Summary

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achievement in this study is congruent with the conclusion of Bar-Tal & Bar-Zohar (1977) who reported several studies showing a positive association between internality and school achievement.

Yates et al., (1994) used the Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Locus of Control Scale with 44 female and 48 male, severely disturbed adolescents in the USA. The authors found that the students achievement scores (PIAT - Peabody Individual Achievement Test, and WRAT - Wide-Range Achievement Test) were not significantly related to locus of control or its factors, all r’s p<0.16, (n.s.).

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al., 1985; Yesilyaprak, 1988; Hagborg, 1991; Ferrary, & Parker, 1992; Yates, et al., 1994). Of the rest of the studies however, 26 (76.47%), found at least one positive relationship between internal locus of control and academic achievement. Though both the studies of Nowicki & Duke, (1974), and Duke & Nowicki, (1974) contained significant and negative correlations between internal locus of control and academic achievement, they also contained significant and positive correlations between internality and locus of control. However, the third study, which found significant negative relationships (Massari & Rosenblum, 1972), did not find any significant positive correlation.

Twenty out of 34 studies in this review, contained data for the total sample (both sexes combined). However, these studies did not report their data separately for both sexes;

10 studies out of 34, were based on only sex differences with regards to the relationship between locus of control and academic achievement. These studies contained data for both males and females separately, but not for the combined sex sample. Finally, only four studies contained data for the total sample (both sexes combined) as well as data separately for both sexes (Crandall et al., 1965; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Traub, 1982b; Gadzella, et al., 1985).

3.3.3.1 The summary of the studies in general

As stated, 20 studies reported only the findings of the total sample (both sexes combined). When the four studies which reported their findings both for the total sample and for both sexes, are added to the 20 studies which reported their results for the total, the sample reaches 24. When the data of these 24 studies are analysed, it can be seen that out of these 24 studies, 19 obtained at least one positive and significant relationship between internality and academic achievement (Crandall et al., 1965; Shaw and Uhl, 1971; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Prociuk & Breen, 1974; Gordon, 1977;

Bar-Tal et al., 1980; Reid & Croucher, 1980; Moore, 1980; Traub, 1982b; Trice, 1985;

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Korkut, 1986; Chadha, 1989; Abdallah, 1989a; Strassburger et al, 1990; Majdub, 1990;

Darko-Yeboah, 1990; Maqsud & Rouhani, 1991; Murk & Addleman, 1992; Maqsud, 1993).

Nine studies out of 24 found only significant and positive relationships between internality and academic achievement. These studies, however, did not report either a nonsignificant or a negative correlation. (Prociuk & Breen, 1974; Gordon, 1977; Bar-Tal et al., 1980; Reid & Croucher, 1980; Traub, 1982b; Korkut, 1986; Chadha, 1989;

Murk & Addleman, 1992; Maqsud, 1993).

Ten studies out of 24 which reported results of the total sample, obtained some significant as well as some nonsignificant correlations (Crandall et al., 1965; Shaw and Uhl, 1971; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Moore, 1980; Trice, 1985; Abdallah, 1989a;

Strassburger et al, 1990; Majdub, 1990; Darko-Yeboah, 1990; Maqsud & Rouhani, 1991).

Six studies out of these 24, however, did not obtain one significant or positive correlation between internality and academic achievement. These six studies were:

Crump, Hickson & Laman, 1985; Gadzella, Williamson & Ginther, 1985; Yesilyaprak, 1988; Hagborg et al., 1991; Ferrary & Parker, 1992; Yates et al., 1994).

It has to be emphasised that none of these 24 studies which reported data on the total sample, found a significant relationship between externality and academic achievement.

The general findings of this review are similar to previous reviews. Even though the studies reviewed above do not always provide consistent data, there is a trend indicating that the perception of locus of control is related to academic achievement. The general results suggest that the more internal a person’s orientation is, the higher that person’s achievement is likely to be. They also suggested that internals show superior academic achievement. The general finding of positive relationships between internality and

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academic achievement in this review is congruent with the previous reviews of Phares (1976), Lefcourt (1976), Bar-Tal & Bar-Zohar (1977), Uguroglu & Walberg (1979), and Findley & Cooper (1983), who reported a number of studies showing a positive association between internality and school achievement.

Although a considerable number of studies have been undertaken in the Western world to investigate locus of control-achievement relationships, only two studies have been identified in Turkey (Korkut, 1986; Yesilyaprak, 1988), and only one of them focused on secondary school students. This data clearly indicates that the number of Turkish studies is very limited. Therefore, one of the main objectives of this study is to investigate the locus of control-achievement relationships in Turkish subjects.

In summarising the results of this review, it seems fair to assert that locus of control generally relates to academic performance, but the findings are not always consistent.

Although it is not yet clearly known how to change students’ locus of control, teachers can suggest ways to improve their awareness of cause-and-effect relationships (Clifford, 1981, p.383; Maqsud, 1993, p.17).

3.3.3.2 The summary of the studies on sex differences

When the 14 studies which reported data on the relationship between internality and academic achievement for both males and females separately were examined, it could be seen that 12 of them reported at least one significant and positive relationship (Crandall et al., 1962; Crandall et al., 1965; Nowicki & Roundtree, 1971; Brown &

Strickland, 1972; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Nowicki & Segal, 1974; Duke and Nowicki, 1974; Nowicki & Duke, 1974; Prociuk & Breen, 1975; Gordon, 1977; Traub, 1982b; Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1986). Two studies, however (Massari &

Rosenblum, 1972; Gadzella, Williamson & Ginther, 1985) did not obtain any significant and positive correlation.

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When these 14 studies were examined in terms of their findings for boys and for girls separately, 10 studies for boys (Crandall et al., 1962; Crandall et al., 1965; Nowicki &

Roundtree, 1971; Brown & Strickland, 1972; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Nowicki &

Segal, 1974; Duke and Nowicki, 1974; Nowicki & Duke, 1974; Prociuk & Breen, 1975;

Gordon, 1977), and seven studies for girls (Crandall et al., 1965; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Nowicki & Segal, 1974; Prociuk & Breen, 1975; Gordon, 1977; Traub, 1982b;

Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1986) obtained at least one significant and positive relationship between internality and academic achievement. However, four studies for boys (Massari & Rosenblum, 1972; Traub, 1982b; Gadzella, Williamson & Ginther, 1985; Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1986) and seven studies for girls (Crandall et al., 1962; Nowicki & Roundtree, 1971; Massari & Rosenblum, 1972; Brown & Strickland, 1972; Nowicki & Duke, 1974; Duke and Nowicki, 1974; Gadzella, Williamson &

Ginther, 1985) did not obtain any significant and positive correlation. Furthermore, none of the 14 studies found a negative relationship between internal locus of control and academic achievement for boys, but three studies were found for girls (Massari &

Rosenblum, 1972; Duke and Nowicki, 1974; Nowicki & Duke, 1974). Six studies for boys (Crandall et al., 1962; Nowicki & Roundtree, 1971; Brown & Strickland, 1972;

Nowicki & Segal, 1974; Nowicki & Duke, 1974; Prociuk & Breen, 1975) and only three studies for girls (Prociuk & Breen, 1975; Traub, 1982b; Mwamwenda &

Mwamwenda, 1986) reported that all of the correlations were significant.

Five studies found at least one significant and positive relationship between internal LOC and AA both for boys as well as for girls (Crandall et al., 1965; Nowicki &

Strickland, 1973; Nowicki & Segal, 1974; Prociuk & Breen, 1975; Gordon, 1977).

None of the four studies (Crandall et al., 1962; Nowicki & Roundtree, 1971; Brown &

Strickland, 1972; Duke & Nowicki, 1974) found a significant and positive relationship between internality and AA for girls, nevertheless they all found et least one for boys.

Two studies (Traub, 1982b; Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1986) found significant

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positive relationships for girls, but none of them found any for boys. Only two studies found no significant relationship either for boys or girls (Massari & Rosenblum, 1972;

Gadzella, Williamson & Ginther, 1985).

When these statistics are examined, it can be seen that the relationship between locus of control and academic achievement of boys looks stronger than that of girls, and compared to boys, girls shows inconsistent results in this review. The general finding of this review supports the findings of Phares (1976), Lefcourt (1976), Findley & Cooper (1983), Dyal (1984), and Majdub (1990). Findley & Cooper (1983) found that the relationship between locus of control and academic achievement was more substantial among males than among females (r=0.20 for males, and r=0.11 for females). However, the findings of this review do not support the findings of Stipek & Weisz (1981). They found no evidence that the relationship between locus of control and achievement of boys was stronger than of girls in their review.

The Turkish literature does not provide any data to examine sex differences in the locus of control / achievement relationship. As mentioned earlier, only two Turkish studies were identified investigating the locus of control / achievement relationship, but none of them provided data for males and females separately.

As previous studies indicate, gender often moderates the relationship between locus of control scores and other behaviours (Phares, 1976; Lefcourt, 1976). Internality is one of them and it is often related to a variety of achievement behaviours in males but is not as consistent in females. Contrary to the theoretical expectation, negative correlations between internality and females’ achievement have been found. In the previous studies, three main psychological reasons have been offered to explain the inconsistency of the relation between locus of control and academic achievement. They are: a) defensive externality, b) fear of success, and c) attribution of some other variables (such as self-esteem, motivation). The first reason has been used to explain the nonsignificant

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relation achievement and locus of control by Rotter (1966) and Duke & Nowicki (1974) and Phares (1976). The second reason has been used by Duke & Nowicki (1974), and Massari & Rosenblum (1972). The third reason has been used by Gordon (1977) and Majdub (1990). While Duke & Nowicki (1974) point out that fear of success of female students leads to defensive externality, i.e. denial of personal responsibility for success, Phares (1976), however, states that defensive externality works better for males than for females. He reasons that, due to greater cultural pressures for success, males seemingly have a greater need to protect themselves against failure by recourse to external attributions. It is also possible that such sex differences are mediated by differential cultural roles commonly assigned to boys and girls. According to Platt et al., (Phares, 1976) the moderating effects of sex may be due to the greater socialisation undergone by females, as contrasted to the greater responsiveness of males to situational considerations. In order to explain female externality Gordon (1977) emphasises the importance of self-esteem. He suggests that since internality is associated with high self-esteem with only the boys in his research, it is possible that the higher grades that internal boys receive add to their positive self-concept. Internal girls, on the other hand, probably receive little recognition for having higher achievement in test scores, and hence do not have such high self-esteem. Majdub (1990) emphasises the importance of motivation. For him, although the relation of motivation with achievement and locus of control may provide some explanation for the inconsistency of the relation between locus of control and achievement, many studies he reviewed failed to examine this.