Elie Kedouri, Spain and the Jevvs: The Sephardi Experience, 1492 and After, London, Thames and Hudson, 1992, 247 pp.; Stanford J. Shavv, The Jevvs of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Repubiie, London, Maemillan and Nevv York, New York University Press, 1991; Stanford J. Shavv, Turkey and the Holocaust: Turkey's Role in Reseuing Turkish and European Jevvry from Nazi Persecution, 1933-1945, Nevv York, Nevv York University Press, 1993, xiii + 424 pp.; Naim Güleryüz, The History of the Turkish Jevvs, İstanbul, [the Quincentennial Foundation], 1992, 32 pp.; Harun Yahya, Soykırım Yalanı, İstanbul, Âlem, 1995, xv + 283 pp.; Hakan Bingün, "Nazi Almanyasından Türkiye'ye Kaçan Alman Bilim Adamları ve Sanatçıları," thesis, A.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi, 1990.
Stanford J. Shavv starts his rccent monumental vvork, Turkey and the Holocaust, as follovvs: "Ncilhcr ıhc pcoplc of lhe Rcpublic of Turkey nor those of Europc and Amcrica fully rcalizc thc extcnt of vvhich Turkey, and thc Otloman Empire vvhich prcccdcd it, ovcr the centurics served as majör places of rcfugc for pcoplc suffering from persccution, Muslims and non-Muslims alike, from thc fourtccnth century to the present."
The year 1992, the Quincenlennial of thc Ottoman vveleome to the Scphari ("Scpharad" being thc traditional Hebrcvv name for Spain) outcasts
from the Iberian Peninsula, lcd to a number of symposia and publications reminding that the Turkish Sultan Bayezıt II (1481-1512) opened the borders of his mighty state to thc Jcwish rcfugees. When Columbus sailcd vvestvvard from Spain, that nation's rulers expcllcd its Jevvs, most of them came to the Ottoman Empire, vvhere thcir dcscendants Iivcd since then in pcacc.
As Elie Kedourie notes, in his Spain and the Jevvs, those Jevvs vvho found rcfuge in Ottoman lands did experience relief from pcrsccutions vvhich culminatcd in the dccree of expulsion. The horrific outburst of 1391 had lcd largc numbers to convcrt to Christianity. But the fifteenth ccntury Spain invoked the Nazi criterion for membership in the body politic, namely racc, against üıc conversos vvho had planned to escape exclusions on grounds of religion. In 1449 anti-convcrso riots broke out, and thc Spanish authorities dccrccd that ıhc Jevvs, vvho had bccome Christians, vvere in any casc forbidden to hold office. "Purity of blood" vvas thc rcquircmcnt for that. The cxpulsion dccrcc vvas thc culminalion of a long train of events that started vvith thc riots of 1391, and thc Spanish Inquisition, carricd on by the Church under the aulhority of thc State, aimed at thc conversos, not the Jevvs. Thousands vvere burned at thc stakc.
Thc expulsion from Spain and thc forccd mass convcrsion of thc Jevvs of Portugal (1497) hcralded thc end of open Jevvish life in thc Iberian Peninsula. Thc Ottoman Empire providcd a safc haven to thc majority of the Sephardi exilcs. Upon hcaring of thc cxpulsion of thc Jevvs, Sultan Beyazıt is said to have uttered: "Can you cali such a king vvisc? Hc is impoverishing his country and cnriching mine." The very Scphardim vvho had bccn cxpelled, and thcir dcsccndants, rose to great cconomic hcights under thc Ottomans. Like other non-Muslims, they had extcnsivc freedom in the practicc of thcir religion, and in thc running of thc internal affairs of thcir rcligious community.
Naim Güleryüz, thc vice-prcsident of the Quinccntennial Foundation, foundcd in 1989 lo mark thc 5()()lh anniversary of lhe milestone in Jevvish, Turkish and vvorld history, vvrote in his booklct entitled The History of The Turkish Jevvs, that for thc centuries follovving thc cxpuIsion, "the prosperity and thc crcativity of thc Ottoman Jevvs rivallcd that of thc Golden Agc of Spain."
Centuries later, the political crecd of the National Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei atlributcd thc guill for Gcrmany's problems to thc Jevvs. In thc anti-Scmitism of thc NSDAP practically ali thc anti-Jevvish stcrcotypes of prcvious ccnturics could bc found, and almost ali of the anti-Jcvvish measures that vvere cnforccd had originated in thc past. What distinguishcd Nazi Gcrmany vvas the fact that its leadership planned and executed a gcnocidc against thc Jevvs. Contrary to Robert Faurisson's asserlions in Francc or thc arguments of Harun Yahya in his Soykırım
Yalanı (The Gcnocide Lie), the civilized vvorld knovvs that it vvas a genocide. And as former Turkish Prime Minister Recep Pckcr said back in
1947, "anti-Semitism vvill remain the shamc of thc tvvcnticth ccntury." Stanford J. Shavv notes that Turkey's role in helping Europcan Jcvvs during thc Holocaust has bccn largcly ignored. Hc first bccamc avvare of this fact during his rcscarch for The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. Turkcy took in hundreds of rcfugces from Nazi persccution during thc 1930s, ineluding lcading professors as vvcll as additional less vvell-knovvn thousands of persons. They vvcrc given senior posilions vvithin a fevv months aftcr thcir dismissals by thc Nazis. Some had bccn the most important professionals in Germany and Austria before fascism camc to povver. Almost ali of them made trcmcndous contributions to Turkish acadcmic and intellcctual life. Shavv's exemplary rcscarch shovvs that Turkcy did not remain ncutral during the Second World War vvhen it camc to saving thc Jcvvs of Europc. Hakan Bingün's dissertalion, on thc vvar-time rcfugees from Germany, also dvvclls on thc samc subjcct. Bolh researehers establish that ihousands of Jcvvs vvere saved from persccution or dcath. Shavv reminds that "Turkey moreover has remained an important placc of rcfugc to vvhich those flceing from perseculion in the Middlc East have bcen able to go, vvhether Kurds from Iraq, Jcvvs and Bahais from Khomaini's Iran, or Turks from Greece, Armenia, Azcrbaijan, Grcek (part of] Cyprus and Bulgaria."
TÜRKKAYA ATAÖV
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Preface to tlıe Hungarian edition of Türkkaya Ataöv: "Embargoes and the Non-Targeted Countries: The Case of Turkey"
Sincc thc disappcarance of thc povver balance that cxistcd as a rcsult of East-Wcst bipolarity, economic sanetions havc incrcasingly bccn uscd by the Sccurity Council as a mcans to cnforce its resolulions on thc basis of Chaptcr Seven of thc U.N. Chartcr. Thc ncvv era of joint compulsory action of the Council vvas initiated by thc comprehcnsive economic sanetions imposed on Iraq in 1990. Due to thc abscncc of an efficicnt system of checks and balances in thc present U.N. system, arbitrary punitivc measures have bccn imposed on several countrics by initiativc of thc most povvcrful actor in the Sccurity Council. While a system of chccks and balances vvould be requircd to guarantee thc international rule of lavv in ıhc interest of ali nations of thc vvorld, largc or small, in ıhe present constcllalion, individual countrics are singled out for "enforcemcnt measures" on thc basis of a truly Machiavellian policy of double standards vvhilc thc politics of thc allies of the most povverful member statc arc never bcing serutinized. Thc measures
against Iraq - the most far-reaching and eomprehensive sanetions regime established to date under U.N. auspiees - have not only lcd lo thc crippling of the Iraqi economy and the collapse of the civilian infrastructure and hcalth care system in that country, thcy have sevcrcly affcctcd thc cconomy of neighboring Turkey and destabilized thc political situation in the geopolitically sensitive region betwccn Turkey, lraq and Iran.
It is in this context that Professor Ataöv's rcscarch gains spccial relevance for the understanding of the mechanisms of present-day intcrnational relations. The case of Turkey as the country most drastically affccted by the sanetions imposed on Iraq, demonstrates quilc clcarly the naturc of povver politics in thc cra of monopolarity vvhich the US administration uses to cali thc "Nevv World Order." Thc basic human rights of the people, vvhether in the targeted or thc so-ealled non-targeted countrics, are of no conccrn to thc dccision-makcrs, namely thc permanent members of the Sccurity Council. Whole regions are bcing destabilized for thc stratcgic goals of outsidc povvers. Entirc generations of people arc bcing sacrificcd for goals that are dictatcd by mere economic interests of the United States and her allies. Professor Ataöv's concise analysis not only gives a eomprehensive and up to date ovcrvicvv of thc impact of this kind of sanetions on thc Turkish economy, it puts thc vvhole situation crcatcd by the sanetions in a global political perspeetive. His rcscarch, therefore, may bc considcrcd a classical case study of intcrnational povvcr politics at thc end of thc 20th ccntury.
It is to be hoped that the decision-makers in the member countries of thc United Nations vvill pay carcful attention to his analysis and vvill dravv thc conclusions necessary to preservc thc sovercignty and economic indcpendcnce of their countrics vis-â-vis a global povvcr ccntcr vvhose influcncc is not held in check by an cfficicnt transnational strueture. At present, it is rcgrcttably not thc United Nations Organization that could provide such a framevvork of intcrnational legality. The vvorld organization has itself fallcn vietim to the global povvcr politics of thc most influential member state in thc Security Council. Türkkaya Ataöv's cali for eloser co-operation and solidarity among the states and pcoplcs affcctcd by this nevv hegemony deserves carcful attention by those vvho are responsible for thc fate of thcir nations.
HANSKÖGHLER
'î* <T> 'h Minority Rights Group International, World Directory of Minorities, London, 1997, viii-xvi+841) pp.
Minority Rights Group International (MRG) publishcd a massive compendium, cnlilled VVorld Directory of Minorities (projcct dircctor:
Milcs Lilvinoff), as a contribution to public understanding of minority rights issues. It is a colossal reference book on the contemporary situation of minorities worldwidc.
Foundcd in the 1960s as a non-governmcntal organization to inform the public about thc predicamcnts of minorities around the vvorld, MRG aims to secure rights and justice for ethnic, linguistic and religious groups and serve the cause of coopcration betvvcen communities. its international headquartcrs are in thc U.K. (379 Brixton Road, London SW9 7DE). Lcgally it is registered both as a charity and as a limited company under U.K. Law vvith an International Governing Council.
As Alan Phillipps, MRG's direetor, indicates in the Prcface to thc book, the United Nations having failcd to promote the human rights of the minorities, their circumstances should be majör conccrn for ali interested partics. In the absence of a univcrsally acccptcd definition of minorities, it is difficult to assess thcir proportion to thc vvorld's population. Not only one should not overlook thc complcxity of thcir social composition, but also groups and its individuals modify their self-idcntification depending on circumstances.
Many minorities define themselves through language and/or territory. For some of them, rcligion is beyond private domain. Many complain of diseriminatory practices in employment. MRG appraises linguistic pluralism as a phenomenon enriching society as a vvhole. Territory may be synonymous vvith identity, especially for some indigenous pcoplcs vvhose relationship vvith thc environment may bc crucial for survival. In the judgcment of MRG, the rise of fundamentalism may rcflcct thc failure of
some states in providing sccurity for rcligious minorities.
MRG publishcd so far numcrous "Rcports" and a fevv books on individual minority groups. It also brought out short "Profilcs" vvhich are summaries of thc rcports. Having begun publishing rcports in 1970, the MRG brought out about ninety titles, each approximatcly 32 pages (large format) or 20.0000 vvords long. Six rcports arc printed every year. They are gencrally rccognizcd as aullıoritalivc, providing readers vvith background data on many currcnt affairs issucs.
MRG rcports may bc classificd under the follovving main topics: Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europc, the Middle East, Southern Oceans, Thematic and Women. Each have betvvcen 5 to 15 rcports. For instance, rcports on Africa scparatcly deal vvith Burundi, Chad, Eritrea and Tigray, the Falashas, Indian South Africans, Zimbabwe, Jehovah's Witncsses, the Namibians, East Africa's Asians, the Sahcl, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda and the Westcrn Saharans. Or eight rcports about southern occans inelude the
Aboriginal Australians, Diego Garcia, East Timor and West Irian, Fiji, thc Kanaks, thc Maori, Micronesia and nuclcar tcsting in thc Pacific.
Some of thc most rcccnt reports deal with the Roma/Gypsies, Afro-Central Americans, Afro-Central Asia and the North Caucasus. Thc publication on the Roma is an updatcd report on "India's long-lost childrcn" in Europc. Thc rcccnt cdition is timely as il ineludes the circumstances after thc collapse of the Communist regimes. Thc report examines the specific areas whcre the Roman community as a vvhole currcntly faces particular difficultics in employmcnl, housing, hcalth, cducalion and vocational opportunitics.
MRG first raiscd thc issuc of thc black prcscnce in Latin Amcrica in its book No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latin Americans Today (1995). It then publishcd thc ncw report, Afro-Central Americans, focussing on thc black communitics within Central Amcrica ineluding Mcxico. It shows hovv thc region's blacks have bccn diseriminated against under various political systems. MRG's report makes thcir position more vvidcly knovvn.
Thc nevv MRG report on Central Asians analyzes thc prospccts for conflict, stability and development in this region. Each counlry bcing multi-ethnic, inlcr-group relations have comc under pressurc. Slrugglcs for povver among somc of them rcsultcd in vvar in Tajikistan. Reccnt nation-building efforts diminish thc non-cthnic qualily of citizcnship, lcading to concerns among somc minority groups. Most Central Asian countrics are, hovvever, relatively stable. Whilc the report citcs continuity vvithin long-established institutions and convcnıional cultural norms as key factors in maintaining this stability, thcsc fcaturcs arc under pressurc on account of elan rivalries, erossborder irrcdcntism, the politicization of islam, economic incquality, dcmographic pressure and environmental degredalion.
The report on the North Caucasus is on an area of extraordinary cthnic and linguistic diversity along thc high pcaks of thc Caucasian mountain rangc from thc shores of thc Black Sca to thc Caspian. Thc arca has bccn subjcctcd to a varicty of different influcnces throughout history beginning vvith the Turkic and Iranian tribes. Russian interest developed after the Mongolian defcat. Thc Sovict cra vvitncsscd a unique proccss of nation-building, a course novv felt by smallcr pcoplcs in thc Russian Fcdcration. This region is also knovvn for its resistance lo invasions, espccially by Russia. With privatization, many groups are novv competing for rcsources.
World Directory of Minorities is more comprchcnsivc and detailed Ihan any other iry bcforc. MRG's compilation vvill remain a valuable refercnce vvork for ycars lo comc. This impressive volumc is arranged by geographical regions, thc material organized country by country. Starling vvith North Amcrica, ıhc WorId Directory ends vvith Wcstcrn Samoa.
Each scction begins with a general inlroduction, thc profile of the countrics providing data on populations, languagcs and religions. Lists of further reading offer access to more information.
The World Directory bases its definition of minorities on a formulation by F. Capotorti, Spccial Rapportcur for the U.N. Sub-Commission on thc Prcvcntion of Discrimination and Protcction of Minorities. But unlike Capotorti, MRG ineludes as minorities non-dominant groups vvhich may be a numerical majority in a statc. Indigcnous pcoplcs, vvhich rcjcct thc term 'minority', arc ineluded in it, but not some othcr typcs such as sexual minorities. Hcncc, vvith its all-embracing approach, il negleets no minority or group, be they thc Nukaks among Columbia's last nomadic pcople, thc Dutch-spcaking Maroons of Surinamc, thc Frisians of the Netherlands, thc Ticino and thc Jura enelaves in Svvitzcrland, thc Turks in Maccdonia, thc Uighurs in Kazakhstan, thc Qashqa'i tribal confcdcration in Iran, thc Ilhna'ashari Shi'is in Saudi Arabia, thc Bariba in northern Benin, the black Haratin in Mauritania, thc 2,000 Avvccr in Kenya, thc indigcnous Duşun of Brunci, thc Ainu of Japan, or thc Bougainvillcans of Papua Ncvv Guinca.
World Directory of Minorities is ali thc morc indispensable especially bccause thc large majority of conflicts in thc contcmporary vvorld are conflicts bctvveen groups polarized aeross cthnic and rcligious divides. It is uscful for govcrnmcnt officials, seholars, human righls bodics, educationalists, media vvorkers and the minorities themselves.
