Freemasons

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cantor, Norman F. Imagining the Law: Common Law and the Foundations of the American Legal System. New York: Harper-Collins, 1997.

Nelson, William Edward. Americanization of the Common Law: The Impact of Legal Change on Massachussetts Society, 1760– 1830. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975.

W. A. Robinson /a. e. See also Charter of Liberties; Feudalism; Primogeniture;

Re-publicanism; Suffrage, Colonial.

FREEMAN’S EXPEDITION was arranged to carry

out President Thomas Jefferson’s orders in 1805 to ex-plore the Red River of Louisiana and Texas. With a party of twenty-five men and three boats, Thomas Freeman left Fort Adams, Mississippi, at the mouth of Red River, in April 1806. Forty-five miles above Natchitoches, Loui-siana, the party left the last white settlement behind. At a point 635 miles from the mouth of the Red River, the group was turned back by a Spanish military party, having added little to American knowledge of the new Louisiana Purchase except for an accurate map of the lower Red River.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Flores, Dan L., ed. Jefferson and Southwestern Exploration: The Freeman and Custis Accounts of the Red River Expedition of 1806. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984.

Carl L. Cannon /a. r. See also Explorations and Expeditions: U.S.; Louisiana

Purchase.

FREEMASONS. This international quasi-religious fraternity is properly called the Ancient and Accepted Or-der of Freemasons. The number of freemasons in the United States crested at four million around 1960. In terms of freemasons as a percentage of the population, their popularity was greatest in the United States from after the Civil War until the 1920s. Freemasons tradi-tionally were white, native-born, and Protestant. The pri-mary purpose of the freemasons is to meet the social and personal needs of their members. An important activity of freemasons is the performance of various secret rituals, held within Masonic temples. Symbolizing the temple of King Solomon, the temples are usually located in promi-nent places within urban areas. Freemason rituals are in-fused with religious allegories that emphasize the omnip-otence of God, the importance of a moral life, and the

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possibility of immortality. Over the course of the twen-tieth century, in an effort to respond to younger members’ interests as well as reverse declining membership, free-masons have increasingly emphasized community service over religious symbolism. Today there are perhaps slightly more than three million freemasons in the United States, distributed among some fourteen thousand Grand Lodges. The term “freemason” dates from the fourteenth century, when stonemasons in Europe bound themselves together for their mutual protection and training. During the Reformation freemasonry became open to men other than stonemasons. On 24 June 1717 a group met in Lon-don to found the first Grand Lodge. The first freemason to live in the British colonies in America was Jonathan Belcher, who joined the freemasons in England in 1704 and later became the governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The first lodge in the United States was es-tablished in Philadelphia in 1731, and in 1734 Benjamin Franklin became its Grand Master.

Freemasons were prominent during the revolution-ary and constitutional periods, and have held important positions in modern politics. Fourteen presidents have been freemasons, most recently Gerald R. Ford. George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Benedict Arnold, all generals of the Continental Army, were freemasons, and it is possible that Washington selected his generals partly on the basis of their freemason status. Before the Revolution Franklin represented colonial interests in En-gland, and after the war he was the American minister to France, and as he undoubtedly consulted with other free-masons in both countries, his fraternal standing could have served his diplomatic purposes. Franklin’s efforts to expand the U.S. Constitution’s protection of religious be-lief also accord with his freemasonry background.

While an important principle for freemasons is the acceptance of all religions, they have been denounced by the Catholic Church, in part because at certain periods they were involved with anti-immigrant or racist causes, for instance that of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. The greatest controversy in freemason history, however, in-volved one William Morgan of Batavia, New York. In re-taliation for the order’s refusal to permit him to form a local lodge, in March 1826 Morgan contracted to publish a pamphlet that revealed the secrets of freemasonry. In September Morgan was abducted and probably drowned in the Niagara River. His pamphlet, Illustrations of

Ma-sonry, was published in October 1826. Because of its

ex-clusive membership (perhaps 32,000 members in 1820) and its secrecy, freemasonry was already suspected as anti-democratic. Morgan’s pamphlet, and the alleged cover-up of his abduction by judges and jurors who themselves were freemasons, greatly galvanized anti-Masonic feeling across the country. In 1828 Thurlow Weed, a prominent newspaper publisher, organized a political party known as the Anti-Masonic Party. The party was the first to hold a convention for the nomination of a presidential candi-date. In 1832 William Wirt, a former U.S. attorney

gen-eral, headed the ticket. Anti-Masonic political activity spread to New England and the Northwest, but by the early 1840s there was little national interest in the party’s agenda.

The Masonic affiliation of Joseph Smith, founder of the Mormon Church, was perhaps the most long-lived, if incidental, legacy of this controversy. Smith, a freemason, founded his church in 1830 in Palmyra, New York, and was murdered by an anti-Mormon mob on 27 June 1844. While freemasons may have taken part in the crime, Smith’s successor, Brigham Young, also a freemason, held the Order of Freemasons blameless. The influence of the rituals of freemasonry upon the ceremonies and rites of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is still apparent today.

Another incidental consequence of the practice of freemasonry was the rise of Negro freemasonry. A black man named Prince Hall founded a lodge in 1775. Due to racist resistance by white freemasons, Prince Hall Ma-sonry did not gain general acceptance as a legitimate or-der until the 1960s. Thus the exclusivity of white free-masons was possibly an important factor in the forging of the group self-consciousness of middle-class blacks.

Especially in the twentieth century the freemasons have undertaken important reform and charitable causes. The widespread illiteracy of American men became ap-parent during the World War I era. As a result freemasons began lobbying for a federal department of education, which eventually came to fruition. Over their history the freemasons have spawned close to one hundred affiliated groups that emulate the freemason’s secret rituals and modern commitment to public service. The first large-scale labor organization, the Knights of Labor, adapted many Masonic motifs and phrases. The most prominent affiliated groups today are the Knights Templar, the Scot-tish Rite, and the Shriners. The last group has raised mil-lions of dollars for medical treatment of children.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carnes, Mark C. Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989.

Demott, Bobby J. Freemasonry in American Culture and Society. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1986. A re-vealing but often excessively favorable account.

Dumenil, Lynn. Freemasonry and American Culture, 1880–1930. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984. Kutolowski, Kathleen Smith. “Freemasonry and Community in

the Early Republic: The Case for Antimasonic Anxieties.” American Quarterly 34 (1982): 543–561.

Muraskin, William Alan. Middle-Class Blacks in a White Society: Prince Hall Freemasonry in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975.

Additionally, various state Grand Lodges publish annual Journals of Proceedings that contain administrative, charitable, and historical information.