THE INDICATIONS OF HIGH & LOW SELF-ESTEEM

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ourselves, how worthwhile a person we think we are” (p. 609). It is clear that Gross (1993) sees self-image as many authors see self-concept. However, self-esteem, for him, is one of the three major components of self-concept alongside self-image and ideal-self.

Both the past and the present reviews and definitions indicate that not only self-esteem and self-concept, but also, the other self are terms which are used interchangeably.

Many researchers used esteem scales to measure concept, and also used self-concept scales in order to measure self-esteem. Sometimes authors used both of the concepts to refer to the same construct. Despite the great deal of studies to distinguish self-esteem and self-concept constructs, there is still controversy over the definitions of the concepts. Therefore, in the present study, the terms self-esteem and self-concept will be used interchangeably in accord with previous psychologists such as Wylie (1968), Shavelson, et al. (1976), Rosenberg (1979), Burns (1981), Abdallah, (1989), Cassidy (1991), and Burnet (1994).

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self-esteem in children reported that self-esteem was significantly associated with personal satisfaction and effective functioning.

People who frequently seek psychological help may suffer from feelings of inadequacy and unworthiness. Rogers states that these people see themselves as helpless and inferior; incapable of improving their situations (Coopersmith, 1967). Clinical studies show that failure and other conditions which threaten to expose personal inadequacies are probably the major cause of anxiety. Many studies report that stress and anxiety are closely related to low self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967; Many & Many, 1975; Lundgreen

& Schwab, 1977; Lundgreen, 1978). A person with low self-esteem is less capable of resisting pressure to conform and is less able to perceive threatening stimuli. The person who has high self-esteem is more likely to assume an active role in social groups and be able to express his/her feelings and views frequently and effectively. These people move more directly and realistically toward their personal goals.

If self-esteem is seen as an attitude toward the self, then self-esteem involves the evaluative dimension. Burns (1981) refers to high self-esteem individuals as those who like or value themselves highly and who feel competent in dealing with the world in which they interact. Those with low self-esteem are seen as disliking and devaluing themselves, as not being competent and not being able to cope effectively with their environment.

Rosenberg (1965) found that the individual with low self-esteem lacked confidence and tended to avoid society (pp.185 & 172). An individual with low self-esteem had very little respect for himself and imagined others to hold the same view (p.151). It was also found that such an individual could not easily initiate conversation and always had a feeling of isolation due partly to his unpopularity; a process which tended to be interactive and which resulted in a failure in his interpersonal relationships (pp.183 &

171). It is not surprising, therefore, that the individual with low self-esteem avoided

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joining school clubs or societies. Even when committed to membership the individual was happy to take a passive role in his society (pp.195 & 199). The individual with low self-esteem was reluctant to call any sort of attention to himself which he regarded as a form of self trial (p.229). Rosenberg found that the individual who generates high self-esteem is not only an active member of a number of school societies but usually aspires to and gains leadership in them (pp.168 & 196). The student with high self-esteem takes a prominent role in his social environment, whether the society to which he belongs is a formal or informal group (p.196). In terms of leadership, Rosenberg (1965) found that 60% of the respondents in his survey who had held some elected post in a school organisation had high esteem compared with only 33% who had the least self-esteem (p.207).

A positive self-esteem is considered to indicate a healthy view of the self. The children who have positive self-esteem evaluate themselves in positive ways and feel good about their strong points. Such children are likely to be confident in social situations and also in tackling scholastic works. They will probably have a curiosity for learning and will be eager to be successful.

The children with low self-esteem, in contrast, will lack confidence in their ability to succeed. As a result, they may avoid situations which they see as potentially personally humiliating. As Pope et al., (1988) report, someone with a low self-esteem frequently exhibits an artificially positive self-attitude to the world, in a desperate attempt to prove to others -and himself/herself- that he/she is an adequate person. Indeed, a person with low self-esteem is essentially a person who finds little to be proud of in himself/herself after evaluating himself/herself.

Self-esteem is made up of many components. We have to consider not only global self-esteem, but also other sub-components. For example, a child’s evaluation of himself/

herself in the areas of football, friendship and academic success. His/her global

self-- 47 self--

esteem will depend on the importance he/she gives to each of the components.

Essentially, if he/she values the areas he/she feels good about, his/her global self-esteem will be positive, while a devaluation of those areas will result in negative feeling about himself/herself as a whole. Some children do not appreciate any of their own good qualities or abilities, and consequently these children will obviously have more difficulty with their global self-esteem than those who appreciate their strengths.

Briefly, many psychologists agree with the idea that positive self-esteem is related to happier and more effective functioning.

Self-esteem is also associated with school adjustment (Mooney, et al. 1991). It has been found that individuals with low self-esteem experience higher interpersonal awkwardness and increased interpersonal isolation than their high self-esteem counterparts (Coppersmith, 1967; Rosenberg, 1965). Geist & Borecki (1982) found that those students responding high in social avoidance and distress also had significantly lower self-esteem than those students reporting either moderate or low social avoidance and distress. Furthermore, low self-esteem students tend to underestimate their grades on examinations (Keefer, 1971; Morrison et al., 1973) and also tend to make lower grade predictions than students reporting higher levels of self-esteem (Morrison &

Morrison, 1978). Moreover, Morrison & Thomas (1975) found that students with low academic self-esteem “say less in class,” “contribute a smaller proportion of their thoughts to class discussion,” and “sit farther back in the classroom than students with high academic self-esteem”.

Finally, as a component of mental health, self-esteem appears to be associated with academic achievement (see detail in Appendix C, Table 1). Research has shown a significant relationship between high self-esteem and academic achievement (Brookover et al 1964; Patrick et al 1979; Burns, 1981; West et al 1980; Lawrence, 1981 and 1988; Cant et al., 1985; Pope et al., 1988; Rosenberg et al., 1989). However,

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the issue about whether high self-esteem causes good grades or vice versa is still being debated point, but causality probably operates in both directions (Coopersmith, 1967;

Pope et al., 1988). A student’s view of his or her academic performance will certainly affect his/her self-evaluation. Conversely, an individual’s beliefs about himself will have a strong impact on how well he performs, sometimes in spite of his actual abilities.

However, the relationship of self-esteem with academic achievement will be examined in more detail in the following section.