\
PERGAMON Personality and Individual Di}erences 15 "0888# 612Ð626
S9080Ð7758:88:, ! see front matter Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved PII] S 9 0 8 0 Ð 7 7 5 8 " 8 7 # 9 9 0 7 3 Ð 5
The relationships among paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychopathology in a Turkish college sample
I[ Dag
Hacettepe University\ Department of Psychology\ Beytepe\ 95421 Ankara\ Turkey Received 04 December 0886
Abstract
The relationships among paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychiatric symptomatology were investigated in a Turkish college sample of 249 participants "122 females and 006 males#[ The data were collected with the Turkish version of Tobacyk|s revised Paranormal Belief Scale "PBS!R#\ Rotter|s Internal!
External Locus of Control Scale "IELOC#\ and Symptom Check List!89!Revised "SCL!89!R#[ Small but signi_cant positive correlations between the global scores of PBS!R and IELOC Scale "r 9[20\ P ³ 9[9990#\
PBS!R and SCL!89!R "r 9[03\ P ³ 9[90#\ IELOC Scale and SCL!89!R "r 9[20\ P ³ 9[9990# were found[
PBS!R subscales predicted locus of control better than psychopathology in general[ Correlations among the subscales of PBS!R and IELOC Scale were also reported[ Females were signi_cantly higher in Superstition\
and males in Extraordinary Life Forms subscale[ The discussion focussed on the role of paranormal beliefs as a personality system that brings a kind of control feeling\ depending on insu.cient internal control perceptions\ with a cost of psychopathology[ Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[
Key words]Paranormal beliefs^ Locus of control^ Psychopathology^ Gender di}erences^ College students^ Turkey
0[ Introduction
Although scientists are very sceptical about reputed {paranormal events| "e[g[ psychokinesis\
clairvoyance\ spiritualism# or even strongly rejected the existence of them and interpreted these experiences by known psychological or statistical principles "Brugger\ Landis + Regard\ 0889^
Blackmore\ 0889^ Royalty\ 0884^ Schienle\ Vaitl + Stark\ 0885^ Snyder\ 0886#\ there are a con!
siderable number of people all around the world who believe those {paranormal phenomena|[ For example\ a Gallup Poll in U[S[A[\ conducted in 0889\ revealed that more than half of Americans
Fax] ¦89 "201# 124 28 21^ e!mail] ihsandagÝhun[edu[tr
believe in the Devil\ 38) of them believe in extrasensory perception "ESP# and about 14) of them believe in ghosts\ clairvoyance and astrology "Gallup + Newport\ 0880#[
The term paranormal is used to describe phenomena which\ if authentic\ violate basic limiting principles of science "Broad\ 0838^ Tobacyk\ 0884#\ but there is a controversy "Lawrence\ 0884#
about classifying traditional religious beliefs and superstition as paranormal despite some strong empirical results "Thalbourne\ 0886#[ However\ many of the ostensible phenomena of traditional religion "e[g[ miracles\ resurrection\ souls\ survival after physical death# violate basic limiting principles of science and therefore _t the above stated de_nition of paranormality "Tobacyk + Pirttila!Backman\ 0881#[ Indeed\ as Tobacyk "0884# put it\ paranormal beliefs "including traditional religious and superstitious beliefs# {{are a central personality dynamism that energises and organises individual and collective behavior||[ [ [ which {{provides persons and societies with meaning in life\
with perceived control\ and with resources for adjustment "therefore# deserve serious study||
"p[034#[ Although the real paranormality of those experiences central to those beliefs has been controversial "Eysenck + Sargent\ 0871#\ by this line of reasoning\ paranormal beliefs were studied intensively\ for the correlates with personality and sociodemographic variables\ for the last two decades "Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872^ Tobacyk\ Nagot + Miller\ 0877^ Svensen\ White + Caird\
0881^ Thalbourne + French\ 0884^ Wolfradt\ 0886#[
0[0[ Paranormal beliefs and personality
Special interests were paid to the relationship between paranormal beliefs and locus of control
"Rotter\ 0855# and between paranormal beliefs and psychopathology "Davies + Kirkby\ 0874^
Tobacyk et al[\ 0877^ Thalbourne + French\ 0884^ Wolfradt\ 0886#[
The connection between paranormal beliefs and feelings of control\ especially on uncontrollable events such as disasters\ diseases and death\ were proposed by the well!known anthropologist Malinowski about a half century ago "Malinowski\ 0837#[ He proposed that those beliefs serve as a kind of illusion of control "Langer\ 0864#[ Magical "primitive# thinking or the belief in phenom!
enalistic causality behind those illusional control feelings\ which is a characteristic of children does not disappear totally in adulthood\ though it tends to with modern education "Subbotsky\ 0886#[
Early research had shown that there was a relationship between more external locus of control and greater belief in paranormal phenomena "Scheidt\ 0862^ Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872#[ On the other hand\ in uninvolved and uncommitted college students\ greater belief in the paranormal was related to external locus of control\ whereas in actively involved students "such as the readers of psychic books# greater belief in the paranormal was related to internal locus of control "McGarry + Newberry\ 0870#[ It was suggested that involved believers might have adopted a paranormal belief system as an alternative or perhaps an adjunct mode of attaining mastery and feelings of competence over their environments "McGarry + Newberry\ 0870#[ Moreover\ global measure!
ments of locus of control and paranormal beliefs are erroneous\ because while superstition and spiritualism "believing in ghosts# are forms of paranormal beliefs that imply a belief in fate and lack of control "e[g[ if you break a mirror\ you will have bad luck#\ in contrast\ psi belief "telepathy\
clairvoyance\ psychokinesis# implies that the world can be changed by one|s own will "e[g[ a person|s thought can in~uence the movement of a physical object as in the belief of psychokinesis#[
Therefore\ superstition and spiritualism should correlate positively\ and psi belief should correlate negatively with external locus of control "Wolfradt\ 0886#[
Indeed\ further research had found that there were signi_cant relationships between externality in personal and sociopolitical control with belief in religion\ superstitions and spiritualism\ and between internality in personal and interpersonal control with belief in witchcraft and psi "Davies + Kirkby\ 0874# in terms of spheres of control "Paulhus\ 0872#[ Similarly\ Tobacyk et al[\ 0877
"0877# had found that there were signi_cant correlations between greater personal e.cacy control and less belief in superstition and witchcraft\ and between greater interpersonal control and less belief in superstition[ Considering those di}erential relationships\ the authors stressed the utility of multidimensional conceptualisation of the relationships between paranormal beliefs and locus of control "Tobacyk et al[\ 0877#[
Another important correlate of paranormal beliefs is psychopathology[ It is a well!known fact that psychological maladjustment was seen as witchcraft by some medieval Europeans[ Even today psychological maladjustment was explained by factors of a magico!religious nature among less educated Europeans "Vlachos\ Beratis + Hartocollis\ 0886^ Ozden\ Vedi\ Yargicž + Kaya\ 0886#[
Almost a century ago\ Freud saw paranormal beliefs including religious beliefs themselves as psychopathological "Freud\ 0801Ð02^ 0816# and called them {neurosis| or {paranoia| stemming from omnipotent "or magical# thinking characteristic to childhood[ Magical thinking\ as seen in psychokinesis\ is a form of paranormal belief\ that the person sees himself as capable of many things in contrast to reality "Tobacyk + Wilkinson\ 0889#[ Magical thinking is also among the de_ned symptoms of some psychiatric disorders like schizotypal personality disorder in DSM!IV
"American Psychiatric Association\0883# and among the mechanisms of some other disorders like obsessiveÐcompulsive disorder\ such that the major characteristic of compulsive rituals is magical thinking "e[g[ {{If I touch the door three times\ then my child would not die in an accident today||#[
Psychometric evidence has also been obtained showing a correlation between psychosis and magical thinking[ It is found that those who scored highest on a magical thinking scale showed a predisposition to psychosis "Eckblad + Chapman\ 0872#[ Schizophrenic patients scored higher on a magical thinking scale than non!schizophrenic psychiatric patients or normal subjects "George + Neufeld\ 0876#[ Subjects believing in extraordinary phenomena scored higher on the Schizophrenia subscale of the MMPI than non!believers "Windholz + Diamant\ 0863#[ Paranormal beliefs were signi_cantly and positively correlated with schizotypy "Thalbourne\ 0883^ Chequers\ Joseph + Diduca\ 0886#\ and with manic!depressive experiences "Thalbourne + French\ 0884#[
Originally\ empirical _ndings related to the connection between paranormal beliefs and psy!
chopathology rooted to Maller and Lundeen|s "0822# study which found a positive relation between superstition and emotional maladjustment[ Further studies had found some contradictory results on the relationship between paranormal beliefs and neurotic like experiences[ For example\ Thal!
bourne\ Dunbar and Delin "0884# had found a signi_cant positive relationship between paranormal beliefs and neuroticism\ whereas other researchers "Svensen et al[\ 0881^ Lester + Monaghan\0884^
Willging + Lester\ 0886# had not found such a signi_cant relationship[ Similarly\ anxiety showed a close relation with paranormal beliefs in some studies "Okebukola\ 0875^ Wagner + Ratzeburg\
0876#\ and did not in some other studies "Tobacyk\ 0871#[ However\ a recent study "Wolfradt\
0886#\ conducted in Germany\ has shown signi_cant relationships among paranormal beliefs\ trait anxiety and dissociative experiences[ The connection between dissociation and paranormal beliefs had also been reported in some earlier studies "Richards\ 0880^ Irwin\ 0883^ Pekala\ Kumar + Marcano\0884#\ and those beliefs were seen as serving the same function as in dissociative experi!
ences\ namely distancing from the reality as a defence mechanism "Wolfradt\ 0886#[ Similarly\
fantasy proneness was also correlated with paranormal beliefs probably serving similar functions
"Irwin\ 0889#[
There are other correlates of paranormal beliefs that might be related to psychopathology[
Signi_cant positive correlations were obtained between paranormal beliefs and irrational beliefs\
dogmatism\ sensation seeking "Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872^ Roig\ Bridges\ Renner + Jackson\ 0887#\
alienation\ anomie "Tobacyk\ 0874#\ and excessive intentionality "Tobacyk + Milford\ 0873#[
Paranormal beliefs were also negatively correlated with social interest "Tobacyk\ 0872#[ On the contrary\ there were non!signi_cant correlations between actual self vs ideal self discrepancy scores and the dimensions of paranormal beliefs except traditional religious belief "Tobacyk + Milford\
0872#[ On the other hand\ those two major correlates of paranormal beliefs\ namely\ locus of control and psychopathology were already found to have signi_cant positive correlations with each other "Hale + Cochran\ 0876^ Dag\ 0881^ Gomez\ 0887#[
0[1[ Gender and age differences
Paranormal beliefs are common in general but there are some age and gender di}erences in those beliefs[ They are higher among women than men\ and it was supposed that the di}erence is due to women|s richer fantasy life "Blackmore\ 0883#[ Some other studies also found similar di}erences between genders "Clarke\ 0880^ Irwin\ 0882^ Wolfradt\ 0886#[ On the other hand\ in terms of age\ college students were found to have more paranormal beliefs than high school students "Tobacyk\ Miller + Jones\ 0873# and than older people except traditional religious belief
"Tobacyk\ Pritchett + Mitchell\ 0877#[
0[2[ Paranormal beliefs and cross!cultural research
There are two major cross!cultural researches on paranormal beliefs in the literature "Tobacyk + Pirttila!Backman\ 0881^ Tobacyk + Tobacyk\ 0881#[ Tobacyk and Pirttila!Backman "0881#
found that Americans reported greater belief in Traditional Religious Belief\ Superstition\ Witch!
craft\ and Extraordinary Life Forms on related subscales than Finns\ and paranormal beliefs showed a stronger relationship with measures of personality adjustment for the Finns than for the Americans[ On the other hand\ Tobacyk and Tobacyk "0881# found that both Poles and Americans reported high levels of traditional religious belief\ as well as disbelief in superstition\ spiritualism\
and witchcraft[ Haraldsson and Houtkooper "0885# found that Icelandic subjects believe all dimensions of paranormal beliefs except spiritualism less than Americans\ based on Tobacyk and Milford|s "0872# data[
0[3[ The aim of the study
In this frame of reference\ the aim of the present study was to investigate the multiple relation!
ships among paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychiatric symptomatology in a Turkish college sample[ This sample was culturally di}erent from the samples of some earlier studies conducted in the U[S[A[ "Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872#\ in Poland "Tobacyk + Tobacyk\ 0881#\ in Finland "Tobacyk + Pirttila!Backman\ 0881#\ in Iceland "Haraldsson + Houtkooper\ 0885#\ in Australia "Grimmer + White\ 0889^ Svensen et al[\ 0881#\ in Germany "Wolfradt\ 0886#\ and in
Ghana "Jahoda\ 0869#[ Generally it was expected that there would be positive correlations among the global measures of paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychiatric symptomatology[ Also an additional aim of the study was to examine the reliabilities and factorial validities of the Turkish versions of Tobacyk|s revised Paranormal Belief Scale "PBS!R#\ and Rotter|s Internal!External Locus of Control Scale "IELOC#\ measuring paranormal beliefs and locus of control respectively\
as a prerequisite for the major aim of the study[ Gender di}erences on the related measures were also examined[
1[ Method 1[0[ Participants
Participants were 249 students "122 females and 006 males# from eight departments of three faculties at the Hacettepe University\ Ankara\ Turkey[ Participants| mean age was 19[2 years
"SD 0[63^ range 06Ð16 years#[
1[1[ Measures
The participants were administered the revised form of the Paranormal Belief Scale "PBS!R\
Tobacyk\ 0877#\ the revised form of the Symptom Check List!89 "SCL!89!R\ Derogatis\ 0866#\
and the Internal!External Locus of Control Scale "IELOC\ Rotter\ 0855#[
The revised Paranormal Belief Scale "PBS!R# by Tobacyk "0877#\ "Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872# is originally a 15 item and seven!point self!report scale\ which measures the following seven forms of paranormal beliefs] traditional religious belief\ psi belief\ witchcraft\ superstition\ spiritualism\
extraordinary life forms\ and precognition[ The Turkish adaptation study of the scale was con!
ducted by the researcher and a 12 item and _ve!point scale "strongly disagree 0 to strongly agree 4# resulted from the judgments of 6 specialists[ Items 8\ 03 and 05 of the original scale were omitted due to redundancy\ and {the snowman of Tibet| was replaced with {wolfman| at item 5\ and {the Loch Ness monster of Scotland| was replaced with {Van Lake monster of Turkey|[ In addition\ only reversed items of the scale were changed to a positive direction in the expression of the item[ Scores can range from 12 to 004\ higher scores indicating more beliefs about paranormal phenomena[
The revised form of the Symptom Check List!89 "SCL!89!R# by Derogatis "0866# is a 89 item _ve!point self!report scale with 2 global indexes\ indicating the level of psychiatric symptoms by increasing scores\ and 8 subscales depending on factor analysis[ However\ further factor analysis by various researchers did not con_rm its multidimentionality and it has been suggested that the scale is useful for its global distress indices "Bonynge\ 0882^ Carpenter + Hittner\ 0884#[ The Turkish adaptation of the SCL!89!R "Dag\ 0880a# had been done\ and it was decided to use the scale as a global index of psychiatric symptomatology with its su.cient reliability and validity from a Turkish college sample[
The Internal!External Locus of Control Scale "IELOC# by Rotter "0855# is a 18 item forced!
choice self!report scale with scoring range 9 "internality# to 12 "externality# excluding 5 bu}er items[ Higher scores on the scale are associated with the belief that external forces "e[g[ fate\
luck\ chance\ authorities# are the primary determinants of one|s life reinforcements[ The Turkish adaptation study of the IELOC had also been done previously and it was concluded that the Turkish version of the scale had su.cient reliability and factorial and criterion!related validity
"Dag\ 0880b#[
1[2[ Procedure
The study was conducted in 0885[ The booklets of the aforementioned three scales were admin!
istered to the participants in classroom settings by the researcher himself in approximately half an hour sessions[ They were instructed to read the directions of each scale carefully and respond to all the items anonymously\ and to seek assistance if necessary[
2[ Results
2[0[ Reliabilities and factorial validities
Internal consistencies "Cronbach a# of the PBS!R and IELOC Scales were 9[76 and 9[69 respec!
tively\ and the split!half "Spearman!Brown# reliabilities were 9[89 and 9[56 respectively[ Corrected item!total correlations were between 9[12 and 9[57 for the PBS!R\ and 9[97 and 9[38 for the IELOC Scales[ TestÐretest reliability of the PBS!R "Pearson r# was 9[84 "df 44\ P ³ 9[9990#[
Related to factorial validity\ the Principal Components Analysis to PBS!R item scores extracted 5 factors at default in SPSS "5[9#\ explaining a total 52[0) of the variance[ After examining various extraction and rotation methods\ a _ve!factor solution with varimax revealed the simplest
"most interpretable# structure[ These factors and explained variances by them were "0# Traditional Religious Belief and Witchcraft "15[4)#\ "1# Precognition and Psi "01[1)#\ "2# Spiritualism "7[7)#\
"3# Superstition "4[6)#\ and "4# Extraordinary Life Forms "4[1)#[
Another Principal Components Analysis of the IELOC Scale item scores extracted eight factors at default\ explaining a total 41[0) of the variance[ After examining various extraction and rotation methods\ a _ve factor solution with varimax revealed the simplest "most interpretable#
structure for this scale too[ These factors and explained variances by them were "0# Unjust World
"or SocioÐpolitical control# "02[8)#\ "1# Personal control "6[9)#\ "2# Control in Achievement Situations "5[8)#\ "3# Chance and Fate "4[4)#\ and "4# Interpersonal Control "4[2)#[
2[1[ Gender differences
Means and standard deviations for the PBS!R and the IELOC Scales with their global and subscale scores\ and for the SCL!89!R with its global scores were reported separately for gender groups as well as for the whole sample in Table 0[
As seen in Table 0\ females scored signi_cantly higher than males on the Superstition subscale\
and males scored signi_cantly higher than females on the Extraordinary Life Forms subscale[
2[2[ The relationships of paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychopathology
To examine the relationships among paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychiatric symp!
tomatology\ intercorrelations among the global and subscale scores of related devices were com!
puted by the Pearson correlation technique\ and presented in Table 1[
Table 0
Means\ Standard Deviations and F values for gender di}erences
Whole sample Females Males
M SD M SD M SD F
PBS!Ra
Global paranormal score 41[3 02[9 41[2 02[9 41[4 01[8 9[903
Traditional religious belief + witchcraft 12[1 6[87 12[1 6[84 12[1 7[97 9[991
Precognition + psi 8[26 2[13 8[21 2[04 8[37 2[33 9[081
Spiritualism 4[36 1[52 4[49 1[63 4[31 1[30 9[968
Superstition 4[21 1[95 4[49 1[02 3[86 0[77 4[07
Extraordinary life forms 2[73 0[16 2[62 0[00 3[97 0[42 4[83
IELOC scaleb
Global external score 09[7 2[83 09[8 3[02 09[7 2[41 9[903
Unjust world 1[78 0[47 1[74 0[54 1[86 0[33 9[356
Personal control 1[61 0[35 1[62 0[40 1[69 0[28 9[932
Control in achievement situations 0[65 0[08 0[63 0[10 0[71 0[05 9[212
Chance + fate 0[02 0[96 0[05 0[09 0[95 0[92 9[558
Interpersonal control 0[73 9[87 0[89 9[88 0[61 9[84 1[289
SCL!89!Rc
Global symptom index 0[96 9[40 0[97 9[41 0[95 9[37 9[052
Positive symptom total 42[4 06[5 42[6 07[9 42[2 05[6 9[920
aParanormal Belief Scale!Revised "Tobacyk\ 0877#[
bInternal!External Locus of Control Scale "Rotter\ 0855#[
cSymptom Check List!89!Revised "Derogatis\ 0866#[
P ³ 9[94[
As seen in Table 1\ small but signi_cant positive correlations between the global scores of the PBS!R and the IELOC Scales "r 9[20\ P ³ 9[9990#\ the PBS!R and the SCL!89!R "r 9[03\
P ³ 9[90#\ and the IELOC Scale and the SCL!89!R "r 9[20\ P ³ 9[9990# were found[ All the intercorrelations among the subscales and global scale scores of the PBS!R were signi_cant at least at the P ³ 9[990 level[ All the intercorrelations among the subscales and global scale scores of the IELOC Scale except three were signi_cant at least at the P ³ 9[94 level[ Twenty!four of the 25 intercorrelations among the PBS!R and the IELOC Scales|s global and subscale scores were signi_cant at least at the P ³ 9[94 level[ Six of the 01 intercorrelations among the PBS!R and the SCL!89!R global and subscale scores were signi_cant at least at the P ³ 9[94 level\ and 09 of the 02 intercorrelations among the IELOC Scale and the SCL!89!R global and subscale scores were signi_cant at least at the P ³ 9[94 level[
Multiple regression analyses were done to _nd the paranormal beliefs that predict locus of control and psychopathology[ In the _rst three regression analyses for the whole sample\ locus of control\ GSI scores and PST scores were the criterion respectively and PBS!subscales were the
Table 1
Intercorrelations of PBS!R\ IELOC global and subscale scores and SCL!89!R global scores PBS!Ra
"0# Global paranormal score *
"1# Traditional religious 9[74 * belief + witchcraft
"2# Precognition + psi 9[69 9[23 *
"3# Spiritualism 9[46 9[12 9[34 *
"4# Superstition 9[57 9[53 9[24 9[08 *
"5# Extraordinary life forms 9[33 9[13 9[20 9[07 9[18 * IELOC scale
"6# Global external score 9[20 9[29 9[04 9[01 9[15 9[00 *
"7# Unjust world 9[15 9[17 9[00 9[95 9[11 9[96 9[69 *
"8# Personal control 9[14 9[14 9[00 9[09 9[10 9[91 9[63 9[27 *
"09# Control in achievement 9[04 9[97 9[04 9[98 9[01 9[00 9[40 9[09 9[15 * situations
"00# Chance + fate 9[26 9[23 9[07 9[04 9[17 9[08 9[47 9[18 9[22 9[06 *
"01# Interpersonal control −9[95 −9[93 −9[96 −9[92 −9[92 −9[94 9[31 9[03 9[06 9[97 9[93 * SCL!89!R
"02# Global symptom index 9[03 9[98 9[94 9[01 9[05 9[98 9[20 9[07 9[18 9[19 9[09 9[01 *
"03# Positive symptom total 9[00 9[96 9[91 9[98 9[03 9[03 9[17 9[05 9[11 9[11 9[09 9[98 9[76
"0# "1# "2# "3# "4# "5# "6# "7# "8# "09# "00# "01# "02#
Note[The values over 9[08 are signi_cant at P ³ 9[9990^ the values between 9[04 and 9[07 are signi_cant at P ³ 9[990^
between 9[02 and 9[03 are signi_cant at P ³ 9[90^ between 9[00 and 9[01 are signi_cant at P ³ 9[94[
aSee footnotes of Table 0 for abbreviations[
predictors for all[ The same analyses were repeated also for genders[ The results were combined in Table 2[ As seen in Multiple R values in Table 2\ PBS!subscales predicted locus of control better than psychopathology[ Traditional Religious Belief and the Witchcraft subscale was the only signi_cant predictor of locus of control\ and Superstition was the only signi_cant predictor of GSI scores[ Superstition and Extraordinary Life Forms subscales predicted PST scores signi_cantly[
There were some gender di}erences in terms of signi_cant b coe.cients[
2[3[ Comparisons of extreme groups on locus of control and paranormal beliefs
An additional analysis was run to compare the extreme groups on locus of control and par!
anormal beliefs in terms of the di}erences on psychopathology and the results are summarised in Table 3[ The extreme groups were determined by the cut o} points on related scale scores that depend on ¦0 and −0 standard deviation units[ As seen in Table 3\ externals were signi_cantly more symptomatic than internals\ and {believers| were signi_cantly more symptomatic than {unbe!
lievers|[
Table 2
Standardized regression coe.cients "b|s# for PBS!R subscales predicting locus of control and psychopathology for males\ females\ and combined group
Locus of control Psychopathology
Total score GSIa PSTb
PBS!RcSubscales Male Female Comb[ Male Female Comb[ Male Female Comb[
Traditional religious 9[02 9[14 9[10 −9[96 −9[93 −9[92 −9[96 −9[95 −9[93
belief + witchcraft
Precognition + psi 9[03 −9[93 9[90 9[93 −9[09 −9[95 9[91 −9[04 −9[98
Spiritualism −9[90 9[96 9[93 9[05 9[98 9[00 9[07 9[95 9[98
Superstition 9[95 9[01 9[00 9[17 9[03 9[06 9[11 9[03 9[04
Extraordinary life forms 9[97 −9[92 9[90 −9[91 9[96 9[94 9[92 9[04 9[00
Multiple R 9[29 9[23 9[21 9[21 9[06 9[19 9[29 9[10 9[19
r1 9[98 9[01 9[09 9[09 9[92 9[93 9[98 9[93 9[93
Note] P ³ 9[94^ P ³ 9[90^ P ³ 9[990[
aGSI] Global Symptom Index of SCL!89!R[
bPST] Positive Symptom Total of SCL!89!R[
cPBS!R] Paranormal Belief Scale!Revised "Tobacyk\ 0877#[
Table 3
Comparisons of the Global Symptom Index "GSI#
scores of extreme groupsaon locus of control and paranormal beliefs
Locus of control
Internals Externals t
M 9[70 0[15 4[69
SD 9[33 9[33
f 56 47
Paranormal beliefs
Believers Unbelievers
M 0[97 9[80 0[61
SD 9[41 9[38
f 42 45
aThe extreme groups were determined by the cut o} points on related scale scores that depend on
¦0 and −0 standard deviation units[
P ³ 9[990[
P ³ 9[94[
3[ Discussion
3[0[ The discussion of reliabilities and validities
An additional aim\ as a prerequisite for the major aim of the present study was to examine the reliabilities and factorial validities of the Turkish versions of the scales measuring paranormal beliefs and locus of control[ The internal consistencies and other reliability indices of the Turkish versions of the PBS!R and the IELOC Scales were su.ciently high for the speci_c sample[
The factorial structure of the Turkish version of the PBS!R was slightly di}erent from the English form[ Precognition and Psi beliefs did not decompose as well as Traditional Religious Belief and Witchcraft which were the separate factors in the original study "Tobacyk + Milford\
0872#[ The sample of the present study was formed by Muslim participants whose basic religious beliefs are composed of believing in God\ the devil\ a heaven and a hell\ and the immortal spirit[
There is also a belief in witchcraft in Islam but it is forbidden[ Therefore\ all the items about those beliefs were combined in the _rst factor[ Similarly\ believing in precognition and psi\ that were combined in the second factor\ are also inseparable conceptually for lay people in the Turkish culture^ all are related to a supernatural ability or power[ Moreover\ item 09 of the original study|s
"Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872# Witchcraft factor\ namely {witches do exist| was translated with the concept of {cadi| that was conceptualised as an extraordinary existence by lay people\ and therefore loaded on the Extraordinary Life Forms factor[ The structures of other factors were in accordance with the original study except a few items that did not load on the related factors with a 9[49 loading\ and there were some other di}erences which may stem from the omission of three items in the Turkish version[ On the other hand\ the intercorrelations "ranging between 9[07 and 9[53#
of the subscales of the PBS!R also justi_ed the use of the subscales separately[ Besides those di}erences that were reported\ it could be concluded that the factorial validity of the Turkish version of the PBS!R was su.cient to use it[
On the other hand\ the factorial structure of the Turkish version of the IELOC Scale did contain major control areas\ reported in the studies using the original English scale "Joe + Jahn\ 0862^
Du}y\ Shi~ett + Downey\ 0866# as well as in other languages "Tobacyk\ 0867^ Chan\ 0878#\ such as believing in an Unjust World "or Socio!political control#\ Chance and Fate\ Personal Control\
Interpersonal Control\ and Control in Achievement Situations[ The intercorrelations "ranging between 9[93 and 9[27# of the subscales of the IELOC Scale also justi_ed the use of subscales separately[ Overall\ it could be concluded that the factorial validity of the Turkish version of the IELOC Scale in the present study\ as in the previous study "Dag\ 0880b#\ was su.cient to use it[
3[1[ The discussion of gender differences
There were a few signi_cant gender di}erences in the study[ Only Superstition among females and Extraordinary Life Forms among males was signi_cantly higher[ Tobacyk and Milford "0872#
reported higher scores of females on the global paranormal scale\ Traditional Religious Belief and Precognition in a U[S[A[ sample\ which were dissimilar to the present results^ but reported more beliefs in Extraordinary Life Forms among males\ which was similar to the present results[
Moreover\ Wolfradt "0886# reported higher scores of females on global and subscale scores except Traditional Religious Belief and Extraordinary Life Forms in a German sample[ Reported gender
di}erences on paranormal beliefs to the disadvantage of females "Clarke\ 0880^ Irwin\ 0882^
Blackmore\ 0883# were not supported by the present study\ and the inconsistency in the results might have resulted from cultural di}erences\ if not from the 1 ] 0 ratio of female participants over male ones in the present study[
3[2[ The discussion of the relationships of paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychopathology After discussing these reliability\ validity and gender di}erence issues\ now I turn to the major point of my investigation^ the multiple relationships among paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychopathology[ Related to this aim\ intercorrelations among the scales and subscales were computed[ As seen in Table 1\ small but signi_cant positive correlations between the global scores of the PBS!R and the IELOC Scales "r 9[20\ P ³ 9[9990#\ the PBS!R and the SCL!89!R "r 9[03\
P ³ 9[90#\ and the IELOC Scale and the SCL!89!R "r 9[20\ P ³ 9[9990# were found as expected[
These _ndings supported previous research reporting correlations between paranormal beliefs and locus of control "Scheidt\ 0862^ Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872#\ between paranormal beliefs and psy!
chopathology "Eckblad + Chapman\ 0872^ Okebukola\ 0875^ George + Neufeld\ 0876^ Richards\
0880^ Thalbourne\ 0883^ Wolfradt\ 0886^ Chequers et al[\ 0886^ Roig et al[\ 0887#\ and between locus of control and psychopathology "Hale + Cochran\ 0876^ Dag\ 0881\ for a review^ Gomez\ 0887#[
Upon the suggestions of previous researchers "Davies + Kirkby\ 0874^ Tobacyk et al[\ 0877#
about the utility of multidimensional conceptualisation\ intercorrelations among the subscales of the PBS!R and the IELOC Scales were examined[ There were signi_cant positive correlations among global paranormal belief and subscales of locus of control except Interpersonal Control[
All paranormal subscales were signi_cantly and positively correlated with global locus of control[
Tobacyk and Milford "0872# reported a signi_cant correlation only between Extraordinary Life Forms and locus of control[ There were signi_cant positive intercorrelations among subscales of the two scales] Traditional Religious Belief and Witchcraft with Unjust World\ Personal Control\
Chance and Fate^ Precognition and Psi and Superstition with all subscales except Interpersonal Control^ Spiritualism with Chance and fate^ Extraordinary Life Forms with Chance and fate\ and Control in Achievement Situations "Table 1#[ These _ndings were not comparable with Davies + Kirkby|s "0874# and Tobacyk et al[|s "0877# studies because they used the Sphere of Control Scale to measure locus of control[
On the other hand\ Spiritualism\ Superstition and Extraordinary Life Forms\ in contrast to all the subscales of locus of control except Chance and Fate "though it only approximates to statistical signi_cance\ P ³ 9[95# were signi_cantly and positively correlated with psychopathology[ These _ndings only partially supported the _ndings of Tobacyk and Milford "0872# and Wolfradt "0886#\
perhaps due to scale di}erences\ to measure psychopathology^ only the present study measured global psychiatric symptomatology to relate to paranormal beliefs[
The role of various paranormal beliefs in predicting locus of control and psychopathology were another interest of the study\ because di}erent dimensions of paranormal beliefs might di}erentially predict the criteria of locus of control and psychopathology[ Hence\ a series of multiple regression analyses were run for both di}erent sexes and two criteria[ As seen in Table 2\ the PBS!R subscales predicted locus of control better than psychopathology in general[ Traditional Religious Belief and the Witchcraft subscale were the only signi_cant predictors of locus of control in contrast to previous _ndings "Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872^ Tobacyk et al[\ 0877^ Davies + Kirkby\ 0874#\ and
Superstition was the only signi_cant predictor of psychopathology "GSI scores# in the combined sex group[ Superstition and additionally the Extraordinary Life Forms subscales predicted another psychopathology index signi_cantly\ namely PST scores in the combined sex group again[ Similarly\
Tobacyk and Milford "0873# and Wolfradt "0886# reported signi_cant correlations between Super!
stition\ Spiritualism and psychopathology "e[g[ irrational beliefs\ dissociative experiences\ anxiety#[
Traditional Religious Belief + the Witchcraft subscale was not among the predictors of psy!
chopathology\ and consistent with this _nding\ Wilde and Joseph "0886# reported a signi_cant negative correlation between the Moslem attitude towards religiosity and psychotism in a Moslem sample[ The signi_cant prediction of the locus of control by Traditional Religious Belief and Witchcraft was seen to stem from the female sample\ because the related b coe.cient was signi_cant only in the female sample[ In much the same way\ the signi_cant prediction of the psychopathology by Superstition was seen to stem from the male sample[ Nonetheless\ only in the female sample\
did the Extraordinary Life Forms subscale predict PST scores signi_cantly whereas the Superstition subscale was also a signi_cant predictor in the combined sex group[ In the related literature\ the only study focussing on sex di}erences was Wolfradt "0886#|s\ and only he reported any signi_cant b!coe.cients for sex variables in predicting psychopathology from paranormal beliefs[
Based on the consideration of the signi_cant intercorrelations among scales\ comparisons of the extreme groups on locus of control and paranormal beliefs in terms of the di}erences on psychopathology showed more clear results[ Externals were signi_cantly more symptomatic than internals\ and {believers| were signi_cantly more symptomatic than {unbelievers|[ These _ndings also supported the related literature "Scheidt\ 0862^ Tobacyk + Milford\ 0872^ Eckblad + Chap!
man\ 0872^ Okebukola\ 0875^ George + Neufeld\ 0876^ Hale + Cochran\ 0876^ Richards\ 0880^
Dag\ 0881^ Thalbourne\ 0883^ Wolfradt\ 0886#[
4[ Conclusion
In the present study\ it was shown that there were small but signi_cant relationships among paranormal beliefs\ locus of control and psychiatric symptomatology in a Turkish college sample\
in accordance with some earlier studies conducted in other countries[ It was also shown that there were di}erential relationships among the various dimensions\ depending on factor analyses of paranormal beliefs and locus of control scales\ and between those dimensions and psycho!
pathology[ Paranormal dimensions predicted locus of control better than psychopathology in general[ However\ there is a need for further researches\ following on these preliminary results\
that focus on those multidimensional relationships more closely\ with more improved measurement devices\ with balanced samples of genders and other than college students[ Additional measures\
such as intensity\ accessibility\ centrality and self!referencing to these beliefs should also be evalu!
ated synchronously "Tobacyk\ 0884#[
Moreover\ if there is a relationship between having paranormal beliefs and psychiatric symptoms as well as an external locus of control in real life behind those low level correlations\ or in other words\ if there is real signi_cance behind those statistical signi_cances\ this should be reconsidered in the light of the preliminary impressions held by Snyder "0886#[ Snyder "0886# stated in the special issue of the Journal of Social and Clinical Psycholo`y] {{Bizarre behavior as seen from the social and clinical psychology interface|| under his editorship\ that uncommon behavior "like
claimed satanic ritual abuse or UFO abductions# often re~ects the inability of the people to meet their needs "such as\ to be protected\ attended\ listened to\ and being in connection with others\
and to vividly experience^ hence the acronym PLACE# via usual avenues[ This impression may also be combined with the Tobacyk|s "0884# perspective\ as stating paranormal beliefs "like all other beliefs# provide persons and societies with meaning in life\ with perceived control\ and with resources for adjustment[
Finally\ an early and perhaps immature speculation might be such that\ persons who have an external locus of control based on their history of reinforcement or have a less perceived control
"see\ Skinner\ 0885\ for an invaluable review of constructs of control# may attempt to gain some kind of control over their lives\ by having bizarre behavior and :or complementary paranormal beliefs\ in the absence of normal or adaptive means of control\ but with a cost that makes them appear psychopathological[ Furthermore\ much of human psychopathology may be conceived in this frame of reference[
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