Name, Last name: Yousef M. Ibreighith Signature:

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work.

Name, Last name: Yousef M. Ibreighith Signature:

Date:

i

Abstract

Saint Nicholas Cathedral is an immense and valuable historical building in North Cyprus. It has been built in the fourteenth century with limestone; this stone monument is suffering from different weathering forms.

The main aim of this study is to identify weathering forms and rates affecting the historical buildings in the coastal city of Famagusta, and to provide better understanding of weathering factors and causes. For this purpose, many investigations, evaluations and laboratory tests were carried out.

Weathering state for the Cathedral in means of weathering forms and causes was

evaluated. As a result, Alveolar weathering was the most common form caused by salt

weathering. A stone- by- stone investigation of discoloration stages and weathering

grades by the means of monument mapping was carried out, and results showed that an

average of (57.43%) of the Cathedral’s stones have lost their original color, and (64.09%)

of stones were weathered (lost some/ most of its original volume). In situ quantitative

measurements of weathering rates average value for the whole building were found to be

(6.54mm 100a-1). Physical, chemical, mechanical and petrographical properties for the

building limestone were tested and classified in means of engineering classifications. The

results showed that two different limestone types were used in the building: argillaceous

limestone and limestone with low unit weight, high solubility in water and weak acid

solutions. In addition to limestone properties, sea breeze loaded with sea spray, sun path,

temperature difference between day and night in the presence of humidity as well as high

concentration of (PM10) due to Sahara dusts during months of February and March were

found to be the main factors of weathering.

For any future restoration project, the study presented detailed definitions, terms, methods and recommendations to be considered at that time.

Finally, following its main aims, the thesis is structured as follow. Chapter one is the introduction, chapters two is discussing weathering, chapter three is discussing the conservation of cultural heritage, chapter four is over viewing the case study (Saint Nicholas Cathedral), chapter five is over viewing the study methodology, and chapter six showing the Results and discussion, the last part of this study presenting recommendations and conclusions.

Nicosia, 2010 Yousef M. Ibreighith

.

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Özet

Aziz Nicholas katedrali kuzey kıbrısta bulunan muazzam ve değerli tarihi bir yapıdır. 14. yüzyılda kireçtaşından yapılan yapı şu anda değişik hava aşınmalarından dolayı zarar görüyor.

Bu çalışmanın esas amacı, kıyı şehri olan Mağusa’da bulunan tarihi yapının değişik karaktere sahip olan aşınmaları belirlemek ve aşınmalara sebep olan faktörleri ve nedenleri ortaya çıkarmaktır. Bu nedenle, birçok araştrma, değerlendirme ve laboratuvar testi yapılmıştır.

Katedralin aşınma biçimleri ele alınarak değerlendirilmiştir. Sonuç olarak, Alveolar aşınması yani tuzdan dolayı aşınma en çok gorülmüş biçimdir

Solma ve aşınma etaplarında her taş için araştırmalar yapılıp, yapının taş haritası yapıldı. Sonuçlar gösteriyor ki, katedral taşlarının % 57.43’ü orjınal renklerini kaybetmiş, ve taşların % 64.09’ü da aşınmadan dolayı orijınal hacimlerini kaybetmişlerdir.

Binanın tamamını oluşturan taşların niceliksel ortalamalarının değerleri de (6.54mm 100a-1) olarak bulunmuştur.

Binanın kireç taşları, fiziksel, kimyasal, mekaniksel ve petrografik değerlerine bakılarak mühendislik kategorilerinde değerlendirimiştir.

Bu çalışmanın sonuçları, bina yapımında iki çeşit kiriçtaşının kullanıldığını gösteriyor. Bunlar argillaceous kireçtaşı ve düşük yoğunluğu olan, yüksek poren olan ve suda yüksek çözünürlüğü olan ve dayanıksız asid çözeltiler kullanılmıştır.

Kireç taşı özelliklerine ek olarak, denizden esen meltem, deniz spreyi, paz yolu

gün ve gece havasıcaklığı farklarına bağlı olarak nem ve şubat ve mart aylarındaki Sahra

tozunun yüksek orandaki PM10 konsantrasyonun başlıca aşınma sebeplerindedir.

Gelecekteki olası restorasyon projelerine yardımcı olacak bu çalışmada detaylı tanımlamalar, terimler, metodlar ve oneriler sunulmuştur.

Sonuç olarak, esas amaçlarının temel alaran bu çalışma asağıdaki gibi sekillendirilmiştir. 1. bölüm giriş, 2. bölüm aşınmayı ele almak, 3. Bölum kültürel mirası muhafaza etmek, 4. Bölüm vakaya genel bakışı ve 5. bölum de sonuçları ve tartışmaları, son bölümde öneri ve sonuçlar ele alıyor.

Lefkoşa, 2010 Yousef M. Ibreighith

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor: Assoc. Prof.

Dr. Nuran Kara Pilehvarian for her patience, motivation, enthusiasm, immense knowledge and the continuous support for the progress of this thesis, she was the direct reason behind every progress achieved during this study. Also I would like to acknowledge Assoc. Prof. Dr. Umut Turker for his continuous support of my Master’s study, and his guidance during writing this thesis, with out his care and encouragement it would be impossible for me to finish my work.

In addition, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Harun Batirbaygil, Asst. Prof. Dr.

Pınar Akpınar, Dr. Havva Arslangazi and Ayşe Sayınel for their help and valuable advises for the best of me and my thesis.

I owe special thanks to KUDEB manager Arch. Şimşek Deniz and the advisors Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ersen, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Güleç, Mr. Nimet Alken, and for M.

Okay Şahin, Mustafa Baykir, Savaş Özdemir, Fatih Özbaş, Hazal Özlem Ersan, Mustafa Eruş, Burcu Basaram, Gokçen Çelik, Burçin Beştur, Çiğdem Köroğlu, Gazanfer Akıncı, Irem Narderli, Ergün Çagıran and all employees of KUDEB in Istanbul for their help and hospitality.

A special thanks to Tüfekçi Group’s owner Mr. Hussein Tüfekçi for all the great experience I gained while working in his company, and also for keeping the doors open for me all the time during this study, also I want to thank Eng. Samir Abujabal for his assistance in laboratory tests executed in the company’s laboratory.

I am indebted to all my friends and colleagues for their support, advises and care

they showed all the time, especially Dr. Hussam Alrjoub, Eng. Bahaa Alsalibi, Mr.

Adnan Almatari, Eng. Muath Abualqumssan, Arch. Bilal Abuayyash and Eng. Obaydah Altalbishi.

Finally, I would like to thank all my dear family members, my Father Mohammed, My mother Amel, my sisters Bissan, Dalal & Mariam, and my little brother Ibrahim, since without their help, prays and wishes it was impossible that one day I could be writing a master’s thesis. I would like also to thank my family in Cyprus, my mother Gönül Kayımzade, my brother Ali Kayımzade and my sister Tuğba, whom make me feel myself at home all the time.

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my father, mother, sisters, brother, uncles, aunts, grandmothers and all the people of Palestine and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, for the souls of my grandfathers -Yousef and Ahmed-; may their souls rest in peace, for the martyr Abu Ali Mustafa and all the martyrs of Palestine; may their souls rest in

peace,

for the prisoner Ahmed Saadat and all the prisoners of freedom in the racial occupation’s

jails,

CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ABSTRACT ⁱⁱ

ÖZET ⁱⁱⁱ

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ^v

DEDICATION ^vii

CONTENTS ^viii

LIST OF TABLES ^xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ^xv

CHAPTER I ¹

1. INTRODUCTION ¹

1.1 PROPERTIES OF HISTORICAL BUILDINGS ³

1.2 CONSERVATION PHILOSOPHY ⁶

1.3 THE AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY ⁸

CHAPTER II ⁹

2. WEATHERING ⁹

2.1. WEATHERING OF NATURAL BUILDING STONE ⁹

2.1.1. STONE WEATHERING ⁹

2.1.2. LIMESTONE WEATHERING ¹¹

2.2. MECHANISM OF WEATHERING IN BUILDING STONES

13

2.2.1 CHEMICAL WEATHERING ¹³

2.2.2 MECHANICAL (PHYSICAL) WEATHERING: ¹⁴

2.3. CAUSES OF WEATHERING ¹⁶

2.3.1. AIR POLLUTION ¹⁶

2.3.2. BIOLOGIC WEATHERING ¹⁸

2.3.3. SALT WEATHERING ²⁰

2.3.4. THE ROLE OF WIND-DRIVEN RAIN ²² 2.4. ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERING ²⁴ 2.5 CLASSIFICATION SCHEME OF WEATHERING FORMS

26

2.6 WEATHERING RATE ³³

CHAPTER III ³⁶

3. CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE ³⁶

ix

3.1 DOCUMENTATION AND EVALUATION OF STONE

DAMAGE ON MONUMENTS ³⁸

3.1.1 DOCUMENTATION WITHIN THE SCOPE OF

ANAMNESIS ³⁹

3.1.2 DOCUMENTATION WITHIN THE SCOPE OF

DIAGNOSIS ⁴⁰

3.1.3 DOCUMENTATION WITHIN THE SCOPE OF THERAPY ⁴¹ 3.2 PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVATION ⁴²

3.2.1 CONSERVATION: ⁴³

3.2.2 RESTORATION: ⁴⁴

3.2.3 RENOVATION: ⁴⁴

3.2.4 MAINTENANCE: ⁴⁵

3.2.5 REPAIR AND STABILIZATION: ⁴⁵

3.2.6 REHABILITATION AND MONETIZATION: ⁴⁸

3.2.7 RECONSTRUCTION: ⁴⁹

3.2.8 THE OPTION OF REVERSIBILITY ⁴⁹

3.3. PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION ⁵¹ 3.4 INTERVENTIVE CONSERVATION

52

3.4.1 CLEANING ⁵²

3.4.2 DESALINATION ⁵⁶

3.4.3 CONSOLIDATION ⁵⁷

3.4.4 SURFACE COATINGS ⁶⁰

3.4.4.1WATER REPELLENTS 61

3.4.4.2 BARRIERS AGAINST AIR POLLUTION 62

3.4.4.3 REACTION INHIBITORS 62

3.4.4.4 CRYSTAL GROWTH INHIBITORS 63

3.4.4.5 BIOCIDES 63

CHAPTER IV. ⁶⁵

4. THE CASE STUDY (SAINT NICOLAS

CATHEDRAL) 65

4.1 FAMAGUSTA /GAZIMAĞUSA ⁶⁵

4.2 SAINT NICOLAS CATHEDRAL / LALA MUSTAFA

PAŞA MOSQUE ⁶⁷

4.2.1 CONTEMPORARY DESCRIPTION OF THE

CATHEDRAL

4.2.2 WEATHERING STATE OF THE CATHEDRAL ⁷⁴

4.3. CASE ENVIRONMENT ⁸³

4.3.1 AIR TEMPERATURES ⁸⁵

4.3.2 RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF THE AIR ⁸⁶

4.3.3 SUNSHINE ⁸⁶

4.3.4 WINDS 88

4.3.5 AIR QUALITY ⁸⁹

4.3.5.1 PARTICULATE MATTER (PM10) 89 4.3.5.2 SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO

) 90 4.3.5.3 NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO

) 92

4.3.5.4 OZONE (O

) 93

CHAPTER V ⁹⁵

5. METHODOLOGY ⁹⁵

CHAPTER VI ¹⁰⁸

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ¹⁰⁸

CONCLUSIONS ¹³³

RECOMMENDATIONS ¹³⁷

REFERENCES ¹⁴⁰

xi

List of tables:

Table No. Table name Page

Table 2.1 Crystallization pressures of a few common salts ………... 21

Table 2.2 Engineering classification of weathering ………...……… 25

Table 2.3 Structure of the classification scheme of weathering forms ………….. 26

Table 2.4a Classification scheme of weathering forms (Group 1) ………... 27

Table 2.4b Classification scheme of weathering forms (Group 2) ………... 28

Table 2.4c Classification scheme of weathering forms (Group 3) ………... 30

Table 2.4d Classification scheme of weathering forms (Group 4) ………... 32

Table 3.1 Scales of stone deterioration ………...………...……… 40

Table 4.1 survey of historical earthquakes affected the region 69 Table 4.2 Meteorological Data of Famagusta (1975-2005) ………... 85

Table 6.1 Discoloration stages percentages ...………...………...……….. 113

Chart 6.1 Comparisons of discoloration stages percentages ………..……... 113

Table 6.2 Weathering grade percentages ...………...………. 119

Chart 6.2 Comparisons of weathering grade percentages …………..………... 119

Table 6.3 Weathering rate averages in each sampling site around the cathedral 121

Table 6.4 Unit weight and specific gravity values of tested samples of No.1 type

and there average………...………...……... 123

Table 6.5 Unit weight and specific gravity values of tested samples of No.2 type 123

and there average………...………...……...

Table 6.6 Water absorption values for the tested samples (No.1 type samples)…. 124 Table 6.7 Water absorption values for the tested samples (No.2 type samples)…. 124

Table 6.8 Classification of density of limestone ………...……. 125

Table 6.9 Classification of density of limestone according to water absorption 125 Table 6.10 Compressive strength test results (samples type No.1) ...……….. 126

Table 6.11 Compressive strength test results (samples type No.2)...……...…….. 126

Table 6.12 Classification of compressive strength ………... 127

Table 6.13 Results of Water soluble salts and conductivity analysis ………... 128

Table 6.14 Results of LOI and IR analysis ………...………..……….. 128

Table 6.15 British Geological Scheme for the classification of limestone by purity 129 Table 6.16 Classification of limestone samples (No.1 and No.2) ……… 132

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure name Page

Figure 2.1 Stone weathering model diagram: morphology and chronology ….….. 10

Figure 3.1 Approach to monument preservation……….. 38

Figure 4.1 Famagusta district- North Cyprus ……….. 65

Figure 4.2 Walled city of Famagusta ………..…… 65

Figure 4.3 A general view of St. Nicholas Cathedral ………..……... 67

Figure 4.4 West Facade of the Cathedral ………...…………. 70

Figure 4.5 The construction plaque on the south wall ………. 72

Figure 4.6 (Relief) Alveolar weathering (Ra) ………. 74

Figure 4.7 (Relief) Alveolar weathering (Ra) ………. 74

Figure 4.8 From western wall ……….. 76

Figure 4.9 From western wall ………... 76

Figure 4.10 From northern wall ………...……….. 76

Figure 4.11 Biological colonization ……….. 77

Figure 4.12 Biological colonization ……….. 77

Figure 4.13 Biological colonization (Eastern wall) ………... 78

Figure 4.14 Colonization by higher plants (southern wall) ………….…………... 78

Figure 4.15 Colonization by higher plants (western wall) ……….…….………….. 78

Figure 4.16 Soiling to crust (western wall) ………... 79

Figure 4.17 Soiling to crust (eastern wall) …….………... 79

Figure 4.18 Soiling to crust (western wall) ……….……….. 79

Figure 4.19 Coloration ………...…….………... 80

Figure 4.20 Coloration ………...…….………... 80

Figure 4.21 Coloration ………...…….………... 80

Figure 4.22 Weathered wall section (southern side) ………...……...………... 81

Figure 4.23 Weathered wall section (northern side) ………...………... 81

Figure 4.24 Break out ………...………...…………...………... 82

Figure 4.25 Break out ………...………...…………...………... 82

Figure 4.26 Destructive works …………...…………...………...…..………... 82

Figure 4.27 Average Min and Max temperatures in Famagusta (2009) ……… 86

figure 4.28 Average sunhours in Famagusta (2009) ………. 87

Figure 4.29 Simulating the sun path in relative to the cathedral ……...……… 87

Figure 4.30 Sea breeze ……….………. 88

Figure 4.31 Sea breeze direction with regard to the cathedral ………. 88

Figure 4.32 PM

concentrations (µg/m3) in Northern Cyprus (2002-2004) ……… 89

Figure 4.33 Satellite image shows Sahara dust covering large portion of Mediterranean sea ……….. 90

Figure 4.34 Mean interpolated SO

distribution over Cyprus during summer (2002 and 2003) ………. 91

Figure 4.35 Mean interpolated SO

distribution over Cyprus during winter (2002 and 2003) ………. 91

Figure 4.36 Mean annual interpolated SO

distribution over Cyprus (Summer 2002 to summer 2003) ……… 91

Figure 4.37 Mean annual interpolated NO2 distribution in Famagusta (2002-2004) 92 Figure 4.38 Mean interpolated Ozone distribution in Cyrus during summer ……… 93

xv

Figure 5.1 Sample No.1 (washed) ………...……… 97

Figure 5.2 Sample No.2 (washed) ……...……… 97

Figure 5.3 Shows the stone color difference ………...… 97

Figure 5.4 Shows some moderately discolored ………... 99

Figure 5.5 Shows some highly discolored stones ……… 99

Figure 5.6 Shows some slightly discolored stones ………..…… 99

Figure 5.7 Shows some slightly weathered stones ………..… 100

Figure 5.8 Shows moderately weathered stone ………...… 100

Figure 5.9 Shows some highly weathered ………...……… 100

Figure 5.10 Shows some extremely weathered stones ………...…… 100

Figure 5.11 Shows the starting point (site no. 1) …...……… 101

Figure 5.12 Shows the site no. 14 ………..……… 101

Figure 5.13 Weathering rate measuring instruments ……… 101

Figure 5.14 Two examples of Stone surface weathering features from the Cathedral walls ………...………… 101

Figure 6.1 Discoloration assessment of stone on Western façade ………... 109

Figure 6.2 Discoloration assessment of stone on southern façade ……….. 110

Figure 6.3 Discoloration assessment of stone on Northern façade ……….. 111

Figure 6.4 Discoloration assessment of stone on eastern façade ………... 112

Figure 6.5 Weathering grade assessment of stone on the western façade ………... 115

Figure 6.6 Weathering grade assessment of stone on the southern façade ……….. 116

Figure 6.7 Weathering grade assessment of stone on the northern façade ……….. 117

Figure 6.8 Weathering grade assessment of stone on the eastern façade ………… 118

Figure 6.9 Sampling areas ………...………...………... 121

Figure 6.10 Compressive strength results for samples (No.1,a and No.1,b) ………. 126

Figure 6.11 Compressive strength results for samples (No.2,a and No.1,b) ………. 127 Figure 6.12 General view of sample No.1 using Stereo Microscope ………...……. 130 Figure 6.13 General view of sample No.2 using Stereo Microscope ……...………. 121 Figure 6.14 Sample No.1 cross sectional view under the polarized microscope... 131 Figure 6.15 Sample No.2 cross sectional view under the polarizing microscope... 132

xvii