CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1.1. General Background to the Study
Writing process constitutes an important part of language learning and teaching. From a writing process perspective, writing is a communicative act with an intended purpose. There are several ways to fulfill this aim starting from reading activities. In fact, the most significant contributing factor in writing is reading.
Perhaps the most important skill to be mastered at school is the ability to express one’s ideas coherently in writing. It is imperative that students be able to communicate clearly during the writing process, but a great many pupils lack this skill. In order for students to become better writers, their reading skills must be developed and strengthened first. In fact, most writing assignments are connected with reading. It is worthwhile to consider how to focus thoughtful attention on the written word. It is believed that reading improves writing skills; this study emphasizes the importance of reading on the development of writing skills. Stotsky searched and studied the connection of reading and writing, and he said better writers tend to be better readers. That better writers tend to read more than poorer writers do, and that better readers tend to produce more syntactically mature writing than poorer readers do. (Stotsky, 1983:516). Generally, it is assumed that competent writer is also a well read. .
Owing to the fact that there is a close relationship between reading and writing, those with poor writing skills should be encouraged to acquire reading habits through extensive exposure to the readings and authentic texts such as magazines, newspapers and journals. Carson (1990) examined this issue and convincingly showed that reading influences writing, that writing influences reading, and that they interactively influence each other. This connection was also supported by the research done by Carrell et al. in
1990 among Chinese students. According to this research, Chinese students demonstrated a strong correlation between reading and writing abilities in English as a target language.
Reading and writing skills should be considered as integrated language skills. In the first place, it is possible to express that reading texts are models for the students who are intended to write. That’s not to say that they should copy the reading texts as part of their written texts. In doing so, the students will be able to see the examples of these reading texts and the will be exposed to these communication tools that are grammatically connected and logically linked. Secondly, connecting reading passages to writing activities can draw students’ attention directly to the form, function and meaning, which they are encouraged to do in their writing activities. In some cases, even if the students neglect the form and the grammatical elements in the readings, they unintentionally try to use these facts. It is because of their acquirement of readings, which can be defined as “input”. The more they read, the more they are acquainted with reading passages and the more they try to write in the form of reading text that they have studied. Namely, reading texts serve as models for writing. While reading passages from books as texts, students are exposed to material that is grammatically correct and logical. During reading, students are unconsciously acquiring knowledge about the form and grammar, which will ultimately have an impact in their own writing. The more they read, the more ‘input’ they have acquired, the better their writing will be.
Reading and writing are inseparable skills for the second language classes. Reading process and writing process cannot be separated from each other just as listening and speaking processes. For instance, when a person is exposed to an audible target language, he or she is expected to speak more fluently compared to those who are not exposed to that target language. In the same way, students reading more can do better in writing activities both as content and as form.
Some researches such as Tierney and Shanahan (1991) have taken this connection between reading and writing under three basic approaches: rhetorical relations, procedural relations, and shared knowledge. These three approaches also provide helpful information about how momentous is the collaboration of reading and writing.
In order to be competent and productive writers, students need proper guidance and sustained practice. Coupled with extensive exposure to authentic and appropriate literature texts, it is possible to obtain and develop life-long reading habits.
In the language classrooms, reading lessons should be incorporated to strengthen the writing skills. Reading all kinds of passages or texts helps students as readers and writers in terms of improving these skills. Computer-based reading, that is using the computer for academic literacy purposes, which may be across the curriculum, is also beneficial, and leads to better writing. As Hirvela has stated in his paper on this issue, case studies of ESL students’ writing experiences across the curriculum have been another source insight into the reading tasks and challenges that they navigate through their schools. Hirvela concludes that as both reading and writing have become increasingly computer oriented, which is in once sense integrated with the technology of our age.
Overall, any kind of reading, especially authentic reading, newspaper reading, journal and magazine reading as well as formal (unauthentic) reading have effects on the improvement of writing skills. In his studies, Krashen stresses the importance of extensive reading as a means of language acquisition and writing development (Krashen, 1987:7). However, there are also important distinctions between the reading materials. As it is studied in this research, authentic reading materials are mostly preferable in the language classes because they reflect the real language, which is the target language for the learners.
1.2. Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between reading of general texts, passages, particularly authentic texts (such as magazines and newspapers) and their effects on the writing skills of 11th grade language students in Mus Anatolian Teacher’s High School. This study follows students as they read and write across the curriculum and evaluates their skill development in language class as they prepare for the university exam.
The need for such a study arises from the researcher’s observation that when asked to write an essay as article, the students unwillingness and unable to carry out such an assignment due to the fact that they feel they are not capable enough to write and they believe they do not have satisfactory knowledge or information to write on. Thus, they generally hesitate and struggle during the writing process.
However, the observations have revealed the students being keen on reading in both L1 and L2 are better writers than the ones that are poor readers. These observations have been examined in Krashen’s (1985) Input Hypothesis, in which he explores whether reading for pleasure could affect the students’ acquisition of linguistic skills with specific reference to the impact of reading on the improvement on writing.
Thus, in this study first emphasis is on the reading skills and aspects of reading including the types of reading, particularly the authentic reading materials. Afterwards, the relationships between reading and writing skills is studied on supporting the thesis with researchers’ tests, their ideas and searches. The method of data collection and in the following of that chapter the evaluations done by using a t-test is explained.
1.3. Statement of the Problem
Although English is very commonly used and studied in almost all levels of education, there have remained significant difficulties and problems for the learners of
English. One of the most important problems with English as a target language is the improvement of writing skills, which is one of the production part of a language like speaking. Many English speakers ranging from doctors to lawyers, teachers to students, nearly all occupations sometimes require English. Language is improved when the four skills are acquired and practiced together. These skills known as receptive (reading and listening) and productive (speaking and writing) constitute the body of the target language. Learning language without combining reading, speaking or writing will have poor results. Hence, it should be studied all together.
However, while studying English as a second language, the students’ main area of difficulty is their writing skills. In many schools and colleges, especially the high schools, giving a second language education in English, students do not like writing. When they are confronted with a writing topic or task, most of them react with different negative comments. What makes them think writing is boring or difficult may be the way they are taught or the methodology used during the lessons. Perhaps their writing ability is not encouraged by the teacher, or they feel insecure and have lack of confidence in writing an essay or a paper. They may not have enough knowledge about how to write, feel embarrassed when they are not able to choose words and experience emotional turmoil when faced with a writing assignment.
Furthermore, most of the textbooks today do not give importance to the use of realistic varieties of language. Regarding this fact, the type of English that the students are learning as a target language tends to be rather informal and colloquial in terms of writing. Thus, students seem to have learned how to speak, read and understand the language by the time they reach high level of English; but they do not seem to be capable enough to write. Perhaps, the reason for this may be the way they are taught or the students are not encouraged to do more reading. Reading should be pleasurable
experience for the learners so that they can write by feeling secure about themselves. In addition, the type of reading materials used during the lessons may also be a factor in students’ unwillingness to write.
Thus, to make the students less fearful and reluctant about writing is the teachers’ first task. Teachers’ approach about how to teach students in the best way is the question in that extend. From that point of view, teachers can use several techniques like integrating reading and writing. This is among the most applicable methods that can be used in ESL classes among the high school students, who have already developed the cognitive ability to get enough input from reading. Therefore, the reading and writing connection must be strengthened through situations in which the students is most frustrated. By means of Free Voluntary Reading (FVR) (Krashen, 1993) in and outside the classroom, and providing the learners with the authentic reading materials, this sometimes-neglected integration can be developed.
1.4. Method of the Study
In the experimental part of the study, an 11th grade language classroom from Muş Anatolian Teacher’s High School was chosen. The class was divided randomly into two groups as an experimental and control group. Both groups were first given a questionnaire in order to assess their reading habits, their thoughts on writing and their writing skills. A day after the questionnaire, they were given a pre-test including several topics to write a composition on. Owing to the fact that one of the correlated aims of the study is to investigate whether reading for pleasure is an effective method of improving the writing skills, the students were left free to select any topic from the list they were given for the target composition. Then, the researcher gave lessons on writing skills following the curriculum of the experimental group. The control group was taught according to the textbook that was on the curriculum of the school and according to the traditional
teaching methods. On the other hand, the experimental group was gradually given reading passages or texts from magazines, newspapers, science journals and texts and sometimes from KPDS -UDS-TOEFL, elementary level to upper intermediate level. In addition, they were also given weekly report sheet in order to assess their understanding of the texts and their new ideas on them (See appendix III).
The duration of the treatment was limited to 6 weeks (four hours a week) due to the fact that the students have been preparing for the Foreign Language Exam (FLE), which does not include a part related to writing skills. After the teaching period, the students in both groups were given a post-test on the same topic that they wrote in the pre-test. They were given authentic texts and passages to read and comment on. Moreover, they answered the questions the researcher put forward, then wrote a composition on one of the subjects studied in these weekly reading.
The aim of this experimental study is to demonstrate the efficiency of reading, by using different kinds of readings like pleasure readings, including newspapers and magazines, on the development of writing at the 11thgrade. When the students have strengthened their ability to write on the things they have read as authentic materials, they were also able to write about formal topics. However, they were more relaxed when they were given assorted authentic materials and allowed to choose a topic their writing. 1.5. Limitations of the Study
This study has the following limitations:
1. As this study was carried out in Muş Anatolian Teacher’s High School, in which the researcher had four hours of lessons a week, and as there was only one 11th -grade language classroom, the class had to be separated into two parts as control group and experimental group. There were 10 students in each group since the population of the class totally twenty students.
2. The students were taught by the researcher during six weeks of the treatment program.
3. As the researcher was not given an 11th language class to attend, he attended the class four hours a week either studying at lunch breaks, after school or having permission from the class teacher to do the research. As both the experimental group and the control group were in the same class, they had to be given the lessons at different hours.
4. The other limitation was the time factor. The reserved time for the study was not enough in order that the reading-writing subjects could be dealt with all their aspects. Significant satisfactory results were achieved in the study but the question remains. What effects might have been seen if the time restrictions had not been? This research inspects that the gains would have been significantly greater.
CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 2.1 Some Approaches to Reading
Before integrating reading with writing, it will be helpful to study the scopes of reading, its definition and theories about it. As writing is a momentous skill that should be studied carefully in ESL classrooms, reading is also a significant factor that influences the rest of the three skills, especially the writing skill. In addition to this, at advanced proficiency levels in second language, the capability to read a written language at a reasonable rate and with good comprehension has long been regarded as important as oral skills. In second language education, particularly in high schools or colleges, where there may be higher education in a language class and where extensive use of academic materials written in English are made, reading is one of the foremost skills.
Considering the facts above, it will be better to start with the importance of reading, with its definitions and types. Because reading and writing exist together, both should be studied carefully and in detail.
2.1.1. Suggested Definitions for Reading
There are many definitions for reading. According to Johnson and Myklebust (1967) reading is a response to a visual symbol superimposed an auditory language. Successful reading depends on the number and quality of experiences that are stored; the suitability of the instructional program for the reader; the keenness of sensory –motor skills; the general level of oral language development, and the personal differences in motivation, interest, intelligence and health. In Thonis (1981:155) reading is defined as a process of seeing print, hearing speech associating no matter what it is that has been seen and heard with stored and remembered experiences called as ‘referents’. Thus, reading is
related with writing; because, seeing print means storing the written knowledge, which helps a student of ESL in composing his or her ideas.
Lado proposes another definition for reading. According to him, reading in a target language is the grasping of the full linguistic meaning of what is read within the common experience of the culture, which that language is a part. He also sees other types of reading as more regularly the realm of reading in the native language, such as for literary appreciation and for knowledge (Lado, 1964). Thus, in his suggestions, it is quite likely that the linguistic and cultural component constitute most in reading. It is apparent that both the linguistic and the cultural dimensions of reading are the essential components for writing for second language learners.
Taking a different approach, Goodman (1967) defined reading as a receptive process. According to his analysis, reading commences with a linguistic surface representation encoded by a writer and ends with meaning that the reader constructs. Therefore, there is a necessary connection between language and thought. At this point, it can be said that there is an essential interaction with reading and writing owing to the fact that thoughts may be turned into written language. .
One of the other researchers who has defined reading is Coady. According to him, reading process requires the strategies of reading, background knowledge and conceptual abilities. Beginners in reading concentrate on process strategies such as word identification. On the other hand, advanced readers’ attention diverts to more abstract and conceptual abilities and takes advantage of background knowledge by using textual information as needed for confirming and guessing the information in the text and passages. Regarding his implications, it is logical to conclude that the predicting and getting knowledge from the reading facilities construct background information for the
writer of second language. Therefore, it makes easier for organizing and putting them in a piece of paper.
2.1.2. Theories for Reading
Considering the interactive theories of reading, readers actively process and interpret texts and passages by means of assigning meaning as well as retrieving meaning. From that point of view, the meaning that the reader gets out of written material is a result of the interaction between the text and the reader’s cognitive processing capacities. Smith (1976) mentioned this issue stating that reading is the “active process of constructing meaning from language presented by graphic symbols like the letters systematically arranged” (p.265). Goodman also has implications about the proficient readers. He asserts:
Readers maintain constant focus on construction the meaning throughout the process, always seeking the most direct path to meaning, always using strategies for reducing uncertainty, always being selective about the use of the cues available and drawing deeply on prior conceptual and linguistic competence.
(Quoted in Carrell, Devine, and Eskey, 1988, p.12) Thus, there is an active participation of the reader to gets the most out of the reading text by using the appropriate strategies. The more the reader get, the more the reader have something to write with these suitable strategies.
2.2. Types of Reading
Human beings read many materials, from novels to biography, for many varied reasons. Sometimes they read to acquire knowledge, other times to escape into an imaginary world. Their purposes in reading differ. For example, a man may sit in the garden reading a novel while sipping his orange juice. He obviously reads for pleasure. On the other hand, a student in a literature class may read the same novel to investigate
the meaning or to find the main theme, which means he or she reads for academic purposes. Regardless of what they read, why they read becomes important.
According to Chastain (1988:220), language students need to be able to read a variety of materials for various purposes just as native speakers do. Indeed, owing to their shortage of familiarity with the newspaper and magazines in the language, they may spend more time than a native speaker may for scanning and skimming in advance to making choice. This will make the reading texts and passages easier and will develop their comprehension and provide background knowledge for writing.
Below are some varied types of reading. By means of these reading types, it is possible to reach the attained goal. Every person has different purposes, they read for guidance, they read for academic purposes, they read for writing, they read for pleasure, and reasons and motivation for reading may change hourly, but the impact of reading on the writing process is of the constant significance.
All types of reading materials have an impact writing. In a sense, these types of reading influence writing process for either fun or academic. Before a language learner starts to learn how to read in a second langauge, he or she should be capable of reading in the native language. For instance, intensive and critical reading practice enable the second language learner write have some schema for writing in the extend of knowledge, and pleasure reading in the extend of their interest.
2.2.1. Intensive and Extensive Reading
Reading may be categorized into intensive and extensive reading. Extensive reading means that readers are reading a piece of writing for pleasure. In other words, when the aim becomes pleasure, it is extensive reading.
On the other side of the coin, if the readers are reading a piece of complicated text for information, for a piece of knowledge, they are possibly reading it more slowly than
the extensive readers that are doing intensive reading. In this kind of reading, there is a focus on the topic and it may an academic reading because knowledge is to be extract from the reading. In this kind of reading, the interests and the level of the reader are not considered. In a sense, the learner may be in the position that they are urged to write because of the fact that the learners are to read the thing the instructor gave them as a reading assignment.
As Chastain indicates, language students need to be able to read a variety of materials for various purposes just as native speakers do. In fact, due to their lack of familiarity with newspapers and magazines in the new language, they may spend more time than native readers (Chastain 1988:220). In the writer’s view, it is clear that the more extensive reading the learners do, the more easily they receive the intended message in the target language, and they do it voluntarily.
2.2.2. Extensive Reading
Extensive reading can be defined as reading done only for one’s enjoyment, pleasure reading, and does not include readings done at school or work. Second language researchers have found that students are not encouraged to read outside the school in the target language. Most of the language learners at colleges or high schools, do not read except for at school.
Second language investigators have provided evidence that extensive reading strengthens reading, writing, and other language skills. Krashen and Terrell (1983) have shown how important and helpful it is for learners to read large amounts of meaningful, authentic, and comprehensible materials that are slightly above their current level of comprehension.
Sikiotis (1981) mentions the value of extensive reading in general. He demonstrates that pleasure reading in foreign language learning is of equal importance as
it brings the learners into contact with the living language and helps them to improve their oral and written skills.. Moreover, extensive reading tends to eliminate mother-tongue inference and enriches students’ vocabulary in the target language they are studying.
In the same way, Taylor (1981) draws attention to extensive daily reading because it helps students acquire the critical reading skills, needed for revision that is extremely valuable. Extensive, authentic reading also gives students a variety of culturally appropriate rhetorical and writing options, organizational patterns, and patterns of logic and support. Furthermore, this kind of reading fosters vocabulary growth and the acquisition of syntax in context. By means of reading, students develop personal intuition about what good writing looks like while practicing and putting into use the skills that they have acquired during reading. They will feel confident and they will be more capable writing in their target language, skill of the target language.
An examination of the correlation between the amounts of reading for pleasure and writing proficiency proves the importance of reading in developing other skills. Such evidence includes Elley and Manguphai’s (1983) study in which they conducted a two-year extensive reading program using simplified readers with Fiji Island elementary school children. They concluded that second language acquisition was positively influenced by pleasure reading in the second language.
In addition, Schleppegrell (1984), in a study done among the adult Egyptian learners, has found that a writing course based on authentic reading work produced greater gains in writing skills than one which primarily focused on the productive skills of speaking and writing.
It would seem reasonable to conclude that extensive reading will improve learners’ competence in a second language on many levels. The first improvement will be on the writing skills owing to the fact that the nearest skill to reading is writing. Nuttall
(1982), for instance, asserts that next to living among native speakers, the best way of acquiring proficiency in a language is to read extensively in this language. Wilkins (1972) agrees with Nutall, pointing out that as the learner is exposed to the lexical items embedded in natural linguistic contexts, writing skills are strengthened.
Peyton, Jones, Vincent, and Greenblatt (1994) believe that encouraging lots of reading in a variety of forms is one way of comprehending a text. The express their opinion in the following manner:
Extensive reading sparks ideas for writing and gives students language they can use. When many readings relate to one theme or idea, students lose the desire to copy from one book and start to make connections among ideas in various texts.
(Peyton et. al. 1994: 477)
Another study conducted by Elley (1991) in Singapore has demonstrated that extensive reading has a positive impact on the second language learners. Almost three thousand children age six to nine followed a program called “Reading and English Acquisition Program” which lasted from one to three years. In this program, students had the pleasure of shared book experiences, language experiences and a great deal of free reading. Students who followed this program outperformed the students that were traditionally taught on reading comprehension tests as well as in areas such as vocabulary, oral skills, listening comprehension, grammar, and writing.
Therefore, students should be given assistance in developing extensive reading strategies to make their writing better. By doing so, they will expand their reading strategies which will then lead them to develop their writing skills.
While reading a piece of text, the information is extracted by the readers, depending on the aim of reading, the readers’ interests and motivations. Knowledge of linguistic rules and knowledge of the world help learners understand what they read. Their knowledge of linguistic rules includes identifying and understanding cohesion, coherence, rhetorical organization, and conventions of written language. The readers’ knowledge of the world allows them to comprehend reading material, and with the input they have taken from the reading, they combine their knowledge of the world and they can be successful in writing tasks.
Both the readers’ knowledge of linguistic rules and their experiences as readers help them perform the task of writing. Therefore, students with cooperation with the teachers should develop reading strategies, because they need assistance and guidance before, during and after reading and writing tasks. . Writing and reading tasks in EFL of ESL classes, in most cases, depend upon each other. Thus, writing can be used to actualize the students’ comprehension of what they have read. Reading in writing classes, is a primary way of providing input for writing tasks to the learners of the target language. Reading tasks can either serve as a model or provide information on the subject of the composition. Raimes (1989:268) believes that providing readings in composition classes improves writing skills:
I think I can almost hear some of you muttering, “But why provide readings at all in a writing class?” I am not urging readings as models for imitation (Look at this topic sentence and support and now write just like it) nor simply as springboards for discussion and ultimately for writing topics, nor as a base for true/false questions and exercises on propositions and synonyms, though readings can of course be used for these purposes too. I am urging examination of what a writer says, of why and how she or he says it. Such close reading entails determining the writer’s intent, extricating and paraphrasing the meaning…
2.2.3. Advantages of Extensive and Voluntary Reading in Writing Skills
There are many advantages of reading for developing writing skills. Among them, extensive reading comes first. Kembo (1993: 36) has examined at length the connection between extensive reading and writing. Kembo believes that extensive reading should be encouraged both within and outside of the classroom. She has indicated that students need to read extensively for the following reasons:
a. Extensive reading exposes them to different registers of the target language that they will meet in varied contexts.
b. Wide reading broadens and increases their vocabulary, which is important for effective communication.
c. Reading a text in its entirely builds confidence, and consistent wide reading aids concentration for reading by expanding their attention span.
d. Skills learned through reading are transferred to other areas of language, such as writing and speaking.
e. In an organized system, the extensive reading lesson provides a break from the rigueur of closely supervised lessons and enables the pupil to get lost in a text that really interests him. It also releases the teacher to do things for the pupils.
f. Lastly, reading opens up a completely new world enabling the reader to learn about other people- their cultures and outlooks, and the reasons that they behave in certain ways. It also sharpens judgment, as one’s own out look on life is broadened.
(Kembo, 1993:36, cited in Akcaoglu )
It is clear that language teachers should both encourage and initiate extensive reading and the other reading types in their students’ classes. This can be done by giving resources for reading, such as books, magazines and newspapers in the class. The teachers should first read the material themselves to provide guidance to students on what to read
and also to choose the readings according to difficulty level so that the students are not frustrated by a book or an article which is too difficult to understand. If the teacher read the books or articles beforehand, it would be easier for them to recommend these texts to the students according to their levels, interests and language skills. Moreover, it is essential to provide students with the authentic readings which are slightly above their target language level so that they can have chance to improve.
For the teachers and researchers studying this topic, it is possible to advise them to select material that will interest students for reading. In order to do that the language teachers can apply the following: First, the teachers may start to read a piece of interesting text or passage and later the students may have the motivation to read on their own. The teacher in this manner provides a reason for students to continue to read. Another way of promoting productive reading habits can be to allow students who are interested in reading to give an oral summary of what they have been reading to the others. By doing this, the rest of the class may also read more. Apart from these procedures, the titles of the texts or books, the authors’ names, a cut out from a magazine or a newspaper can be attached to the notice board or the blackboard which will attract students’ attention and they will want to read and understand the passage. Classroom reading materials should be chosen according to the students’ level and interests in order to motivate students to read. When these procedures are implemented, students will have a more solid knowledge base. They will understand that there are no limitations or borders in reading. In order to see what they have gained from the readings, the teacher can provide forms that students fill out for readings they are assigned (see Appendix III).
Another important point is that the students should be free to read anything; they should read what they want in a target language in order to improve their writing speaking skills. For instance, if a student is keen on zodiac, he or she should be let free to
read any kind of zodiac materials so that he or she can write voluntarily on it. In this aspect, for pleasure or extensive reading, authentic reading materials gain significance. This can be also supported by adding “Free Voluntary Reading (FVR)” (Krashen, 1993). FVR is one of the best tools that can be put into practice in language education. Krashen indicates in his book that FVR is the missing content of teaching. According to him, FVR does not only supply a foundation for learning a language but also improves the proficiency of the target language learners.
2.3. Reading Hypothesis
Students who read extensively are more mature writers. In the conclusion of studies done by Krashen. Krashen (1993) reports that the students who used FVR were much more successful in reading comprehension tests than the students trained according to the traditional reading methods. Hence, it can be concluded from his studies that the more time spent on FVR method, the better are the students in reading, writing and the other skills. The studies of Janopoulus, Kaplan and Palhinda (cited in Krashen 1993) have shown that those who read more in their second language write better in the target language. These studies also indicate that there is a relationship between reading and the spelling performance.
Overall, free reading activities and pleasure reading studies at schools confirm hat a large amount of reading can result in better reading comprehension, writing style, vocabulary, grammar and spelling. The more students are interested in reading, the more they are productive they are in language skills particularly in writing. The following figure sums up “the Reading Hypothesis”:
Figure 1.1. The Reading Hypothesis
In-School Free Reading Reading Comprehension Writing Style
Free Voluntary Reading Grammar Spelling
Self Reported Free Reading Vocabulary
(Pleasure Reading) (Krashen, 1993: 13)
As it is clearly seen in the figure above, free reading and pleasure reading in and out of school improves most of the skills in the target language.
2.4. Input Hypothesis
Language acquisition comes through understanding messages and through receiving comprehensible input. This comprehensible input includes the gradual flow of information to learners in order that they can perform the task. For example, to help someone to help with cooking, we should show him how to cook and what ingredients will be used during cooking. Then he is prepared for cooking step by step and doing better each time. As it is perceived from the example, a person need some time to get the input and implement it. In the language teaching, it is the same. A student need some time to digest the input by reading or listening before the production stage. Krashen calls this amount of time “Silent Period”. According to him, most of the learners need this time to produce a language either written or oral. If the opposite happens, the students develop a negative attitude towards the target language, and they will not achieve success.
For this reason, during this silent period, the students should be given the input owing to the fact that the only way, as Krashen stated, in which a learner acquires a language is through the understanding the input which is one step ahead of the learner’s
existing knowledge. It should be slightly above the learners’ knowledge. Krashen calls this “roughly tuned’’. “Roughly tuned” input is more helpful and productive than the “finely tuned” input, which is simplified input by the teacher in order make the learners understand easily; because “roughly tuned’’ input sound more natural and learners may have the opportunity to be exposed to a more realistic input. From that point of view, the average input that the students are exposed should be comprehensible, interesting, not grammatically sequenced, and more importantly, it should be slightly above the current level of students’ competence and knowledge.
It is this input hypothesis correlated with writing, it is clear that the input the learners get from the reading texts and passages helps them write better. Krashen (1985: 18) states that the input hypothesis may also apply to the acquisition of writing style. He points out writing competence comes from large amounts of self-motivated reading, which is done for pleasure, which is called extensive reading. According to Krashen, “it is the reading that gives the writer the feel for the look and texture of reader-based prose” (1984:20). To expose students to an extensive reading or pleasure reading, they should be given opportunity to read authentic materials that are not in the curriculum of the school but chosen by the learners themselves or by the teachers according to their level, interests and competence in the target language. Considering this fact, authentic informal reading materials becomes important in this part of the research.
2.5. The Role of the Authentic Reading Materials in a Language Class
In a language class, using authentic materials always works. The students are exposed to the real language if authentic materials are used. For instance, when a learner confronts with an onion, and when he or she hears the name of this vegetable in the target language, the learner does not need to know the translation of it in his or her mother tongue. The pupil already knows what it is in the target language. The importance of the
authentic materials is that they are real, they are ready to use any time, and they are easy to keep in mind. As Marrow expressed they are the “stretches of real language” (1987: 14). Considering these remarks, authentic materials convey real meaning and it comes out of real life. Baddock (1983) defines authentic materials as the materials produced by native speakers for native speakers’ use. For this reason, they are not designed or written for the textbooks that are studied by the learners. Furthermore, they are not simplified to the level of the learner of target language and they are not produced for language teaching processes. For example, a journal telling and giving information about the whales’ life has not been written to teach a language, and this journal is not simplified for language learners, which was mentioned in the previous paragraphs that the input should convey the real meaning and the message.
Regarding the fact above, authentic readings are produced for the native people of that language, but they can be used in any place for the language learner as a target language. For example, Newsweek is produced for the people of a country but sold all over the world, and many times it has been used as an authentic material in reading and writing classes. Wilkins (1978) supports this issue mentioning that there is a wealth of reading material available in most languages. In addition, he supports that the linguistic content of readers should go beyond the level of the learners and the textbooks in their curriculum, which is also supported in this research in the “input hypothesis”.
As authentic reading materials bear significant role in reading and writing skills, choosing them is also a critical consideration. Authenticity means real life. Even the learner at the elementary level can be exposed to authentic language by saying “Hi” to a tourist visiting the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, because it is the real life and it is the means of everyday communication. In the same way, authentic texts are great in number. It is possible to sequence them as newspapers, magazines, novels, slogans, traffic signs, TV
commercials, maps, tickets, conversations, BBC News, Time Journal, posters, a pop song, folk music journal, poetry readings, menus, schedules, etc. These are only some examples of the authentic texts. A sign telling the short history of the castle is an authentic reading material. It is possible to see the grammar, word sequence, vocabulary and their informative function in it. These are not produced or written for language teaching, but they are strongly used for teaching purposes.
These authentic materials not only meet their needs for writing skills but also they appeal the students’ needs, interests, and sometimes exact level of them; therefore, they are also motivated for the language skills by means of the authentic reading texts. When the learners encounter a piece of writing which attracts their attention in the extent of interest in the target language, they wonder about it and read. Then they get the knowledge out of it, which they may use in their writings sometime later.
Authenticity in the reading materials is an important element in the teaching of a language. Exposure to these kinds of texts may start with the simple ones and follow the upper levels gradually without changing the originality of the texts. When the learners are left to the real instances of language, they gain a sense of confidence and success when they realize that they comprehend the subject matter in the lesson. Thus, it makes easy for them to apply what they have learned to other skills of language such as in writing and speaking.
Take, for example, the English language newspaper, journal or a magazine. They seem to be the essential part of the language teaching process on account of the fact that it is quite easy to find texts and passages that fit the learners’ levels, interests and knowledge. When the learners are confronted with a writing task, they should be free to choose a topic they are interested in the newspaper, magazine or journal, so that they can be motivated to read and increase their curiosity to learn and thus increase their
knowledge in the selected topic. Frederickson points out the following matters regarding the use of newspapers and alike authentic materials:
1. The English newspaper is a source of-up-to- the minute English. 2. It covers subjects of immediate interest and importance.
3. It is an excellent tool for building vocabulary.
4. It is readily available and can be delivered to your doorstep.
5. Its consistent style and content makes it one of the easiest reading materials written for native speakers.
6. Since most students already have background knowledge of current affairs from local language newspapers, radio, television, it can be introduced before other types of unsimplified materials.
7. It is the one type of English reading material that students are most likely to continue reading after they complete their education.
(Frederickson, 1983: 48)
As it is seen, newspapers, magazines and journals can be thought as one of the most essential authentic texts for reading and writing skills. In addition, the up-to-date topics and issues in these authentic materials attract the readers’ attention and motivates further reading in that target language.
2.6. Formal, Unauthentic Reading Materials in Language Class
Contrary to authentic materials, unauthentic are the ones that are purposely produced in the teaching of a language. Thus, they are in the curriculum of the institution or a class. While the authentic texts are designed for the native speakers of that language, unauthentic texts are written for the learner of that language.
Comparing these two kinds of reading materials, it is very easy to see the difference between them in the extend of the message they give during reading. For instance, it is clear to see in the unauthentic text that a particular structure or vocabulary is stressed in the whole text. On the other hand, in an authentic text the aim is to deliver a
message. Thus, in an authentic text message is the important one, while it is the grammatical sequence, vocabulary or the word order in the unauthentic texts. In an unauthentic text, the significant peculiarity is the way the message is expressed, not the message or messages itself.
If you look at the two reading texts below it is easy to understand the differences between them:
As it is seen in the texts above, the authentic reading passage does not focus on the grammatical elements or the tenses while the unauthentic text gives importance on the grammatical elements like tenses or the vocabulary.
Taking the above issues and the subjects into consideration, the teachers of target languages should use a great majority of the authentic reading materials owing to the fact that unauthentic materials simply focus on main grammatical structures studied in the lesson. They do not seem to be the real instances of the target language. Therefore, it may be boring for the learners to read unauthentic materials, and teachers of target language should take the responsibility to provide real reading materials for their learners.
2.7. Overall View of Reading and Writing Relationship
Reading and writing Skills in ESL classrooms were taught as different lessons for a quite many years. Those two language acts were thought of as consisting of component language sub skills that could be taught individually until the learner had mastered all the pieces. In this model, the reading activity was thought to be very different from the writing skills. In fact, reading is the closest activity that can be used as a tool in the improvement of writing skills.
ESL writing classrooms have changed in a dramatic way within the last ten years, drawing the learners’ attention on writing as a communicative act as well as emphasizing students’ writing processes and communicative intentions. Furthermore, reading has been recognized to be the basis for writing. In the writing classes, the reading texts and passages gained importance. In recent years, authentic reading materials have been used in the language classes. However, in the state schools it has not been achieved yet.
2.7.1. Reading and Writing Connection
Recent advances in cognitive and developmental theory have suggested another reading and writing connection. In this reading-writing connection, research has taken three basic approaches (Tierney & Shanahan, 1991): rhetorical relations, procedural connections, and shared knowledge. According to Tierney and Shanahan’s theory, the rhetorical approach is based on the idea that reading and writing are communication activities and that readers and writers gain insights about how communication works by being sender and receiver.
The procedural approach treats reading and writing as functional activities that can be combined to accomplish external goals. This approach studies, usually through task analysis, how reading and writing can be used together. These studies have tended to emphasize the combination of reading and writing within academic tasks. These include, for example, explorations of the impact of not taking on comprehension, how learners synthesize texts when writing reports, or how reading is used in writing revision (Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 1984:30).
The third approach, the one that has been too close to this research, is an analysis of the shared knowledge between reading and writing. As discussed above, learners of target languages get a lot from the readings; if their interests and levels are at the level or little beyond them, they can easily exchange them in their writings. Regarding this fact, reading and writing are connected, because they depend on identical or similar knowledge representations. Therefore, it should be thought that reading and writing are similar and their development is close to each other. This pedagogical combination of reading and writing makes the learning efficient.
So what knowledge do readers and writers of a second language hold in common? According to the research done by Fitzgerald and Shanahan (1991), there are four basic
types of knowledge that both readers and writers must use: ‘metaknowledge’, ‘domain knowledge’, ‘knowledge about universal text attributes’ and ‘procedural knowledge’. Among these knowledge types, the closest knowledge to this research is the ‘domain knowledge”.
‘Domain knowledge” refers to all knowledge or awareness that readers and writers have. This category includes what is often referred to as world knowledge or prior knowledge. It also includes the knowledge that can result from a reading or writing interaction. It has to do with the semantics or meaning, including the word meaning and the meaning or ideas that the reader have before reading. If this type of is applied to the research of this paper, it is possible to suggest that learners’ interests and their prior knowledge combines with their writings.
That’s to say, the learner with prior knowledge or world knowledge (which is referred as ‘domain knowledge’ by Fitzgerald and Shanahan) can understand the readings texts given and grasp the message easily, then while applying the messages in their writing, they also include the knowledge that may result from the reading and writing interaction. Furthermore, while providing students with reading materials, teachers should mostly choose the authentic readings, which may highly coordinate with “domain knowledge’.
2.7.2. Theories of Reading, Writing, and Reading-Writing relations.
The study of reading-writing relations must be grounded in theories of reading and writing that can stand independently. Reading-writing relations should then build on these theories and offer a framework that explains the ways in which reading and writing together enhance language, literacy, and content learning. Such a framework can offer teachers a richer understanding of how to assemble a course designed to promise literacy and language skills.
According to Grabe (Kroll, 2003:244), the ability to read is typically assumed in many discussions of reading-writing relations. However, even in first language settings, limited reading abilities sometimes make it difficult for students to carry out tasks that combine reading and writing. It is not possible to outline here a theory of reading that would provide all the background assumptions relevant to students’ learning how to read and write in combination. However, some comments on second language reading should be highlightened to point out the distinct second language contexts in which second language students engage in reading and writing together. In particular, second language readers may have difficulties writing from textual sources simply because of weaker language skills and reading comprehension abilities, and these possible limitations need to be taken into account when students are asked to use text resources for writing tasks. Thus, it is satisfactory to apply first language research about reading and writing to second language contexts (Grabe, 2000; Grabe & Stoller, 2002; Silva et al., 1997)
A theory of second language writing, in addition, should account for students’ abilities across a range of tasks and writing contexts. Consideration needs to be given to the roles of language knowledge and background knowledge, cognitive processing, motivation, social context factors, and learning opportunities (Grabe, 2001; Grabe & Kaplan, 1997). The processing and problem-solving components of writing development can make intense demands on students, particularly when students are reading difficult second language texts in order to collect or glean new information for their writing. In many reading, writing tasks, students are forced to make a number of complex decisions. Students need to decide the following:
1. How much information should be taken from the text; which information should be taken?
3. How accurately the information should be represented when going from text source to student writing?
4. What formal mechanism should be used for transforming or using the textual information?
All of these choices call for both writing skills and reading skills. As a final complexity, writing from multiple texts requires even more demanding, planning, processing, and revising. The interpretation of task demands and the integration of textual information force the critical decision making that requires much practice and consistent efforts to “traverse the topical landscape” from multiple directions (McGinley & Tierney, 1989). Simply put, students need a lot of practice with these types of tasks.
2.7.2.1 Reading and Writing Together: L1 Research
Reading-writing relations have been a topic of L1 (Mother Language, First Language) research for the past twenty years (Tierney & Shanahan, 1991), and some familiarity with L1 findings can help L2 (Second Language) teachers develop greater awareness of the challenges that all learners face in accomplishing their reading and writing goals. Early works in 1980s pointed out the importance of learning from reading and from writing, though demonstrating learning from writing has been somewhat harder to verify. This early research base has also argued that reading and writing together can lead to effective learning, though again the research studies are relatively few (Tierney et al., 1989)
Since L1, literary skills can transfer to the second language; they are considered a factor in L2 literary acquisition. The process of acquiring L2 writing and reading abilities seems to result from exposure to L2 input as well as transfer of L1 literary skills that influence the quality of L2 reading and writing. Thus, Eisterhold (1991) makes the following explanation:
Writing teachers who are sensitive to the role that first language reading writing abilities play in developing second language literary skills, and also to the role that reading ability in the second language plays in the development of second language writing skills will be better prepared to help l2 learners utilize those relationships to become proficient second language writers.
(Eisterhold, 1991:100)
Shanahan (1984) has also found that reading and writing skills affect each other because they both share structural components that can be acquired in one domain and then applied in the other. According to him, learning that occurs as a result of reading instruction could be useful in engendering writing achievement, and learning obtained through writing could be beneficial to reading development.
2.7.2.2 Reading and Writing Together: L2 Research
Second language research on reading-writing relations can be traced back to the 1980s, though this research tends to be tied to very specific issues as Grabe (Kroll, 2003) noted. These issues remain significant concerns for understanding reading-writing relations today, though more-recent studies have expanded that range considerably. This research shortly mentions the “Interdependence and Threshold Hypothesis” (Kroll, 2003). Interdependence Hypothesis is a theory proposing literacy transfer from L1 to L2. In this hypothesis, the domain knowledge or the knowledge of the world in the first language is transferred into the target language. When a learner reads a topic in his or her mother tongue, he or she can write it in their target language.
Threshold Hypothesis is a theory arguing against supportive transfer until a certain level of L2 proficiency is attained. This hypothesis emphasizes that the knowledge of the world, the input in the first language, can only be transferred after certain level of proficiency is reached in the target language. When learners know a lot in their first languages, it does not make sense until they reach the ability to use them as written or
oral in the target language. They have to complete the cognitive development in the target language first.
As these relations are momentous for the students, attempts to teach them to write from texts are sometime complex. Teachers and researchers must recognize that many layers of knowledge and skills are being combined in these tasks. Language knowledge, topical knowledge, and background knowledge are being called on; complex processing abilities are expected, L1/L2 differences will affect planning and production; individual differences, motivations, and social contexts will shape student performances; and the accumulation of experiences from engaging in such tasks is critical for successful performance.
CHAPTER – III
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION and EVALUATION 3.1. Introduction
This chapter aims to present the analysis on the affects of reading, especially reading of authentic materials, upon the development of writing skills. As this is an experimental study, there has been tried to manipulate the independent variable. The subjects were randomly chosen as control and experimental groups. The experimental group was introduced to different techniques and strategies of reading authentic materials as well as textbooks and paragraphs, in other words, newspapers and magazines written in English and lesson books to see the effect of reading on their writing. The control group did not receive any kind of that treatment, they were taught as they had been taught before.
3.2. Research Design
In this study, 11th grade students of English as a Second Language in both the control group and the experimental group were given a questionnaire to gaher information about their reading habits and what they think about writing.
The subjects were also required to write a uniform composition assignment as a pre-test as well as a post-test activity. The aim in this activity was to see how they improve their writing after authentic reading activities. This uniform composition writing assignment was given to the subjects, both in the experimental and the control groups. The experimental group received a six-week treatment of reading texts, authentic materials such as daily English Language newspapers and English Language magazine like Newsweek. And at the end of every week, the subjects of the experimental group were given weekly reading material report (see Appendix III). The control group did not receive any treatment. They were just given normal course book readings, and most of
them were not integrated with writing. At the end of the experimental period, the results obtained from the post-test were compared with the results of the pre-test in order to find differences and to observe any improvements in the participants’ writing performances. The comparison of two compositions led us an evaluation of skill levels of both groups. 3.3. Subjects
The total number of the subjects in this study is 20 for the 11th grade students at Mus Anatolian Teachers’ High School, Mus. The experimental and control groups consisted of 10 students each. The subjects were randomly selected from the 11th grade students. Then, the groups were formed on a voluntary basis.
3.4. Assessment Instruments
In this study, the basic instruments for the assessment were a questionnaire and a composition test. The test was a uniform composition assignment on the topics of “How would you describe your city and introduce it to an English-speaking person? What do you think about the Foreign Language Class Lessons and teaching procedures at your institution?, Dou you like the season that exist in your hometown now? Etc.” (See Appendix II). The subjects were free to choose any topic, so they would be comfortable writing about a topic they selected. Then they started to write their composition, some making an outline first.
The questionnaire (See appendix I) was prepared in English because it was at the level of 11th grade Foreign Language Department and pupuls were able to understand all the questions. The purpose of the questionnaire was to measure the subjects’ reading habits and their interests in the readings, and it aimed at learning what they think about their writing skills and what they think about writing. There were 45 items and they were graded on a five-point scale ranging from “always” (5) to “never” (1). The questionnaire also included negative statement like the items 4, 8, 13,16,18,21,23,25,26,32,34,35 and
43. These items were evaluated as “always” (1) and “never” (5). The questionnaire and the pretest and post-test activities together demonstrated the reading habits and writing skills of the subjects.
3.5. Procedures
In order to examine the subjects reading and writing skills, they were given a questionnaire, a pre-test and a post-test. In order to be confident about the questionnaire, it was first administered to a group of students in their third year in the English Language Teaching Department at the Selcuk University, and they were administered the same questionnaire after three weeks. Therefore, the validity of the questionnaire was tested by using evaluation tool in SSPS Program, and the correlation between the two results was close to each other. Then, the 11th grade subjects in Mus Anatolian Teachers’ High School were administered the questionnaire.
The day after the subjects were given a questionnaire, they were given the pre-test consisting questions about “How would you describe your city and introduce it to an English-speaking person?, What do you think about the Foreign Language Class Lessons and teaching procedures at your institution?, Dou you like the season that exist in your hometown now? And etc.”. The tests were given to both the experimental and the control group in order to find out the connection and correlation between reading and writing skills.
If the stages of the research are to be mentioned, in the first stage of the research, as suggested above, a questionnaire was given to 15 third-year students in English Language Teaching Department at the Selcuk University. The same questionnaire was given to the same students with three weeks interval. In other words , after three weeks, the same students were given the questionnaire and the results were analyzed statistically
by using the SPSS Prentice Hall Student Version CD Rom with the help of the book written by Prof. Dr. Seref KALAYCI. The results indicated a positive relationship.
At the next stage, the questionnaire was administered to the subjects at the school and the results analyzed in the same way.
At the third stage of the data collection, the subjects in both groups were given a pre-test. In the pre-test they were given a composition assignment and they were asked to write an essay on the topics they had chosen individually. The duration for this test was 60 minutes, one classroom hour and break time. The length of the essays was limited to 250-450 words. The subjects were not allowed to use dictionaries during the pre-test.
After the pre-test, the essays were evaluated with the help of three native speakers of English, one of who is an ELT Writing Course Lecturer at the University of Houston. In order to provide reliability in the scores, an ESL composition profile (Jacobs, 1981, cited in Akcaoglu) (see Appendix V) and Writing Assessment Sheet at the University of Houston were used. The assessors evaluated the scores according to these scales in the mentioned profile. As they were evaluated according the two scales, the mean was taken during the analyses of the results.
First of all, the experimental group subjects were started to be given authentic reading materials (see appendix VII). The subjects met together two times a week because of the fact that the school lesson schedule was a complex one. Thus, there were two sessions, which lasted two lesson hours, 90 minutes. Moreover, at the end of the each week, they were given a weekly reading material report to fill in. The subjects were in fact ready to attend the sessions owing to the fact that they were not given a proper writing lesson. Therefore, the subjects were very helpful and positive during the whole study.
As it is known, students learn best in an atmosphere that they feel themselves free and relaxed. When they feel pressure on them, learning becomes difficult. Particularly in a language class, this atmosphere should be more relaxed than the other lessons. Considering this fact, the subjects were provided with a relaxing atmosphere. Sometimes, they did their readings under the trees sitting on the lawn eating sun flowers- seeds and drinking coke in the springtime at the school. They were also allowed to sit in the canteen of the school and do their readings there. All the writing activities, however, were done in the classroom.
While applying the treatment, the subjects were not urged to read particular authentic reading texts. They were left free to choose the topics considering their proficiency levels in the target language and their interests. They selected their topics from the newspapers and magazines. They were allowed to copy them and keep them after the lesson. While doing the reading activities, pre-reading, during-reading and post-reading stages were followed in order that the subjects could fully grasp the message in the given texts. Therefore, they were able to understand and be successful in the summing up the texts.
In the first stage when the subjects were exposed to pre-reading activities, the subjects were prepared for the actual reading of the selected articles. Knowing the fact that the background knowledge and their interests would be helpful in their understanding of the texts, brainstorming activities were used. Thus, background knowledge increased. With this activity, they had a chance to combine what they knew before with what they will learn after the reading the texts they were administered according to their interest. These tasks made the subjects ready for the reading assignment and because the texts were about their interests they were ready to even discuss and give new ideas on the selected topic.
