Inflection of morphemes: Learning of English pluralization by Afghan Dari EFL learners

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(1)Selçuk University Institute of Social Sciences Faculty of Letters Department of English Language and Literature. INFLECTION OF MORPHEMES: LEARNING OF ENGLISH PLURALIZATION BY AFGHAN DARI EFL LEARNERS Enjeelah SULTANZADA MASTER’S THESIS Supervisor Asst. Prof. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ. Konya 2011.

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(4) T.C. SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü. Adı Soyadı. Enjeelah SULTANZADA. Numarası. 094208001001. Öğrencinin. Ana Bilim / Bilim Dalı Programı Tez Danışmanı. Tezin Adı. İngiliz Dili ve Edebıyat Tezli Yüksek Lisans. Doktora. Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmür KÜCÜKBEZIRCI Morfemlerin Çekimi: İngilizceyi Yabancı Dil olarak öğrenen Anadili Farsça/Dari olan Afgan Öğrencilerin İngilizce çoğul eklerini öğrenmeleri. Özet Bu çalışmanın amacı, Afganların (Farsça/Dari) EFL öğrenenlerin cümleler veya paragraflar içindeki isimleri nasıl kullandıklarını ve parantez içine gelen isimleri nasıl seçmelerini araştırmaktır. Yazar, katılımcıların sözcükleri seçerken başarılı olup olmadıklarını öğrenmek istiyor. Anadillerinin ikinci dilleri üzerine etkisi nedir ya da öğrenciler isimleri çoğul yaparken ne tür sorunları var. Bu yüzden yazar, öğrencilerin ikinci dil isimlerini kullanırken, tekil veya çoğul fark etmeksizin mükemmel olup olmadıklarını öğrenmek için 24 öğrenci üzerine bir araştırma yapıtı. Katılımcılar, Afganistan'ın Belh ilindeki Belh Üniversitesi, edebiyat fakültesi İngilizce bölümü, ikinci sınıf öğrencileri idi. Bu öğrenciler aynı sınıftan ve hemen hemen aynı yaş grubundan katılmışlardı. Yazar bir yeterlilik testi verir. Daha sonra yazar onları iki gruba böldü ve bu iki grup.

(5) katılımcılara, kelimeyi doğru kullanıp kullanmadıklarını öğrenmek için başka testler uyguladı. Amaç, isimleri çoğul yapma konusunda katılımcıların başarılı olup olmadıklarını bilmektir. Sonuçlar, katılımcıların düzenli isimler ve sayılabilen isimlerin kullanımında, düzensiz isimler ve sayılamayan isimlerin kullanımına kıyasla daha başarılı olduklarını göstermektedir. Ayrıca ara katılımcılar daha acemi katılımcılara göre daha başarılı olmuştur..

(6) Öğrencinin. T.C. SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü. Adı Soyadı. Enjeelah SULTANZADA. Numarası. 094208001001. Ana Bilim / Bilim Dalı Programı Tez Danışmanı. Tezli Yüksek Lisans. Tezin İngilizce Adı. İNFLECTİON OF MORPHEMES: LEARNİNG OF ENGLİSH PLURALİZATİON BY AFGHAN DARİ EFL LEARNERS. İngiliz Dili ve Edebıyat Doktora. Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmür KÜCÜKBEZIRCI. Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate how Afghan Persian/Dari EFL learners use the nouns in sentences, paragraphs and how they choose the nouns from the parenthesis. The author wants to find whether the participants are successful in choosing the nouns or not. Does their first language interact to their second language or what are the problems that they have in pluralisation of the nouns. That is, the writer made a research by 24 students in order to know whether the students are perfect in use of second language nouns whether singular or plural in sentences, paragraphs or not. The participants were sophomore students of English department, literature faculty, Balkh University, Balkh, Afghanistan. They were from the same class about the same ages. The writer gives a proficiency test. Then the author divided the participants into two groups and from these two groups,.

(7) she got some other tests to know whether the students are using the words correctly or not. The aim is especially about do the participants are successful in pluralizing the nouns or not. The results indicate that participants were more successful in usage of regular nouns, countable nouns than irregular nouns and uncountable nouns. Also the intermediate participants were more successful than the beginner participants..

(8) i. Table of Contents. List of Tables ..................................................................................................vi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ix CHAPTER 1 – Introduction ........................................................................1 1.1. Background study for this Research ......................................................1 1.2. An Overview of English Language ...................................................... 2 1.3. Introduction to Persian Linguistics ........................................................3 1.4. Introduction to Morphology ..................................................................8 1.5. English Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes .....................................11 1.6. English Free Morphemes .......................................................................13 1.7. English Bound Morphemes ...................................................................13 1.8. Persian/Dari Free Morphemes (/morphemehay azad/ ‫ ) ه زاد ر‬16 1.9. Persian/Dari Bound Morphemes (/morpheme hay basta/ ‫) ر‬ ……………………………………………………….……….........….17 1.9.1. Persian/Dari Particles (/ashkal sakhtomany Dari/ ‫ در‬ ‫)ا ل‬.…………...………………………………………………......19 1.9.1.1.. Persian/Dari. Post. Position. (. /pasena. ha/. "#. ‫……………………………………………)ه‬...……….………...19.

(9) ii. 1.9.1.2.. Persian/Dari. Prepositions. (/peshena. ha/. "$#. ‫…………………………………………)ه‬..………………..........20 1.9.1.3. Persian/Dari Conjunctions (/neshana hay hatf/ ‫ ه‬$ %&')………………………..………………………………..….21 1.9.1.4. Persian/Dari Conjunctions ( /neshana hay rabt/ ‫ ه‬$ )‫……………………………………………………)ر‬..…..…...22 1.9.1.5. Persian/Dari Interjections (/ neshana hay haswat / ‫ ه‬$ ‫ات‬+‫…………) ا‬..…….…………………………………….......25 1.10. Base ……………………………………………….…………….…...25 1.11. Root…………………………………………………………………..26 1.12. English Affixes ………………………...…………….………….…...26 1.13. Persian/Dari Affixes (/wand ha/ ‫ ه‬,‫……)و‬...…..……..………….....27 1.14. English Prefixes………………………………...........................……..27 1.15.. Persian/Dari. Prefixes. (/peshwand. ha/. ,$#. ‫…………)ه‬...………………………………………………………..…..….30 1.15.1. Derivational Prefixes (/peshwand hay wazha saz/ .‫ ه واژ‬,$# ‫………………………………………………) ز‬...…...………….…..31 1.15.2. Inflectional Prefixes ( /peshwand hay sarfi/ 0+ ‫ ه‬,$# )………………………………………………………………......…....35 1.16. English Suffixes …………..……………………............................….36.

(10) iii. 1.17. Persian/Dari Suffixes (/paswand ha/ ‫ ه‬,#)……………….......…...39 1.17.1. Persian/Dari Inflectional Suffixes ( /paswand hay sarfi ‫ ه‬,# /0+)……………………………...……………………………........40 1.17.2. Persian/Dari Derivational Suffixes (/paswand hay wazha saz/ # ‫ ز‬.‫ ه واژ‬,)…………………………………………………….......45 1.18.. Categorization. of. Morphemes. according. to. Functions………………………………….….……….………..……..…...51 1.18.1. English Derivational Morphemes………………...……..........51 1.18.2. English Inflectional Morphemes……………………..……....53 1.19.. Categorization. of. Morphemes. according. to. Semantics………………………………………….…………………...…..60 1.19.1. English Content Morphemes………..….....................…..….….60 1.19.2. English Function Morphemes……………………...………….61 1.20. Conclusion….……………………………………………..............….62 CHAPTER 2 Literature Review………………...…………….…….......63 2.1. Introduction…………………………...…..………………….…...….63 2.2. Learning English pluralisation by L2 learners..…..………..….…..….63 2.3. Goals of the Present Study …………………...……………..….…….87 CHAPTER (3) Methodology………………..……..……………..……….89 3.1. Introduction ……………………………......…………………..…..…..89.

(11) iv. 3.2. Participants…………………………..……………………………......89 3.3. Study Design…………………………..…………………..…….…….90 3.3.1. Process for Gathering and Dictation of Papers………..………..91 3.3.2. Extraction of the Data………………....…………….........…….91 3.4. Conclusion…………………………….............……………….….......92 CHAPTER 4 - Discussion of Results…….…..…………………........…..93 4.1. Introduction………………………….…….....…………………...…...93 4.2. Overall Analysis of Data……………....…………………………...….93 4.2.1. Findings of Regular and Irregular Nouns in both (B/I) Participants……….……………………………………...….......….....94 4.2.2. Findings of Count and Uncount Nouns in both (B/I) Participants………….…………………………………………….…...96 4.2.3.. Findings. of. Overall. Gender. in. both. (B/I). Participants……………………………………………………………....….98 CHAPTER 5 – Conclusion…………………………..................................99 5.1. Summary of Findings………………….......…...................................…99 5.2. Future Research……………………………………………......……...102 5.3. Pedagogical Implications ……………........…...………………………104 5.4. Personal Impact ………………………..…………………………….105 Bibliography ……………………………….….…..……………..….…. 107.

(12) v. APPENDIX A – Informed Consent Form….……...………………….. . ..113 APPENDIX B – Proficiency Test…………………………………….........116 APPENDIX C – Test for Study Analysis…………………………….........121 APPENDIX. D. –. Afghan. EFL. Learners. Personal. Questionnaire……………………………………………………...........….127.

(13) vi. List of Tables. Table 1.1: Family of Indo-European Languages...……………………....7 Table 1.2: Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes…………………........12 Table 1.3: Summary of the Classification of Morphemes………….......15 Table 1.4: Persian/Dari Free and Bound Morphemes………..……..…...17 Table 1.5: Persian/Dari Prepositions ………………………………….......20 Table 1.6: Persian/Dari Conjunctions……………………………….......22 Table 1.7: Persian/Dari Compound Conjunctions...…………………..…24 Table 1.8: Common English Prefixes……………………………..…........28 Table 1.9: Common Persian/Dari Prefixes…………………..…………....31 Table 1.10: Common English Suffixes ……………………..……….......36 Table 1.11: Common Persian/Dari Suffixes……………………......…....39 Table 1.12: English inflectional Morphemes……………...………..…....54 Table 1.13: Relative order of Derivational and Inflectional Suffixes in word sample……………………………………….…….………….………..…57 Table 1.14: Distinction between Inflectional and Derivational Affixes.…58 Table 2. 1: English Pluralization Rules ………………………...………...64 Table 2.2: English Pluralization Rules…………………………........……64 Table 2. 3: English Pluralization Rules………………..….………....……65.

(14) vii. Table 2. 4: English Pluralization Rules……………………...…...….....…..66 Table 2. 5: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..…..…....67 Table 2. 6: English Pluralization Rules………………………………...…..68 Table 2. 7: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..…..….....69 Table 2. 8: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..…..….....70 Table 2. 9: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..………...70 Table 2. 10: English Pluralization Rules……………………………...……71 Table 2. 11: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..…….…71 Table 2. 12: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..…….....72 Table 2. 13: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..….........72 Table 2. 14: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..…...…..74 Table 2. 15: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..….........74 Table 2. 16: English Pluralization Rules…………………………..……….75 Table 4.1 Findings of Correct and Incorrect Nouns in both (B/I) Participants………………………….……………………………………...94 Table 4.2 Findings of Regular and Irregular Nouns in both (B/I) Participants………………………………………………………................95 Table 4.3 Findings of Count and Non-count Nouns in both (B/I) Participants…………………………………………..………………..........97.

(15) viii. Table. 4.4. Findings. of. Female. and. Male. in. both. (B/I). Participants…………………………………………………………….……98.

(16) ix. Acknowledgements First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to the most compassionate my God. I would like to offer my appreciation to my family: my parents, brothers and sisters who kindly supported and encouraged me in completion of my thesis. Without their support I could not get my degree and write my thesis at Selcuk University. It is a pleasure to thank those people who made this thesis possible. My special thanks go to Asst. Prof. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ, my thesis adviser for his encouragement, guidance and thoughtful comments. Similarly, I am grateful to my colleague Ahmad Nasim Khoshgowar for his kindness advices through planning, collecting data and analyzing process. I would like to express my thankfulness to my other professors, my committee members for reading the drafts patiently and giving me with insightful observations and suggestions for writing my thesis. Their encouraging feedback and comments helped me to complete my thesis and provided me with new information to be an autonomous researcher in my teaching career in the future..

(17) x. I am indebted to my many students/ EFL participants, the sophomore students of English Department, Literature Faculty, Balkh University, Balkh, Afghanistan who voluntarily participated in this research. I also thank all my Afghan colleagues who helped me during my education period at Selcuk University. Finally, I would like to thank everybody specially my respectable father, Atah Mohammad Foladi, my kind brother Fardin Sultanzada and other friends who were important to the successful realization of thesis, as well as expressing my apology that I could not mention personally one by one..

(18) 1. CHAPTER 1 – Introduction. 1.1. Background Study for this Research We all know that English which is spoken by most people around the world is the latest “Lingua Franca” of the world. People who are learning English as a second language have problems in pronunciation or usage of the English language. Like other countries English has an important role in Afghanistan, therefore, people are learning this language in schools, universities and private courses in order to have good positions and jobs and also to travel to foreign countries without any problem. In teaching linguistics subject in Balkh University, I and other linguistics teachers observed problems that the students have in understanding English plurals or rules. These problems occurred as the result of lack of understanding their native language (Persian/ Dari) pluralization rules and usages. In my opinion, it could help them to learn English by comparing the two languages usages and rules in linguistics classes. As a result, there is a need to do a research to find why the students make mistakes in pluralization rules..

(19) 2. 1.2. An Overview of English Language English is a West Germanic language that originated from the AngloFrisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic invaders from various parts of what are now northwest Germany and the Netherlands (Wikipedia, Oct.16.2010). English club.com Oct. 16.2010, stated: The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from England and their language was called Englisc - from which the words England and English are derived.. According to this side, old English continued from (450-1100AD) and it did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100. Middle English continued from.

(20) 3. (1100-1500); early modern English continued from (1500-1800) and late modern English continued from (1800-present). As a result, the English language has evolved over hundreds of years. It is a Germanic language and part of the Indo - European family of languages. It is a mixture of many languages and dialects over a long period of time.. 1.3. Introduction to Persian Linguistics The Persian/Dari language is an inflectional SOV language with a relatively fixed word order. Persian/ Dari, also known as Farsi, is the official language of Afghanistan and Iran. According to Mandanipour and Schoellner, 2002, 7), the name “Persia” comes from Greek name “Persis”. It is also the main language in Tajikistan, a formal central Asian republic of Soviet Union. The Persian spoken in these three countries has been influenced by the local environments. This is especially true in Tajikistan since it was isolated from the other Persian speaking countries during the Soviet era. The Persian/Dari in this country has many Russian borrowings and also uses the Russian alphabet. The language described here is mainly the Persian/Dari spoken in Afghanistan. Persian/Dari is derived from Indo-Iranian, one of the branches of.

(21) 4. the Indo-European languages. Indo- Iranian split into the Iranian languages and the Indo-Aryan (Indic) languages, from which most languages of India are derived. This split is estimated to have taken place around 1500 BC. The major Iranian languages are Persian/Dari, Kurdish, Pashto and Baluchi (Amtrup, Mansouri, Megerdoomian & Zajac, 2000,2-3). In addition that Farsi, or Persian, has a rich history, it is also one of the world’s oldest languages, and it has been traced as far back as the 6th century B.C. According to UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles, oct.15.2010), Total numbers of Persian/Dari speakers is high: about 55% of Iran's populations are Persian speakers; about 65% of Tajikistan's populations are Tajik/Persian speakers; over 52% of the Afghanistan's populations are Dari/Persian speakers; and about 1% of the populations of Pakistan are Dari/Persian speakers as well. Although Persia was inhabited by the first millennium BC, the first inscriptions of Old Persian were obtained at approximately 551 BC, at the beginning of the Achemenides Empire. Old Persian had a complex morphology with a rich case and agreement system. By 331 BC (at the time of the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Macedonian) the language had simplified and had lost most of its cases and agreements. At this level of.

(22) 5. development, the language is known as Middle Persian. Modern Persian dates from the 7th century, marking the Arabic conquest of Persia. Encyclopedia Britannica (1996, 1) argued that the word Dari and Persian “also called Farsi, Parsi” are from the same branch. The word Dari is known by two theories. It pointed that the word Dari came from the word Darbar which means court, courts of kings. It argues that this language was the very respected and chosen language for communications at royal courts of kings. Thus it came to be known as the language of courts or Darbari. Later in time the word Darbari was shortened and evolved to Dari which still has the same meaning as Darbari. The second theory relates the origin of word Dari to the word Dara or valley. Most language researchers, said that the language Dari or Farsi itself was born in Khorasan, a mountainous land where people live in numerous valleys (Dara). Therefore, the name Dari came to refer to the language spoken by people of the valleys (Dara) or in the valleys (Museen, 1995, 1-3). Rahnamoon indicated that Dari or Farsi is a widely used language in Central Asia. It is the official language of Iran, Tajikistan and what is known as Afghanistan. There are three different phases in the development of Aryan languages: Old, Middle, and Modern..

(23) 6. Old Dari/Farsi represented the old stage of development and was spoken in ancient Bactria. Old Dari/Farsi, however, survived and there are many written records of old Dari, such as, cuneiform also called Maikhi in Khorasan. Old Dari was spoken until around the third century BC. It was a highly inflected language. Middle Dari was spoken from 3rd century to 9th and is related to several other Central Asian tongues such as Sogdian, Chrosmian and also Parthian languages. Middle Dari analyzed after conquest of Arabs in the 7th century and much of its rich literature was destroyed by the Arabs. However, a lot of it was also translated into Arabic. Modern Dari began to develop by 9th century. It is a continuation of the Khorasanian standard language which had considerable Parthian and Middle Dari elements. It has much simpler grammar than its ancestral forms. After the conquest of Arabs in 7th century, it is written in Arabic script, with few modifications, and has absorbed a vast Arabic vocabulary. The summary of these periods (Old, Middle and Modern) described in below chart (Amtrup, et al. 2000, 2)..

(24) 7. Indo–European. Indo–Iranian. Iranian. Old Persian/Dari---551BC. Middle Persian/Dari ---331BC. Modern Persian/Dari---7th century Table 1.1: Family of Indo-European Languages. Indo–Aryhan. Sanskrit.

(25) 8. 1.4. Introduction to Morphology Morphology is the study of the form and structure of word formation or it is a field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language. In linguistics morphology refers to the mental system involved in word formation or to the branch of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure, and how they are formed. Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. Fromkin (in press; Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2003) have argued that every speaker of every language knows tens of thousands of words. It has been estimated that a child of six knows as many as 13,000 words and the average high school graduate about 60,000. A college graduate presumably knows many more than that. They have indicated that words are an important part of linguistic knowledge and constitute a component of our mental grammars. But one can learn thousands of words in a language and still not know the language. So without words we would be unable to convey our thoughts through language. In addition, words are the nuts and bolts of language (Fromkin et al., 2003, 69)..

(26) 9. According to Bergmann et al., (2007, 148), morphology is the study of word making; or morphology examines meaning relationships between words and the ways in which these connections are indicated, for instance, the relationship between wind, unwind, rewind, windable, windy, winder, and so on. Morphology is also the study of word marking: how grammatical relationships between words are indicated. We all know that language is a very complex system which is composed of various functional components. One of its components is morphology. Its etymology is Greek: morph- means ‘shape, form’, and morphology is the study of form or forms. In linguistics theory, morphemes are considered to be the smallest meaning-bearing elements of a language. However, no adequate language-independent definition of the word as a unit has been agreed upon. If effective methods can be devised for the unsupervised discovery of morphemes, they could aid the formulation of a linguistic theory of morphology for a new language. Words consist of one or some smaller units called morphemes. In other words, Mills (1998, 1) said that morphemes are what make up words. Often, morphemes are thought of as words but that is not always true. Some single morphemes are words while other words have two or more morphemes within them. Morphemes are also thought of as syllables but this is incorrect. Many.

(27) 10. words have two or more syllables but only one morpheme (e.g., banana, apple, papaya, and nanny). On the other hand, many words have two morphemes and only one syllable; for instance, cats, runs, and barked. In sum, morpheme is a combination of the sounds that has meaning or it is the smallest unit of language (any part of the word that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful parts, including the whole word itself). In Persian/Dari morpheme is called “ 6‫واژ‬--Wazhak”. The word morpheme is taken from the Latin base/root “morph” and the suffix “-eme”. Therefore, in Persian/Dari language, morpheme is a combination of letters to have sound and meaning and if it is separated, it will lose its meaning. But if the words are separated to meaningful parts, on that case also they change their exact meanings. For instance, [/faryad/ ‫ د‬70 (= shout) ] if separated [“/far/ 0” and “/yad ‫ د‬7 /”], they have separately different/no meaning than as a whole. In Persian/Dari, there are also some words that can be separated to meaningful parts and both parts have meanings; such as, [“/baghcha / 89 (= small garden)]. If we separate it to words as “/bagh / (‫” ) غ‬, “/cha/ (; )”, they are made of two morphemes and have meanings (Gewi & Anwari, 1997, 187)..

(28) 11. 1.5. English Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes Lexical morphemes are those that having meaning by themselves (more accurately, they have sense). In contrary, grammatical morphemes specify a relationship between other morphemes. But the distinction is not all that well defined. IE, nouns, verbs, adjectives ({boy}, {buy}, and {big}) are typical lexical morphemes. Prepositions, articles, conjunctions ({of}, {the}, {but}) are grammatical morphemes (Akmajian et al., 1997, 36-38)..

(29) 12. Morphemes. Lexical. free. Grammatical. bound. nouns. free. prepositions. derivational. articles. verbs. conjunctions. adjectives e.g., compress. e.g., subvert. e.g., at. depress. invert. the. oppress. convert. but. repress suppress Table 1.2: Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes. bound. inflectional.

(30) 13. English morpheme is divided into two parts: free and bound.. 1.6. English Free Morphemes Akmajian ( in press; Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, & Harnish 1997, 17) said that free morphemes are independent and can stand alone as a word; such as, ‘bell’, ‘big’, ‘pen’, ‘boy’, etc. Besides, Schlenker stated that English longest. words. are. floccinaucinihilipilification. antidisestablishmentarianism (29. (28. letters). letters), or. pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis (45 letters) and added that there are no longer words in English language (2006, 1).. 1.7. English Bound Morphemes According to Akmajian et al. (1997, 18), bound morphemes are dependent and can’t stand alone as a word and must be attached to a free morpheme to have meaning; such as, /-s/ (boys), /-er/ (taller), / -ceive/ (receive), etc. Additionally, Schlenker (2006, 1) added that the words need suffixes and prefixes to make new words (i.e., great-grandmother, great-great-.

(31) 14. grandmother, sensationalize,. great-great-great-grandmother; sensationalization,. sensation,. sensational,. sensationalizational. or. sensationalizationalize). It should be noticed that free and bound morphemes are both lexical and grammatical..

(32) 15. (Akmajian et al., 1997, 22) stated the below chart about morphemes:. MORPHEMES. Free. Open class words. Nouns. Closed class words. Conjunctions ( and, or). Verbs. Bound. Affixes. Bound bases. Prefixes Infixes Suffixes cran-. Articles (the, a). Adjectives. Demonstratives (this, that). Adverbs. Prepositions (to, of). Contracted forms. ‘ll. ‘d. re-. -in-. Comparatives (more, less). Quantifiers (all, some) Table 1.3: Summary of the Classification of Morphemes. -s. ‘ve.

(33) 16. They also assured that open class words belong to a major part of speech (noun, pronoun, adjective and adverb). In contrary, closed class words are those words which belonging to functions (conjunction, preposition, determiners, quantifiers, articles and demonstratives).. One difference. between these two words is the telegraph speech or language. In telegraph forms of a language, mostly we use the open class words and the closed class words are omitted. For example, watch, pizza restaurant, hotel Celina and so on. (Akmajian et al., 1997, 21). Persian/Dari language also has two kinds of morphemes: free and bound.. 1.8. Persian/Dari Free Morphemes (/Morpheme hay Azad/ ‫) ر ه زاد‬ The words that have lexical meanings and can stand alone as a meaningful word is called free morpheme; that is, (‫= ب‬/ketab/ (8/bacha/ =boy) , and so on (Yamin 2006, 57).. =book),.

(34) 17. 1.9. Persian/Dari Bound Morphemes (/Morpheme hay Basta/ ‫) ر ه‬ According to (Yamin, 2006, 57), the words which have grammatical meanings; can’t stand alone as a meaningful word and should be attached to a free morpheme to have meaning is called bound morpheme; specifically, (/bar/ =, on, in =0) , (/baray/ =, toward = ‫ا‬0,) (/ra/ =, the = ‫) را‬, (/ an/ =, ‫= ن‬ that), etc. (Yamin, 2006, 58), has described the below table about Persian/Dari free and bound morphemes: Free (Azad/Mostaqel /‫) ر زاد‬. Bound (Basta/ Na-mostaqel/ ‫) ر‬. 1. Noun. 1. 2. Adjective. 3. Pronoun. Post. position. and. prepositions. 2. Conjunctions. Nouns 4. Number Particles. 1. Adverb of manner. 2. Adverb of time. 3. Conjunctions.

(35) 18. 3. Adverb of place. 4. Adverb of quantity. 4. Interjections. 5. Inflectional prefixes. 6. Derivational prefixes. 7. Inflectional suffixes. 8. Derivational suffixes. Adverbs. 5. Adverb of emphatic. 1. Verb and its root. 2. Subject of verb. 3. Object of verb. 4. Transitive/intransitive verbs Verbs. 5. Affirmative/negative verbs. 6. Tenses Table 1.4: Persian/Dari Free and Bound Morphemes. Affixes.

(36) 19. According to Yamin (2006, 59), bound morpheme is divided into two parts: particles and affixes.. 1.9.1. Persian/Dari Particles (/Ashkal. Sakhtomany. Dari/ ‫)ا ل در‬ In Persian/Dari language, particles are divided into five parts.. 1.9.1.1. Persian/Dari Post Positions (/Pasena Ha/ ‫) ه‬ (Yamin, 2006, 59) has declared that we have one post position in Persian/Dari language as [/ra/, ‘‫ ]’را‬and it comes after the object. Ex: Dari:. .,70 ‫او را‬. Pronunciation:. /ho xana ra xared./. English:. He bought the house..

(37) 20. 1.9.1.2. Persian/Dari Prepositions (/Peshena Ha/ ‫) ! ه‬ Yamin (2006, 60) stated that these particles will come before the verbs or objects and connect the verbs/objects to the sentence. Pronunciation Dari Prefixes. English Meanings. Examples. /az-/. ‫از‬. from. Az safar (0B ‫ = ) از‬from trip. /ba- /. . at. Ba xana ( ) = at home. /bar-/. 0. in. Bar zamin (C ‫ز‬0)= in ground. / bah-/. . with. Bah brothersh (‫ادرش‬0 ) = with his brother. / baray-/. ‫ا‬0. for. Baray. watan. (CE‫و‬. ‫ا‬0). =. for. homeland / dar-/. ‫در‬. in. Dar bazaar (‫ = )در زار‬in bazaar. /bahar-/. 0. for. Bahar to (F0) = for you. F. to. Ta Balkh. ‫ر‬,‫ا‬. in. Hander xana ( ‫ر‬,‫ = )ا‬in the home. / ta-/ /hander- /. (GH F) =. to Balkh.

(38) 21. . /be-/. without. Ba yar amadom man wa be yar merawom ( ‫وم‬0 ‫ ر‬7 ‫ و‬C ‫م‬, ‫ ر‬7 ) = I come with my friend and will go without friend.. Table 1.5: Persian/Dari Prepositions. Sometimes these prepositions can be omitted in informal conversations. Ex:. /bazaar raft/ (J‫= ) زار ر‬go bazaar. Instead of /ba bazaar raft/ (J‫ = ) زارر‬go to bazaar, etc.. 1.9.1.3. Persian/Dari Conjunctions (/Neshana Hay Hatf/ "#$ ‫)! ه‬ This is (/wa/ ‫ = و‬and) a kind of bound morpheme which comes between two words or phrases and connects them. Ex:. Ahmad wa Mahmud ‫د‬L ‫ و‬,K‫ا‬ Ahmad and Mahmud.

(39) 22. 1.9.1.4. Persian/Dari Conjunctions (/Neshana Hay Rabt/ &‫)! ه ر‬ These kind of bound morphemes join two phrases or parts of the sentence to each other: below chart gives some samples of these conjunctions (Yamin, 2006, 61). Pronunciation. Dari Conjunction. English Meaning. /na/. . none. /ham/. ‫ه‬. both. /nez/. M. also. /pas/. N#. forth. NO. then. 0P7‫د‬. another. /sepas/ /deger/ /baz/. ‫ ز‬. /ya/. 7. /magar/. 0P. again or unless.

(40) 23. 0Q‫ا‬. /agar/. F. /ta/. if until. R‫و‬. yet. /ke/. =. that. /che/. ;. whether. /chon/. ‫;ن‬. whereas. /ama/. ‫ا‬. /zera/. ‫ا‬07‫ز‬. because. /bedon/. ‫ون‬,. without. /waly/. Table 1.6: Persian/Dari Conjunctions. but.

(41) 24. Sometimes they come as compounds (Yamin, 2006, 62): Pronunciation. Dari Conjunction. English Meaning 7‫و‬. /wa ya/ /wa ama/. ‫و ا‬. and or and but. /aknon ki/. = ‫ا="ن‬. /amen ki/. "‫ه‬. as soon as. ‫ از‬N#. afterwards. /pas az anki/. now that. /har chand/. ,"; 0‫ه‬. /ham cho/. 8‫ه‬. in order that. /chonki/. ;. therefore. /joz anki/. MS. except. /helawa bar anki/. 0 .‫و‬T'. /moxteser henki/. "7‫ا‬0UV. Table 1.7: Persian/Dari Compound Conjunctions. however. in addition in short.

(42) 25. 1.9.1.5. Persian/Dari Interjections (/ Neshana Hay Haswat / ‫)! ه ا(ات‬ Yamin (2006, 62) argued that these kinds of bound morphemes are used to show anxiety, sudden, alas, wonder, praise and/or punishment (i.e., ‘hay= / / , haya = / 7/ , wah = / .‫وا‬/, hay hay = / /, way= / ‫و‬/, hox / ‫خ‬/ =, hah = / ./, hala= / X/, han = / ‫ن‬/, heen= / C7‫ا‬/, etc.’).. 1.10. Base Base is an element (free or bound, root morpheme or complex word) to which additional morphemes are added. It is also called a stem. A base can consist of a single root morpheme, as with the 'kind' of 'kindness' or (‫ ن‬0 / mehraban/) of ( 0 /mehrabani/). But a base can also be a word that itself contains more than one morpheme. For example, we can use the word 'kindness' as a base to form the word 'kindnesses'; to make 'kindnesses'; or similarly, we can use the word ( 0 /mehrabani/) as a base to form the word ( 0 /mehrabaniha/) to make ( 0 /mehrabaniha/). That is, we add the plural morpheme /-es/ in English language and the plural morpheme / -ha = - ‫ه‬/ in Persian/Dari language (Kuthy 2001, 1-5)..

(43) 26. 1.11. Root Root is a (usually free) morpheme around which words can be built up through the addition of affixes. The root usually has specific meaning than the affixes that attach to it; for instance, the root 'kind' can have affixes added to it to form 'kindly', 'kindness', 'kinder', 'kindest'. In the same way, in Persian/Dari language, the root (/ketab/ ‫) = ب‬can have affixes to make different form; such as (/ketabi/ = = book ), (/ketabt/ J = = your book), (/ketabha/ = = books), (/ketabcha/ 8 = = notebook) and so on. The root is the item you have left when you strip all other morphemes off of a complex word. In addition, in the word dehumanizing, for example, if you strip off all the affixes -ing, -ize, and de-, human is what you have left. It cannot be divided further into meaningful parts. Correspondingly in Persian/ Dari in the word (/beganagan/ ‫ ن‬P P = strangers), if we omit the affixes (/be/ –, / ga/ Q- , /n/ -), the word which is left is (/gan/ ‫ ن‬Q) (Kuthy 2001, 1-5).. 1.12. English Affixes An affix is a bound morpheme which is joined before, after or within a root or a stem. Or an affix is a bound morpheme which attaches to a base (root or stem)..

(44) 27. 1.13. Persian/Dari Affixes (/Wand Ha/ ‫)و) ه‬ Affixes are those bound morphemes which attach before, after free morphemes and change their meanings or make new words. According to Yamin, in Persian/Dari language, affixes are divided into two parts: prefixes and suffixes (Yamin, 2006, 63).. 1.14. English Prefixes Prefixes attach to the front of a base or prefix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a word that partly indicates its meaning. For example, the word prefix itself begins with a prefix (pre-), which generally means "before." Understanding the meanings of the common prefixes can help us deduce the meanings of new words that we encounter. But be careful: some prefixes (such as in-) have more than one meaning..

(45) 28. The table below defines and illustrates common English prefixes, posted from (About.com grammar and composition, Oct.-31-10): Prefix. Meaning. Example. a- / an-. without. amoral. ante-. before. antecedent. anti-. against. anticlimax. auto-. self. autopilot. circum-. around. circumvent. co-. with. co-pilot. com- / con-. with. contra-. against. contradict. de-. off, away from. devalue. dis-. not. disappear. en-. put into. enclose. ex-. out of; former. companion/ contact. extract; ex-president.

(46) 29. extra-. beyond; more than. extracurricular. hetero-. different. heterosexual. homo-. same. homonym. hyper-. over; more. hyperactive. il- ; im- ; in- ; ir-. not ; without. illegal, immoral, inconsiderate, irresponsible. in-. into. insert. inter-. between. intersect. intra-. between. intravenous. macro-. large. macroeconomics. micro-. small. microscope. mono-. one. monocle. non-. not, without. nonentity. omni-. all, every. omniscient.

(47) 30. postpre-, pro-. after before, forward. post-mortem precede, project. sub-. under. submarine. syn-. same time. synchronize. trans-. across. transmit. tri-. three. tricycle. un-. not. unfinished. uni-. one. unicorn. Table 1.8: Common English Prefixes. 1.15. Persian/Dari Prefixes (/Peshwand Ha/ ‫) !) ه‬ Gewi & Anwari (1997, 184) argued that affixes come at the beginning of the words or free morphemes and make new words or change their meanings. Below are some common prefixes (blogfa.com, 12.03.2011)..

(48) 31. Pronunciation. Dari word. /be-/bo-/. Meaning. Dari example. "Y meaningless. - -less. /na-/. ‫م‬HY unclear. - -un - -s , -es. /my-(mi-)/. Examples. " / ‫ اه‬wants / watches. Table 1.9 : Common Persian/Dari Prefixes. In Persian/Dari, prefixes divided into two parts: derivational and inflectional prefixes (Yamin 2006, 63).. 1.15.1. Derivational Prefixes (/Peshwand Hay Wazha Saz/‫ ز‬+‫) !) ه واژ‬ They come at the beginning of the verbs, nouns and adjectives and bring a new meaning to the words. (Gewi & Anwari 1997, 184-186; Shareyat, 1997, 418-421; Yamin 2006, 64) stated below examples: 1.. /bar-/ =/ -0 / comes in the beginning of the nouns and make. adjectives. (e.g., /bardasht / J ‫دا‬0 (=take), /barkhord/ ‫رد‬0 (= conflict), /bargozeda/ .,7MQ0 (=selective), /barkhast/ J 0(=rise), etc..

(49) 32. 2.. /dar-/= /-‫در‬/ comes in the beginning of verbs and change the. meaning of them. (e.g., /darkhast/. J‫ =(درا‬appeal), /daryaft/ J 7‫=( در‬receipt),. /dargereft/ J0Q‫=( در‬happen), /darkhor/ ‫=( درر‬fit), etc. 3.. /foro-/ = /-‫و‬0/ comes in the beginning of the nouns and make. adjective. (e.g., /forogozasht/ J ‫ا‬ZQ‫و‬0 (= negligence), /foromaya/ 7 ‫و‬0 (=base), /forobord/ ‫د‬0‫و‬0(=swallow). 4.. /fara-/ = /-‫ا‬0/ comes at the beginning of the verbs and change. their meanings. (e.g.,/ fara khand/ ,‫اا‬0 (=recall), /fara rased/ ,‫ار‬0 (=come), /fara gereft/ J0Q‫ا‬0(=learn), etc. 5.. /war-/ = /-‫ور‬/ comes in the beginning or root of the verbs.. (e.g., /war shekast/ J ‫=( ور‬broke), /wardast/ J ‫=( وردا‬assist), etc. 6.. /wa-/ = /-‫وا‬/ comes at the beginning or root of the verbs.. (e.g., /wakonsh/ ["=‫=( وا‬response), /wanamod/ ‫ =( واد‬pretention), /wadasht/ J ‫=( وادا‬cause), /wapas/ N#‫=( وا‬again), etc. 7.. /ba-/ = /- /comes at the beginning of the nouns and make. compound adjective..

(50) 33. (e.g., /ba hosh/ ‫=( هش‬clever), /ba hadab/ ‫ =( ادب‬polit), /ba honar/ 0"‫=( ه‬intelligent), etc. 8.. /bay-/ = /- /comes in the beginning of words and make. negative compound adjective. (e.g., /bay irada / .‫=( اراد‬drift), /bay mayl/ \ (=unwilling), /baykar/ ‫=( = ر‬workless). 9.. /na-/= /- /comes at the beginning of simple words or in the. middle of compound words and make negative compound adjectives. (e.g., /nadan/ ‫ =( دان‬silly), /nadorst/ J‫ =( در‬incorrect), /nakas/ N= (=villain), /nabena/ " (=blind), etc.) 10.. /ham-/ =. /-‫ه‬/ comes at the beginning of the words and. sounds as companionship and communion. (e.g., /hamdast/ J,‫=( ه‬cooperater), /hamrah/ .‫ا‬0‫=( ه‬along), /hamdam / ‫م‬,‫=( ه‬mate), /hamsar/ 0‫=( ه‬partner), etc. 11.. /hem-/=. /-‫ام‬/comes at the beginning of the nouns and make. adverbs. (e.g., /hemroz/ ‫وز‬0 ‫=( ا‬today), /hemshab/ ]$ ‫ =( ا‬to night), /hemsal / ‫ =( ا ل‬this year), etc. 12.. /b-/ = /-‫ب‬/comes at the beginning of the nouns and make verbs..

(51) 34. (e.g., /bahosh/ ‫=( ش‬smart), /banam/ ‫=( " م‬famous), /baxrad/ ‫د‬0V (=intelligent), etc. 13.. /n-/ = /-‫ن‬/comes to the beginning of the nouns and make. negative compound adjective. (e.g.,. /nafameda/. .,B. (=misknown),. /nadanesta/. ‫ا‬,. (=unbeknown), /nasanjeda/ .,^" (=unconsidered), etc. 14.. /faraham-/ = /-‫اه‬0/ comes at the beginning of the simple. words and make compound words. (e.g., /faraham kard/ ‫د‬0= ‫اه‬0 (= obtain), /faraham gasht/ J$Q ‫اه‬0 (=accommodate), etc. 15.. /dash-/ = /-‫دش‬/comes at the beginning of the words and make. words with different form and meaning. (e.g., /dashnam / ‫=( د " م‬curse), /doshman/ C ‫=( د‬enemy), /dashwar / ‫=( د ار‬hard), etc. 16.. /baz-/ =/-‫ ز‬/ comes at the beginning or root of the words and. give a new meaning to them. (e.g., /baz amadan/ ‫ن‬, ‫ =( ز‬coming again), /baz ded/ ,7‫=( زد‬visit), etc..

(52) 35. 17.. /la-/ = /-X/ comes at the beginning of the nouns and make. negative compound adjectives. (e.g., /la mazhab/ ]‫ه‬Z X (= irreligious), /la helaj/ ‫ج‬T'X (=cureless), etc.).. 1.15.2. Persian/Dari Inflectional Prefixes (/Peshwand Hay Sarfi/-( ‫) !) ه‬ These prefixes come at the beginning of the verbs and change the tense of the verb (Shareyat, 1997, 422-429). a.. /- /mey/, /-‫ه‬/ hame/ make continues tenses.. Ex: /meygoft/, JBQ (=said), /hamerawad/, ‫ =( ه رود‬don’t go) b. Ex:. /n- /-‫ ن‬/nafe and /mem/ -‫م‬/make negative words/verbs. /nagoft/ JBP (= don’t say), /nagoyad/ ,7P (=haven’t say),. /maraw/ ‫و‬0 (don’t go) c.. /b/-‫ ب‬/ which brings emphasis to the verbs.. Ex: /berawaym/ 7‫و‬0 (=lets go), /beraway / ‫و‬0 (=go) and so on) (Yamin 2006, 63)..

(53) 36. 1.16. English Suffixes Bergmann, et al. 2007 has argued that suffixes are attached to the end of a base. Or suffix is a letter or a group of letters attached to the end of a word to form a new word or to alter the grammatical function of the original word (155). The table below defines and illustrates common suffixes, posted from (About.com grammar and composition, Oct.-31-10): Noun Suffixes Suffix. Meaning. Example. -acy. state or quality. privacy. -al. act or process of. refusal. -ance, -ence. state or quality of. -dom -er, -or. place or state of being one who. maintenance, eminence freedom, kingdom trainer, protector. -ism. doctrine, belief. communism. -ist. one who. chemist.

(54) 37. -ity, -ty. quality of. veracity. -ment. condition of. argument. -ness. state of being. heaviness. -ship. position held. fellowship. -sion, -tion. state of being. concession, transition. Verb Suffixes -ate. become. eradicate. -en. become. enlighten. -ify, -fy. make or become. terrify. -ize, -ise. become. civilize. Adjective Suffixes -able, -ible. capable of being. edible, presentable. -al. pertaining to. regional. -esque. reminiscent of. picturesque.

(55) 38. -ful. notable for. fanciful. -ic, -ical. pertaining to. musical, mythic. -ious, -ous. characterized by. nutritious, portentous. -ish. having the quality of. fiendish. -ive. having the nature of. creative. -less. without. endless. -y. characterized by. sleazy. Table 1.10: Common English Suffixes.

(56) 39. 1.17. Persian/Dari Suffixes (/Paswand Ha/ ‫) ) ه‬ Suffixes are added to the end of the words or free morphemes and make new meanings to those words. Here are some common suffixes. (Gewi & Anwari,1997, 186) Posted from: wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix: Persian suffixes 15.12.2010: Dari suffixes. Pronunciation. Dari example. English meaning. ‫ د‬-. /-abad/. ‫ د‬C ‫ز‬. ‫ور‬-. /-hawar/. ‫ ن ور‬. breadwinner. ‫ان‬-. /-an/. ‫ا ن‬S. younger’s. ‫ ن‬-. /-ban/. ‫` ن‬P. keeper. 0F-. /-ter/. 0F ,"H. higher. C70F,"H. highest. cultivated land. C70F-. /-teren/. ‫ ن‬S-. /-jan/. ‫ ن‬S .,‫ز‬. alive. ‫دار‬-. /-dar/. ‫دار‬0`. alert. ‫ ن‬-. /-stan/. ‫ ن‬a‫ا‬. Afghanistan.

(57) 40. /-nak/. 6 0&. ‫ه‬-. /-ha/. ‫= ب ه‬. books. . Q-. /-ga/. . P$‫دا‬. university. 6 -. dangerous. Table 1.11: Common Persian/Dari Suffixes. Persian /Dari Suffixes, like prefixes of Persian/Dari language, are divided into two parts: inflectional and derivational suffixes.. 1.17.1. Persian/Dari Inflectional Suffixes (/Paswand Hay Sarfi/-( ‫) ) ه‬ These suffixes come at the end of the nouns, verbs or adjectives and make new inflectional form of the words. Like English, in Persian/Dari language we also have eight kinds of inflectional suffixes. According to Yamin (2006, 64) they are as follows: 1.. These suffixes added to the verbs; verbs form change. according to the subject of the sentence and used to express present tense. (i.e., /-am,‫ام‬-/ ;/-em,7- /; /-ye, -/ ;/-yed, ,7-/; /-ad, ‫اد‬-/ ;/-and, ,‫ ا‬-/) Ex: /nawesam/. 7. (=I have written).

(58) 41. 2.. /nawesem/. 7. (= we have written). /nawesye /. 7. (=you have written). /nawesyed /. ,7. (=you have written). /nawesad/. ,7. (=he has written). /nawesand/. ,"7. (=they have written). These suffixes added to the verbs; change the verb forms. related to the subjects of the sentence and used to express past tense. (i.e., /-am,‫ام‬-/ ;/-em,7- /; /-ye, -/ ;/-yed, ,7-/; / Ø/; / -and, ,‫ ا‬-/) Ex: /naweshtam/. . (= I wrote). /naweshtem/. . (=we wrote). /naweshtye/. . (= you wrote). /naweshtyad/. , . (=you wrote). /nawesht /. J . (=she wrote). /naweshtand/. ," . 3.. (=they wrote). These are the suffixes which change according to subject and. used in adjectives. (i.e., /-am,‫ام‬-/ ;/-em,7- /; /-ye, -/ ;/-yed, ,7-/; / -ast, J‫ ا‬-/).

(59) 42. Ex:. 4.. ‫ ه‬Q. (= I know). / hagaye/. ‫ ه‬Q. (=you know). /hagahed /. ,‫ ه‬Q. (=you know). /hagaast/. J‫ ه‬Q. /hagahand/. ,"‫ ه‬Q. /hagaham/. (=he /she knows) (=they know). These suffixes come as the object of the transitive verbs.. (i.e., /-am ,‫ام‬- / ; /-aman,‫ا ن‬- /;/ -at, ‫ات‬- / ;/ -hatan, ‫ ن‬F‫ ا‬-/ ; /-hash, ‫ اش‬/ ;/ -hashan ‫ ا ن‬-/) ‫ا‬. (=I want). /xastaman/. ‫ا ن‬. (=they want). /xastat/. J‫ا‬. (=he /she wants). /xastatan /. ‫ا ن‬. (= they want). /xastash/. [‫ا‬. (=he /she wants). /xastashan/. ‫ ن‬$‫ا‬. (= they want). Ex: /xastam/. 5.. These are preposition suffixes which move towards with nouns. and come as the object of the word. Ex: /ketabm/ /ketabman/. = ‫= ن‬. (=my book) (=ours book).

(60) 43. 6.. /ketabat/. J =. (=your book). /ketabtan /. ‫= ن‬. (=yours book). /ketabash /. [ =. /ketabshan/. ‫ ن‬$ = (=their book). (= her/ his book). These are root suffixes which appended to the transitive verbs. and make other verbs. (i.e., /-hanad, ,- /;/-haned ,– /) Ex: /rashanad /. 7.. , ‫ر‬. (=she /he brings). /rashaned/. , ‫ر‬. (=you bring). /xandhanad/. ,‫ا‬,". (= he /she laughs). /xandhaned/. ,‫ا‬,". (= you laugh). These suffixes make the nouns plural.. (i.e., /-an ‫ان‬- /, /-ha ‫ه‬-/, /-yan ‫ ن‬7- /, /-gan ‫ ن‬Q- /, /-wn ‫ون‬- / , /-yn -/ C7, /-at ‫ ات‬-/, /-jat ‫ ت‬S-/ ) Ex: /zanan /. ‫ز ن‬. /mardan/. ‫دان‬0. (=men). ‫ ه‬J‫در‬. (=trees). /daraxtha / /xanaha/. ‫ ه‬. (=women). (=homes).

(61) 44. /danayan/. ‫ ن‬7 ‫دا‬. (= wises). /parendagan /. ‫ ن‬Q .,0#. (=birds). /rohanyon/. ‫ ن‬K‫رو‬. (=clergy). / mobaleghyn /. CaH`. /mofradat /. ‫دات‬0B. / mevajat /. ‫ ت‬S .. /enqlabyun / 8.. ‫ ن‬Tb‫ا‬. (=propagations) (= indexes) (=fruits) (=revolutions). These suffixes attached to the words and make new words.. (i.e., /-ak 6‫ ا‬- /, /-haka =‫ ا‬- /, /-cha ; – /, /-yecha 87 -/ , /-ow ‫ و‬/) Ex: /pesarak /. 60#. (=son). /mardhaka /. =‫د‬0. (=man). /baghcha/. 89 . (=small garden). /daryecha /. ; 7‫در‬. (=small pool). /doxterow /. ‫و‬0‫د‬. (= girl).

(62) 45. Persian/Dari also has some Arabic loans in formation of the plural nouns. ‫ = ب‬/. =. /kotob. ‫ =ب‬/ (=books). /zarf. ‫ف‬0c/. = / zoruf. ‫وف‬0c / (=dishes). /faqir. 0b /. Ex: /ketab. =. /foqara. ‫ا‬0b / (=poor people). (Gewi & Anwari, 1997, 186-190). 1.17.2. Persian/Dari Derivational Suffixes (/Paswand Hay Wazha Saz/ ‫ ز‬+‫) ) ه واژ‬ These suffixes come at the end of the verbs, nouns and adjectives and make new words with new meanings (Yamin, 2006, 66). They are as follows: 1.. Nominative suffixes. It makes suffixes which create the nominative verbs. (i.e., /-an ‫ان‬- /, /-esh,‫ اش‬-/ /-man ‫ ن‬- /, /-ye -/ , /-heyt J7‫ ا‬- / , /-ha - / ., /-har ‫ ر‬- /) Ex: /naweshtan/. C . /dedan/. ‫ن‬,7‫د‬. (=see). /danesh /. [‫دا‬. (=knowledge). (=write).

(63) 46. 2.. /benash /. [". /sazman /. ‫ ز ن‬. (= organization). /sorxye/. 0. (=red). /xobye/. . /hensanheyt/. J ‫ا‬. /xandha /. .,". /kerdhar/. ‫دار‬0=. (=intuition). (=kindness) (=humanity) (=laugh) (=behavior). The place suffixes. (i.e., / -gah /. Q - /, /-kada,.,= - / /-stan ‫ ا ن‬- /, /-sar ‫ ر‬- /, /-sayr 0 - / , /-zar ‫ زار‬- /, /-lax ‫خ‬X - /, /-bar ‫ ر‬- /, /-na - /, /-dan ‫ دان‬- /) Ex: /foroshgah/. . P ‫و‬0. /maykada /. .,. /kodakistan/. ‫=د= ن‬. (=store) (=bar) (=kindergarten). /kohsar/. ‫=ه ر‬. (= full of mountain). /garmsayr/. 0 0Q. (=tropical). /golzar/. ‫ار‬MHQ. (= full of flower). /sanglax/. ‫خ‬TP". (=stony). /joybar /. ‫` ر‬7S. (= streamlet ).

(64) 47. 3.. /xakna/. "= . (= place with soil). /goldan /. ‫ان‬,HQ. (= vise). Time suffixes. (i.e., / -gah . Q - /, /-dam ‫ دم‬- /, /-an ‫ ن‬- /) Ex: /sahargah/. 4.. . Q0L. (=morning). /sohbdam /. ‫م‬,L`+. (= morning time). /baharan/. ‫ ران‬. (=spring). Descriptive suffixes. (i.e., /-ter 0F - /, /-teren C70F - /, /-m ‫ ام‬- /, /-emn C ‫ ا‬- /, /-yn C7 - / , /yena "7 - / , /-ana - /, /-nak 6 - /, /-gen CQ - /, /-hagen CQ‫ ا‬- / , /-a . - /, /ak 6 - / ) Ex: /xobter/ /kohtateren/ /bestm/. 0 C70‫ ه‬F= . (=better) (=smallest) (=twentieth). /charemn/. C ‫; ر‬. (=forth). /nokhostyn/. CV. (=first). /zaryena /. "7‫زر‬. (= golden). /zanana/. ‫ز‬. (=womanly).

(65) 48. /ghamnak/. 6 "9. (=sad). /ghamgen/. CP9. (=woeful). /zaharhagen/. CQ0‫زه‬. / roza /. .‫روز‬. /xorak/. 6‫را‬. 5.. (=toxic) (=fast) (=meal). Comparative suffixes. (i.e., /-gon ‫ن‬Q - / , /-gona Q - /, /-fam ‫ م‬- /, /-wsh ‫ وش‬- / , /-hasa - / , /-san ‫ ن‬- /, /-war ‫ وار‬- /) Ex: /golgon/. ‫ن‬PHQ. (=roseate). /golgona /. PHQ. (= ruddy). /hayenafam/. ‫" م‬7. (=glassy). /parewsh/. ‫ش‬70#. (=glut). /barqhasa /. ‫ق‬0. (=brilliance). /sheshasan/ /brotherwar/. ‫ ن‬$ ‫ادروار‬0. (= mirror) (=brotherly).

(66) 49. 6.. Subjective suffixes. (i.e., /-anda .,‫ ا‬- /, /-a - /, /-ar ‫ ر‬- / , /-an ‫ ن‬- /, /-sar ‫ ر‬- /, /-gar - / ‫ ر‬Q, /-ger 0Q - /, /-ban ‫ – ن‬/, /-che ; - /) Ex: /nawesanda/. .,"7. /dana /. ‫دا‬. /xaredar/. ‫ار‬,70. /rawan/. ‫روان‬. /sharmsar/. ‫ ر‬0. /gonhagar /. (=writer) (=wise) (=shopkeeper) (=smooth) (=ashamed). ‫ ر‬P"Q. (=criminal). /karger/. 0Q‫= ر‬. (=worker). /baghban /. ‫` ن‬9 . (=gardener). /postache/. 7.. ; #. Indefinite suffix. It comes after the vowel. (i.e., / -y(i) - /, /-yee 7- /) Ex: /mard-i / /danhayee/. ‫د‬0. (=manhood). 7 ‫دا‬. (=wisdom). (=poster).

(67) 50. 8.. Objective suffix. It comes with the past root. (i.e., /-a .- /) Ex: /xorda/. .‫رد‬. (=eaten). /borda /. .‫د‬0. (=taken). 9.. Enclitic suffix. It comes with some present roots. (i.e., /-a . - /) Ex: /mala/ /charxa/ 10.. R . (=trowel). 0;. (=rotation). Femininity suffix. It comes with Arabic words which are in Dari. (i.e., /-a . - /) Ex: /Shrefa / /Najiba/ 11.. B70 `^. Possessory suffix. (i.e., / -mand ," - /, /-wr ‫ ور‬- / , /-war ‫وار‬- /).

(68) 51. Ex: /danishmand/. ,"$‫دا‬. (=wisdom). /soxanwr/. ‫"ر‬V. (=speaker). /bozorgwar/. ‫ار‬Q‫ر‬M. (=honorable). (Gewi & Anwari,1997, 186-190). 1.18.. Categorization. of. Morphemes. according. to. Functions Morphemes are divided into two parts according to functions: Derivational and Inflectional morphemes.. 1.18.1. English Derivational Morphemes According to Bergmann et al. (2007, 150-151), derivational morpheme is the process of forming words out of other words. Derivation takes the phonological form of one word to make a new word. (Akmajian et al., 1997, 36-39) said that derivational Morphemes are that morphemes which change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach; or it creates new words from other words. It also changes the parts of speech or the meaning of the words. For instance, ‘happy’ is an adjective. When the suffix.

(69) 52. ‘–ness’ is added to it, it changes from adjective to noun (i.e., happiness); the word ‘use’ is a verb and when the word ‘able’ is added to it, it changes from verb to adjective (i.e., usable); ‘trouble’ is a noun and when the word ‘some’ is added to it, it changes from noun to adjective (i.e., troublesome). The word ‘judge’ is a verb and when the suffix ‘-ment’ is added to it, it changes from verb to noun (i.e., judgement) and ‘symbol’ is a noun and when the suffix ‘ize’ is added to it, it changes from noun to verb (i.e., symbolize). Also, the word ‘quiet’ is an adjective and when the suffix ‘-ly’ is added to it, it changes from adjective to adverb (i.e., quietly). It is clear that all derivational morphemes do not change the grammatical class; such as, ‘happy’ is an adjective and when the suffix ‘-ly’ is added to it, it is still adjective (i.e., happily), ‘friend’ is a noun and ‘friendship’ is also a noun and so on. The author mentioned before that derivational morphemes can also change the meaning of the words; that is, the prefix ‘anti-’, ‘dis-’, ‘ex-’ or ‘bi-’ can change the meaning of the words; such as, anti-feminist, discomfort, ex-boyfriend, bi-sexual, etc. There are also some derivational morphemes that can do the two works, both (change parts of speech and change the meaning of the word), for instance, ‘useless’. In addition, derivational morphemes are not required by syntax and it is not usually productive (e.g., dis-like, not *dis-hate)..

(70) 53. Furthermore it occur before inflectional morphemes (i.e., work-er-‘s) and in English language, it can be prefixes and suffixes. English, additionally, has derivational prefixes, such as: {un}, {dis}, {a}, {anti}, all of which indicate some kind of negation: unhappy, dislike, atypical, anti-aircraft. In addition, Schlenker (2006, 3) added that a way to generate new words out of old elements is by adding suffixes or prefixes to existing words to modify their meaning and often their syntactic category. He added that it also typically yields headed constituents (i.e. constituents with a head, which gives them their main syntactic and semantic properties).for instance, the suffix /-ness/ is specified as taking as its sister an adjective, and produces a noun. Thus happiness is the property of being happy, unhappiness is the property of being unhappy, etc.. 1.18.2. English Inflectional Morphemes Bergmann et al., has stated that inflectional morpheme is the processes of producing different grammatical forms of word. It uses the same stem and affixes that the derivation does, but inflection just generate words not new words (2007, 151). Inflectional Morphemes are bound morphemes that serve a purely grammatical function, never creating a new word but only make a.

(71) 54. different form of the same word. (Vilk, Tue. Oct. 09, 2001 at 18:06:14) argued that inflectional morphemes clarify such concepts as tense, number, gender, case, aspect and so on. In other words, they are grammatical markers. Unlike derivational morphemes they do not change the syntactic category of a word (e.g., a verb remains a verb, and a noun remains a noun). Additionally, they cannot be joined to incomplete morphemes. For example, you can add the derivational bound morpheme "-atic" to "unsystem" to get "unsystematic." You cannot, however, add a possessive marker to make "*unsystem's." English language used to be highly inflected and had a very rich variety of inflectional morphemes. Now, according to Akmajian, et al., 1997, 36-37 & Bergmann et al. 2007, 151, however, there are only eight left. They are: /-s/ third person singular present. Verbs. She talks with him.. /-ed/. past tense. Verbs. She talked with him.. /-ing/. progressive. Verbs. She is talking with him..

(72) 55. /-en/-ed/. past participle. Verbs. She has eaten the dinner. He has tasted the cookies.. /-s/. plural. Nouns. She ate the apples.. /-'s/-s’/. possessive. Nouns. The chair’s leg is broken. The chairs’ legs are broken. /-er/. /-est/. comparative. superlative. Adjectives,. Ali is taller than Ahmad.. Adverbs. Ali runs faster than Ahmad.. Adjectives,. Ted is the tallest in the class.. Adverbs. Ali runs fastest of all.. Table 1.12: English Inflectional Morphemes. Inflectional morphemes typically follow derivational morphemes in the hierarchy of morpheme structure. IE, they occur last, at the end of the morpheme, not before any derivational morphemes;. for example,. "unlikelyhoods" for more than one “unlikelyhood”, not something like "*unlikelyshood.".

(73) 56. Akmajian, et al., (1997: 38) has indicated the differences between the inflectional and derivational morphemes; firstly, inflectional affixes never change the category (parts of speech); in contrast, derivational affixes often change the parts of speech. Secondly, inflectional suffixes follow derivational suffixes. Then, inflectional affixes mark the “outer” layer of words, whereas derivational affixes mark the “inner” layer. Finally, unlike derivational morphemes, inflectional morphemes required by syntax; very productive; occur at the margin of a word, after any derivational morpheme. That is to say, sens-ib-iliti-es; not listed in the dictionary and in English language inflectional morphemes are only suffixes not prefixes. Also they clarified below table about relative order of derivational and inflectional suffixes in word sample:.

(74) 57. Sample word. Base / Stem. Derivational suffixes (inner layer). Inflectional suffixes (outer layer). Modern. Modern. Modernize. Modern. ize. Modernizes. Modern. ize. ‘s’(3rd person). Modernizers. Modern. ize+er. ‘s’ (plural). Write. Write. Writer. Write. er. Writer’s. Write. er. Readability. Read. able+ity. Reading. Read. Big. Big. Bigger. Big. ‘er’ (comparative). Biggest. Big. ‘est’ (superlatives). ‘’s’ (possessive). ‘ing’ (progressive). Table 1.13: Relative order of Derivational and Inflectional Suffixes in word sample.

(75) 58. (Packer, summer 2001, 598-02) also stated this evidence for the distinction between inflectional and derivational affixes: Inflectional Affixes All are suffixes. Derivational Affixes May be either suffixes or prefixes. Have a wide range of application (e.g., May have a wide or narrow range most English nouns can be made plural.) All native to English (since Old English Many were adopted from Latin, Greek, was spoken around 500-1000 AD). or other languages. (Though others, especially the suffixes, are native, including {ful}, {like}, {ly}, and {AG}). Table 1.14: Distinction between Inflectional and Derivational Affixes. Some words do not take the regular inflectional morphemes; they are irregular, or, more technically, suppletive; that is, the past tense of "buy" is not "buyed," but "bought." This is an irregularity that is simply memorized. (Fromkin, et al., 1997).

(76) 59. Additionally,. Schlenker. (2006,. 4). stated. about. inflectional. morphemes: Inflectional morphology is the process by which suffixes or prefixes are added to a word to fit its role in the sentence. The new word has the same syntactic category and the same meaning as the old one. For instance, walk, walk-s, walk-ing, walk-ed, etc. He also included that often irregularities may be triggered by a given root. Thus although the regular way of forming the past tense of a verb is by adding /-ed/ to it, as in walk-walked, certain roots do not conform to this pattern (e.g., eat – ate, go – went, sing – sang or come – came). Similarly, the plural is normally formed by adding -s to a noun, as in dog - dogs. But these are exceptions to this rule; such as, fish – fish, man – men or ox – oxen. Further, he added that a word which is headed inherits its main semantic and syntactic properties from its head. For example, overeat has eat as its head, and as a result: (i) the expression overeat is a verb, just like the expression eat; (ii) overeating is a kind of eating; and (iii) the past tense of overeat is overate, not overeated*. Similarly workman is headed and has as its head man. As a result: (i) workman is a noun, just like man; (ii) a workman is a kind of man; and (iii) the plural of workman is workmen, not workmans).. Note: in all languages, there are many derivational affixes but only a limited number of inflectional affixes..

(77) 60. 1.19.. Categorization. of. Morphemes. according. to. Semantics Morphemes are divided according to semantics into two parts: content morphemes and function morphemes.. 1.19.1. English Content Morphemes (Kuthy 2001, 1-5) stated that content morphemes are those morphemes that carry a semantic content as opposed to performing a grammatical function; for instance, /car, -able, -un, etc./ Furthermore, it is a morpheme that has a relatively more-specific meaning than a function morpheme. It is also a morpheme that names a concept/idea in our record of experience of the world. Content morphemes fall into the classes of noun, verb, adjective, and adverb as well. Moreover, content morphemes are also called open class words and they relate to free and bound morphemes and derivational morphemes as well (Bergmann et al., 2007, 152)..

(78) 61. 1.19.2. English Function Morphemes According to Bergmann et al., (2007, 153), function morphemes are the morphemes that provide information about the grammatical relationships between words in a sentence. In addition, it is a morpheme that has a relatively less-specific meaning than a content morpheme; a morpheme whose primary meaning/function is to signal relationships between other morphemes. Function morphemes generally fall into classes such as articles ('a', 'the'), prepositions ('of', 'at'), auxiliary verbs (was eating, have slept), conjunctions (but, and, or) etc. Furthermore, function morphemes are called closed class words and they also related to free, bound and inflectional morphemes.. Note: English has only three categories of meaning which are expressed inflectionally, known as inflectional categories. They are (1) number in nouns, (2) tense/aspect in verbs, and (3) comparison in adjectives. Within these categories, English has a remarkably small inventory of affixes, by comparison with languages such as Persian/Dari, Spanish or Russian. English does not always use affixes to express these categories. (Kuthy 2001, 1-5)..