsive children were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. In addition to the preschool education programme developed by the Ministry of National Education of Turkey, the children in the experimental group received a 36-session Orff-based attention-enhancing music education twice a week. At the end of 18 weeks, a posttest was administered to both groups. Follow-up test was administered to the experimental group 8 weeks after the posttest.

Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme

Orff-Schulwerk approach, also known as‘Orff Doctrine’ in Turkey, is the educational use of the move-ment, dance, music and verbal elements in combination. The Orff-Schulwerk approach has supported the interdisciplinary approach of the study, particularly basic music education, with different language and cultural elements and it has achieved universality (Öztürk,2006).

The‘Orff-Schulwerk Pedagogy-Based Music Education Programme’ implemented in the research was developed by Kuşcu (2017). This programme, which mainly supports creativity, improvisation and different thinking, includes listening to and recognizing the sounds from different sources, deter-mining the directions of the sounds, naming the timbres of the sounds correctly (bass, treble, etc.), making comments on these sounds, making songs accompanied by different instruments and body sounds and mimicking the sounds of the nature.

The Orff-Schulwerk Pedagogy-Based Music Education Programme offers opportunities for chil-dren to follow the leader, take responsibility when necessary, and perform the assigned task. In the programme, small workshop times were planned for children to make instruments using waste materials. These instruments were used together with Orff instruments in accompaniment and rhythm exercises.

Analysis of the data

The data obtained using the KRISP– Form A was analysed with SPSS 22.0 (The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) using the Mann–Whitney U Test and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. Descriptive stat-istics was performed to calculate the arithmetic means and the standard deviations in the experimen-tal and control groups. The Mann–Whitney U Test was used to determine whether the scores of two independent samples differed significantly from each other and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test was used to determine the significance, if any, between pre and posttest scores in groups. The significance of the difference between the scores was tested at the .05 significance level.

Results

The following results were obtained in the research which was conducted to examine the effect of the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme on cognitive tempo of children aged 4–5 years. Experimental and control groups children’s posttest scores regarding the KRISP – Form A reflection time and number of errors were analysed with the Mann–Whitney U test and the results were presented inTable 3.

(7)

As can be seen inTable 3, a statistically significant difference was found in the reflection time between posttest mean scores of the experimental and control groups children (U = 8.500, p < .01). A statistically significant difference was also found in the number of errors between posttest mean scores of the experimental and control groups children (U = 15.000, p < .01). In relation to the posttest scores of the children in the experimental group and those receiving regular preschool education, mean rank and the sum of ranks showed a significant difference in favour of the experimental group children. In other words, reflection time of the children in the experimental group increased while their scores on number of errors decreased, as compared with control group children.

Experimental group children’s pre and posttest scores on reflection time and number of errors were analysed with the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and the results were presented inTable 4.

AsTable 4shows, a statistically significant difference was observed in reflection time (z =−3.408, p < .01) and in number of errors (z =−3.450, p < .01) between children’s pre and posttest scores in the experimental group. The length of reflection time in children who received Orff-based attention-enhancing music education increased after the programme and a decrease was observed in their number of errors.

Control group children’s pre and posttest scores regarding reflection time and number of errors were analysed with the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and the results were presented inTable 5.

As shown inTable 5, there was a statistically significant difference in reflection time (z =−3.408, p < .01) and in number of errors (z =−3.462, p < .01) between the control group children’s pre and posttest scores. Traditional preschool education programme contributed to an increase in reflection time of the children and a decrease was observed in their number of errors. Yet the Orff-based atten-tion-enhancing music education programme was more effective in cognitive tempo than the tra-ditional programme alone (seeTable 3).

Table 3.Posttest scores of the experimental and control groups.

KRISP Groups n X SD Mean rank Sum of ranks U p

Reflection time Experimental group 15 41.42 5.05 22.43 336.50 8.500 .000

Control group 15 31.52 3.91 8.57 128.50

Number of errors Experimental group 15 1.53 0.915 9.00 135.00 15.000 .000

Control group 15 3.53 0.915 22.00 330.00

Table 4.Pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group.

KRISP– Form A n Mean rank Sum of ranks z p

Reflection time Negative rank 0 0.00 0.00 −3.408 .001

Positive rank 15 8.00 120.00

Ties 0

Total 15

Number of errors Negative rank 15 8.00 120.00 −3.450 .001

Ties 0

Total 15

Table 5.Pretest and posttest scores of the control group.

Ties 0

Total 15

Ties 0

(8)

Experimental group children’s posttest and follow-up test scores regarding reflection time and number of errors were analysed with the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and the results were presented inTable 6.

As can be seen in Table 6, there was no statistically significant difference in reflection time between the posttest and follow-up test scores of the children in the experimental group (z = −1.620, p > .05). Nevertheless, a statistically significant difference was seen in number of errors between their posttest and follow-up test scores (z =−2.449, p < .05). In other words, the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme had a long-term effect on reflection time scores of the children aged 4–5 years. For the number of errors, however, there was a decrease in children’s scores, which could be considered an important outcome in favour of the programme.

Discussion

This research was conducted to find out whether the Orff-based attention-enhancing music edu-cation programme had an effect on the scores of reflection time and number of errors that 4 –5-year-old children achieved on the KRISP– Form A. Children in the experimental group received a 36-session (18 weeks) Orff-based attention-enhancing music education 2 days a week, combined with the national preschool education programme. Children in the control group were only provided with the national preschool education programme.

The results revealed that the scores children in the experimental group achieved on reflection time and number of errors were significantly different compared to those obtained in the control group (seeTable 3). There was also a significant difference at the post-intervention stage between pre and posttest scores of control and experimental group (see Tables 4 and5). In the light of these findings, it could be suggested that both the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme and the national preschool education programme have an impact on the cognitive tempo of children aged 4–5 years. However, there was a difference in favour of Orff-based atten-tion-enhancing music education programme when posttest scores of the groups were compared (seeTable 3). The study also found that the Orff-based attention-enhancing music education pro-gramme had long-term effects on the cognitive tempo of children aged 4–5 years (seeTable 6).

It can be considered that the results of this research might be affected by the attention and con-centration activities underlying the Orff-Schulwerk pedagogy. Seçer and Kaymak Özmen (2015) investigated the effects of attention-enhancing activities on the thinking and attention skills of impul-sive preschool children. They reported a significant difference in the number of errors and attention skills between the pretest/posttest scores of the experimental group children participated in the attention-enhancing activities, with no significant difference between the posttest scores of exper-imental and control groups children. This result suggests that attention-enhancing activities improved the attention skills of children and reduced the number of errors. Within the scope of the attention-enhancing activities, children in the experimental group did some practices to acquire the skills of figuring out different solutions and deciding on the right one when solving a problem. It was argued that these practices helped children in the experimental group acquire the

Table 6.Posttest and follow-up test scores of the experimental group.

Ties 0

Total 15

Ties 9

Total 15

(9)

ability to make the right decisions. When music activities are carried out, children need to pay atten-tion to the movement, sounds, the leader and the general harmony. It can be stated that the children who can focus their attention on more than one object during the practice have improved their ability to think, make decisions, and demonstrate the behaviours expected of them depending on their taking responsibility.

Kolcu (2014) reported that the scores on the subscales (Shyness, Social Acceptance, Problem Solving, Social Behaviour, Aggression) and total test scores of the Selçuk Peer Relation Assessment Scale differed significantly according to the cognitive tempo of children, and considering the Play Behaviours Rating Scale, mean scores on the subscale of Manipulative Play differed only according to the cognitive tempo of children, whereas no significant difference was observed in the mean scores on the subscales of Physical Play, Block Play and Dramatic Play and in the total test scores. Studies on children’s play behaviours and cognitive tempo (Egeland, 1974; Harrison & Nadelman,

1972; Messer & Brodzinsky,1979; Stuart & Pumfrey,1987) reported that impulsive children are pre-disposed to aggression, prone to learning difficulties, more unsuccessful in school work and unable to control their behaviours. In the light of this result, it can be suggested that impulsive chil-dren are inhibited from displaying behaviours appropriate to social norms. Messer (1976) tried to explain the characteristics of reflective and impulsive children during the play activity, in which the rules are especially evident. According to what Messer (1976) discovered, reflective children aged 4–8 years are able to focus their attention longer than impulsive children during play. Impulsive preschoolers talk while working and often change their activities, whereas reflective children can focus their attention on what they do even when they are talking. These studies seem to support the findings that reflective preschoolers receiving Orff-Schulwerk pedagogy-based musical education can concentrate their attention during musical activities, keep doing their activities and reduce their number of errors.

In another study on cognitive tempo, the number of errors and the reflection time were measured using the Matching Familiar Figures Test– 20 (MFFT-20) among second graders in terms of their gender, age, the place they live, parental education level and maternal employment. According to the results of the research, there was no significant difference between the reflective and impulsive characteristics of girls and boys, but differences were found in their reflection time and number of errors according to age. A decrease is observed in the number of errors with increasing age. In the study, it is seen that residential area, parental education and maternal employment are influential in the reflection time and number of errors. In other words, as the educational level of parents increased, a significant difference was found between the number of errors and reflection time (Seçer, Çeliköz, Erişen, & Durak,2009). Based on these results, it can be argued that as the education level of the parents increases, their relations with their children make sense, they spend more quality time with their children and encourage them to solve the problems they face.

Recommendations

In the light of the research findings, the following recommendations can be made; follow-up studies with a study design similar to ours can be made to further investigate the long-term effects of the Orff-based enhancing music education programme. In this study, Orff-based attention-enhancing music education programme was administered to children with impulsive cognitive tempo. The effects of the programme on different sample groups like autistic children can also be measured. Qualitative research methods can be followed to extend the findings of the previous research. In-service trainings in Orff-based attention-enhancing music education activities that reduce impulsivity can be provided to early childhood educators.

Disclosure statement

(10)

Notes on contributors

Gökhan Kayiliis currently an Assistant Professor at the Department of Child Development. His research interests include social development, emotional skills, cognitive tempo and Montessori method.

Özden Kuşcuis currently a Research Assistant at the Department of Child Development. His research interests include music education, Orff-Schulwerk Method and creativity.

ORCID

Gökhan Kayili http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7959-4128

References

Baykara,İD. (2003). Söylemeye, Oynamaya Koşalım. İstanbul: Ya-Pa Yayıncılık.

Büyüköztürk,Ş. (2013). Sosyal Bilimlerİçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Akademi.

Egeland, B. (1974). Training impulsive children in the use of more efficient scanning techniques. Child Development, 45, 165–171.

Ehrman, M. E., & Leaver, B. L. (2003). Cognitive styles in the service of language learning. System, 31(3), 393–415. Eskioğlu, I. (2002, October 30–31). Müzik Eğitiminin Çocuk Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkileri. In Cumhuriyetimizin 80. Yılında

Müzik Sempozyumu (pp. 116–123). Malatya: İnönü Üniversitesi.

Fisher, D. S. (2009). The relationship between cognitive style and emotional/behavioral expression in a clinical sample of chil-dren (Doctoral dissertation). Widener University, Chester, Pennsylvania.

Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2006). How to design and evaluate research in education (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Gander, M. J., & Gardiner, H. W. (2001). Çocuk ve Ergen Gelişimi. Yayıma hazırlayan Bekir Onur. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. Harrison, A., & Nadelman, L. (1972). Conceptual tempo and inhibition of movement in black preschool children. Child

Development, 43(2), 657–668.

Kim, M. J., Choi, J. N., & Park, O. S. (2012). Intuitiveness and creativity in groups: Cross-level interactions between group conflict and individual cognitive styles. Social Behavior and Personality, 40(9), 1419–1434.

Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (1998). A theory of adult learning: Andragogy. In The adult learner: The defini-tive classic in adult education and human resource development. Woburn: Butterworth Heinemann.

Koçyiğit, S., & Kayılı, G. (2014). Examining school readiness of preschool children with different cognitive style. Education and Science, 39(175), 14–26.

Kolcu, Ş. (2014). Farklı Bi˙li˙şsel Tempodaki˙ Çocukların Oyun Davranişlarının ve Akran İli˙şki˙leri˙ni˙n İncelenmesi˙ (Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Selçuk Üni˙versi˙tesi˙, Sosyal Bi˙li˙mler Ensti˙tüsü, Konya.

Kozhevnikov, M. (2007). Cognitive styles in the context of modern psychology: Toward an integrated framework of cog-nitive style. Psychological Bulletin, 133(3), 464–481.

Kuşcu, Ö. (2017). Orff-Schulwerk Pedagojisi Destekli Müzik Eğitim Programının 5 Çocuklarının Yaratıcılıklarına Etkisi (Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Konya.

Mavesky, M. (2002). Creative activities for young children (7th ed.). USA: Delmar Adivision Of Thomson Learning Printer Center.

Messer, S. B. (1976). Reflection-impulsivity: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 83(6), 1026–1052.

Messer, S. B., & Brodzinsky, D. M. (1979). The relation of conceptual tempo to aggression and its control. Child Development, 50, 758–766.

Öztürk, A. (2006). Türkiye’de Orff- Schulwerk yaklaşımının dünü bugünü. Yaratıcı Drama Dergisi, 1(2), 79–88.

Pekarsky, R. (2012). Effect of the child directed interaction phase of parent-child interaction therapy on behavioral impulsivity in young children (Doctoral dissertation). Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY.

Seçer, Z., Çeliköz, N., Erişen, Y., & Durak, T. (2009).İlköğretim öğrencilerinin düşünme becerileri. Gazi Üniversitesi Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24, 93–104.

Seçer, Z., Çeliköz, N., Koçyiğit, S., Seçer, F., & Kayılı, G. (2010). Social skills and problem behaviours of children with different cognitive styles who attend preschool education. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 20(1), 91–98. Seçer, Z., Çeliköz, N., & Yaşa, S. (2008). According to pre-school children’s cognitive style conceptions of moral and social

rules. Selçuk University the Journal of Institute of Social Sciences, 20, 561–577.

Seçer, Z., & Kaymak Özmen, S. (2015). Dikkat Toplamayı Geliştirici Etkinliklerin İçtepisel Okul Öncesi Çocukların Düşünme ve Dikkat Toplama Becerilerine Etkisi. K. Ü. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 23(4), 1803–1816.

Seçer, Z., Sarı, H., Çeliköz, N., & Üre, Ö. (2009). An analysis of cognitive styles of preschool children in terms of some vari-ables. Selçuk University the Journal of Institute of Social Sciences, 21, 407–420.

Siegelman, E. (1969). Reflective and impulsive observing behavior. Child Development, 40(4), 1213–1222. 398 G. KAYILI AND Ö. KUŞCU

(11)

Stuart, A., & Pumfrey, P. D. (1987). Reflectivity-impulsivity and problem-solving by primary school children. Research in Education, 38, 37_–50.

Sungurtekin,_{Ş. (}2005). Orff Çalg_{ılarının Okul Müzik Eğitimindeki Yeri Ve Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kurumlarındaki Uygulamalarının} De_{ğerlendirilmesi (Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Uludağ Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Bursa.}

Uçal Canakay, E., & Bilen, S. (2006). The effect of the Orff Schulwerk in preschool music training on musical skills. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 22, 48_–60.

Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47, 1_–64.

Woolfolk, A. (1998). Educational psychology. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.