Motion
Motion; can be defined as a change in the position of an object with respect to time and another object.
In living animals; locomotion has been provided by three main units Bones, Joints and Muscles.
Bones and joints are the passive parts of the locomotor system, Muscles are active.
OSTEOLOGIA (Bones)
ARTHROLOGIA (Joints)
MYOLOGIA (Muscles)
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The term osteology, meaning the study of bones, is derived from the Greek word «osteon», meaning
"bone." The Latin term «os» is used in names of specific bones e.g.os coxae, os femur ...
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Osteology
Bone; Os (lt.), Osteon (Gr.)
Bones ;
- form the skeleton
- provide lever for the muscles (framework), - protect the organs e.g. heart, brain, lung
- store minerals such as calcium and phosphate ions, - produce blood cells by means of bone marrow
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Osteology Bone; Os (lt.), Osteon (Gr.)
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Because of the cristalized calcium salts, bones are very dens structures. So
they absorb the x-rays an appear white color in on the rontgen films.
The number of bones; Dog:320, Cat:250, Pig:216, Cattle:207, Human:206, Horse:205
In human body; The longest bone is the femur and the smallest is the stapes.
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Classification of The Bones
Os longum Os breves Os planum Os irregulare Os pneumaticum
Humerus Ossa carpi Scapula Sacrum Os frontale
Radius Ossa tarsi Costae Coxae Os ethmoidale
Ulna Vertebrae Os occipitale Os hyoideum Os sphenoidale
Femur Os parietale Mandibula Maxilla
Tibia Os temporale Os lacrimale
Fibula Os zygomaticum
Ossa metacarpi Vomer
Ossa metatarsi Ossicula auditus
Ossa digitorum
Long bones are those in which the length exceeds the wideness (width) and thickness (height). These are characterized by a shaft (the diaphysis) and by two rounded head (the epiphysis) at each end of the shaft. Most bones of the limbs are long bones.
Long Bones
The shaft of a long bone is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath. (The periosteum)
The ends of the long bone are made up mostly of spongy bone. (Substantia spongiosa)
The shaft of a long bone (diaphysis) is a tube of compact bone. (Substantia compacta)
the cavity of which (the shaft) is known as a medullary (marrow) cavity. (Cavum medullare)
The cavity contains either red (blood-forming) or yellow (fatty) marrow. (Medulla osseum rubra et flava)
The inner surface of compact bone is lined by a thin, cellular layer. (The endosteum)
Long Bones
*Periosteum
*Substantia ossea
Substantia compacta Substantia spongiosa
*Cavum medullare
*Endosteum
*Medulla ossea
Medulla ossium rubra Medulla ossium flava
Epiphysis (the ends)
Metaphysis (the growth zone)
Diaphysis (the shaft)
Foramina nutricia :Hole for the vessels
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Parts of A Long Bone
Short bones are roughly cube-shaped bones. They occur in the wrist and ankle.
The bone structure consists of spongy bone and enclosed by a thin layer of compact bone. They are surrounded by periosteum except on their articular surfaces
Short Bones
Flat bones are thin and wide bones with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone.
Whose principal function is either extensive protection or the provision of broad surfaces for muscular attachment
Most of skull the bones are flat bones
Flat Bones
Irregular bones which can not be grouped as regular bone shape because of their peculiar forms. Their shapes are complicated. The bones of the spine, pelvis, and some skull bones are irregular.
Irregular Bones
Sesamoid bones are embedded in tendons. They act to hold the tendon further away from the joint. So, these bones form in response to strain.
Patella is the biggest sesamoid bone in the body
Sesamoid Bones
THE SKELETON
The skeleton is a unique structure consists of both bones, cartilage and joints. The peculiarities of the skeleton give animal their characteristic appearance.
The skeleton comprises around 15% of the total body weight in mammals and 5% in birds.
The male skeleton is generally larger and heavier than the female. The female pelvis is wider and shallower than the male pelvis because of the female's pregnancy and childbirth capabilities
Os penis (Car), Ossa cordis (bo) , Os cordis (ov,
cap) are not a part of body skeleton. These bones
are embedded the muscles or the organs.
SKELETON AXIALE
Cranium (The Skull)
Columna vertebralis (The spine)
Thorax
SKELETON
SKELETON APPENDICULARE
Ossa membri thoracici
Ossa membri pelvini
The skeleton is arranged into two major divisions:
The axial skeleton runs along the body’s midline
axis. The appendicular skeleton consists of the leg
bones
The Spine is a part of axial skeleton. It houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses and protects the spinal cord.
The vertebral column is constituted by a segmented series of bones (the vertebrae).
They are lined up behind each other and seperated by intervertebral disc.
COLUMNA VERTEBRALIS
(The Spine - The Vertebral Column - The Backbone)
The number and shape of the bones are changeable in vertebral column. The spine is not a straight column at full-length. It has three main curves in cervical, thoracal and lumbar portion. And the direction of the curves are different between human and animals.
COLUMNA VERTEBRALIS
(The Spine - The Vertebral Column - The Backbone)
The vertebral column subdivides five main parts from cranial to caudal. The number of the bones are different in each parts and among animal species.
Cervical part Thoracic part Lumbar part Sacral part Coccygeal part
The Parts of The Vertebral Column
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Number of the Vertebrae In Spine
Pars
cervicalis Pars
thoracalis Pars
lumbalis Pars
sacralis Pars caudalis
Human 7 12 5 5 4
Horse 7 18 5-6 5 15-22
Donkey 7 18 5 5 15-22
Cattle 7 13 6 5 18-20
Sheep 7 13 6-7 4 3-24
Goat 7 13 6 5 12-16
Dog 7 13-14 6-7 3 18-22
Cat 7 13-14 7 3 18-22
Pig 7 13-14 6-7 4 20-23
Vertebra is an irregular shape bone that forms the vertebral column.
Basic configuration of a vertebra is composed of;
a body (corpus vertebrae) and an arch (arcus vertebrae). The body and the vertebral arch form the vertebral foramen, central large opening that accommodates the spinal canal, which encloses and protects the spinal cord.
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VERTEBRA (pl. Vertebrae)
Corpus vertebrae
- Extremitas cranialis (caput vertebrae) et caudalis (fossa vertebrae) - Discus intervertebralis
- Crista ventralis et dorsalis : like a cockscomb process
Arcus vertebrae
- Lamina arcus vertebra : sheet like flat part - Pediculus arcus vertebrae : the legs
- Processus vertebrae
* processus spinosus : like a thorn or spina
* processus transversus : horizontal
* processus articularis cranialis et caudalis - Incisura vertebralis cranialis et caudalis : notch
- Foramen vertebrale laterale : opens to the vertebral foramen - Foramen transversarium : specific for the cervical vertebrae
Foramen vertebrale - Canalis vertebralis
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VERTEBRA (pl. Vertebrae)
Although the length of the neck varies greatly, almost all the mammalian species possess 7 cervical vertebrae.
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Vertebrae cervicalis
Exceptions;
Sea cow and two toed sloth have 6 cervical vertebrae
Ant bear has 8 cervical vertebrae
Three toed sloth has 9 cervical vertebrae
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Vertebrae cervicalis
The cervical part of the spine is a «S» shaped column.
They can be distinguished from those of the thoracic or lumbar parts by the presence of foramen transversarium in each transverse process (except C7), through which the vertebral artery passes.
The vertebral transverse processes of mammals are homologous to the cervical ribs of other amniotes like lizard.
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Vertebrae cervicalis – Neck bones
The first and second cervical vertebrae (Atlas-Axis) are specialized to allow a greater range of motion than normal vertebrae. So they facilitate free movement of the head. Because of their specialised function their shape differs from that of the others in the neck.
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Vertebrae cervicalis – Neck bones
The first (the most cranial) cervical vertebra
It holds up the head. So, the name originates from the Atlas of Greek Mythology
It forms the atlanto-occipital joint connecting the the head and the spine. The joint allows the head to nod up and down on the vertebral column (the YES joint)
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C1 - ATLAS
Atlas has no body and spinous process for the great nod mobility of the head
It consists of two arches; Arcus dorsalis et ventralis
And to lateral masses: Ala atlantis (proc.tansversus)
Tuberculum dorsale et ventrale
Fovea articularis cranialis et caudalis
Fovea dentis
Fossa atlantis
For.transversarium (absent in Ru)
For.vertebrale laterale (two in goat)
For.alare
Inc.alaris (Car and rabbit)
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C1 - ATLAS
Axis has an extremly long body
It has a prominent crista ventralis
Cranial end of Axis has a metamorphosis and posses odontoid (tooth-like) process (dens of axis)
The dens supports the atlas and allows pivotal motion of the atlanto-axial joint (the NO joint)
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C2 – AXIS (Epistropheus)
Procc. articulares cranialis et caudalis
Facies articulares cranialis et caudalis
Proc. Transversus and for. transversarium
Inc.vertebralis cranialis (Car)
For. vertebrale laterale (Ru, eq, su)
Inc.vertebralis caudalis
Proc. Spinosus has a ridge (two pieces in eq)
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C2 – AXIS (Epistropheus)
They help holding the head and form a support for the neck muscles.
The body of them gradually diminish in length towards the caudally otherwise the spinous process become prominent. (the shape is rectangular in horse)
Crista ventralis is well-developed.
Proc.transversus divides two pieces cranial and caudal.
For.transversarium
For.vertebrale laterale (su)
Proc.muscularis (Ca)
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C3, C4, C5
C6
It is characterized by the absence of crista ventralis
The spinous process is more prominent than the 3rd, 4th, 5th.
The ventral parts of the transvers process are well-developed
It is like a sledge in horse
It is like a wooden armed baby toy in others
For.vertebrale laterale (ru)
C7 – Vertebra prominens
It is characterised by the absence of for.transversarium
It has also attachment surface for the first thoracal rib (fovea costalis caudalis)
Proc.spinosus is more significant than the other cervical bones
Vertebrae thoracicae – Back bones
Thoracic vertebrae are situated between the cervical and lumbal portions of the spine.
They form the roof of the thoracic cage
The numbers differ greatly among mammals
Man: 12, Eq: 18, Ru: 13, Car:13, Su:13-14
Vertebrae thoracicae – Back bones
They are characterised by well-develop spinous process and joint facets for the ribs. The body of the vertebra is short and the articular processes are reduced
Fovea costalis cranialis et caudalis
Fovea costalis processus transversi
Proc.mamillaris
Vertebrae thoracicae – Back bones
Man: 12, Eq: 18, Ru: 13, Car:13, Su:13-14
Spinous process increases gradually in length until 3rd- 4th, diminished until 15th, then have same length until sacrum. The 4th-5th is the highest point of the back.
Anticlinal bone;
Eq: 16, Bo: 13, Cap: 12, Ov: 11, Car: 10-11, Su: 11-12
Vertebrae thoracicae – Back bones
Inc.vertebralis caudalis is deep (in horse)
For.vertebrale laterale (Ru. and sometimes in donkey)
Spinous process is broader and cranial border is sharp in Ru.
Dorsal end of the spinous process has a tubercle in Eq.
For.vertebrale dorsale et ventrale perforate the root of proc.transversus in Su.
Accessory process is seen in last 2-3 vertebrae in Car. and Su.
Cranial and caudal rib facets are absent in
last 3 bone in human and Su.
Vertebrae lumbalis
The lumbar vertebrae are situated between the thoracic part and sacrum of the spine.
They form the roof of the abdominal cavity
The numbers varies according to animals
Man: 5, Eq: 5-6, Ru: 6, Car:7, Su: 6
Vertebrae lumbalis
The transvers processes are well-developed, expanded and elongated
The body of the bones are large, the cranial and caudal ends are flat.
The diamater of the vertebral canal increase in order
to accomodate the lumbar swelling (intumescentia)
of the spinal cord.
Vertebrae lumbalis
Proc.mamilloarticularis: The cranial articular processes are fused with the mamillary process
Proc.accessorius: A rod-like spine project caudally (car)
Vertebrae lumbalis
Spatium interarcuale is narrow but spatium interarculae lumbosacrale is large and allows access to the vertebral canal for clinical purpose such as injections
Transvers process of the last two lumbar vertebrae have facets on the cranial and caudal border for articulation with each other and wing of sacrum.
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Vertebrae sacralis - Sacrum
The sacrum is a large triangular shape bone at the end of the spine, that forms by the fusing of sacral vertebrae
The number of the sacral vertebrae is slightly different between animal species;
Man, Eq., bo., cap.:5 , Ov., Su.: 4 , Car.: 3
The shape of the bone resembles the poster of crucifix jesus
Vertebrae sacralis - Sacrum
The sacrum forms the roof of pelvic cavity.
It articulates with the last lumbar vertebra, the first caudal vertebra and two hip bones
Vertebrae sacralis - Sacrum
The sacrum has a base, an apex, and two surfaces (pelvic and dorsal surface) that cover the sacral canal.
Basis ossis sacri ; The base of the bone
The broadest part of the sacrum that is directed forward.
Ala ossis sacri ; is a large projection on either side of the base
Facies auricularis ; is a rough articular area for the sacroiliac joint
Proc. articularis cranialis
Entrance of the sacral canal
Promontorium ; protrusion on the dorsal border of pelvic inlet
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Vertebrae sacralis - Sacrum
The sacrum has a base, an apex, and two surfaces (pelvic and dorsal surface) that cover the sacral canal.
Apex ossis sacri ; Caudal end of the bone
The small part of the sacrum that lies caudally
Proc.articularis caudalis
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Vertebrae sacralis - Sacrum
The sacrum has a base, an apex, and two surfaces (pelvic and dorsal surface) that cover the sacral canal.
Facies dorsalis; the complex dorsal surface of the bone
Crista sacralis mediana is formed by the fusion of consecutive spinous processes (Ru)
Crista sacralis intermedia is formed by the fusion of consecutive articular processes (Ru)
Crista sacralis lateralis is formed by the fusion of consecutive transvers processes (Eq)
Forr.sacralia dorsalia
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Vertebrae sacralis - Sacrum
The sacrum has a base, an apex, and two surfaces (pelvic and dorsal surface) that cover the sacral canal.
Facies dorsalis; the flat or concave ventral surface of the bone
Forr.sacralia ventralia
Lineae transversae
Vertebrae caudalis - Coccygea
In domestic animals, the number of the caudal vertebrae varies considerably not only in the different species but also from breed to breed.
Proc.hemalis ; Two spine on the ventral surface of the caudal vertebrae in bo. and car.
These spines are fused and occasionally form an arch. The caudal median artery pass from the arch
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THORAX – Thoracic cage – Rib cage
Thorax is a cavity formed by bony and cartilaginous structures. These are consist of the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, the costal cartilages and the sternum.
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THORAX – Thoracic cage – Rib cage
It provides a skeleton for thoracic cavity thereby encloses and protects the thoracic (heart and lungs) and some hypochondriac abdominal organs (stomach and liver).
Thorax also supports the pectoral girdle and forelimb
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THORAX – Thoracic cage – Rib cage
Thoracic inlet; Apertura thoracis cranialis
Thoracic outlet; Apertura thoracis caudalis
Intercostal space; Spatium intercostale
THE RIBS - Costae
The ribs are long curved bones arranged in pairs and articulate with two succesive vertebrae. They form the lateral wall of the thorax.
The number of the ribs are related with the number of thorcacic vertebrae as pair.
True ribs (costae verae – costae sternales)
False ribs (costae spuriae – costae asternales)
Floating ribs (costae fluctuantes) (in man, Car.)
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THE RIBS - Costae
The numbers of the ribs among mammals; Man;7/3/2-Car;9/3/1-Su;7/7-Ru;8/5-Eq;8/10 True ribs (costae verae – costae sternales)
The ribs located cranial part of the rib cage are attached with sternum directly by means of their cartilages
They are slightly curved rigid bones and bind with the spine to the sternum
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THE RIBS - Costae
The numbers of the ribs among mammals; Man;7/3/2-Car;9/3/1-Su;7/7-Ru;8/5-Eq;8/10 False ribs (costae spuriae – costae asternales)
They are not conjoined with the sternum directly. The cartilages of the ribs unit with one other and form the costal arch. They are more strongly curved and higly mobile.
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THE RIBS - Costae
The numbers of the ribs among mammals; Man;7/3/2-Car;9/3/1-Su;7/7-Ru;8/5-Eq;8/10 Floating ribs (costae fluctuantes) (in man, Car.)
The ventral end of the last ribs are free and not attached to bones or cartilages.
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THE RIBS - Costae
Os costale (the rib bone) - Caput costae
Facies articularis capitis costae cranialis Facies articularis capitis costae caudalis Crista capitis costae
- Collum costae - Tuberculum costae
Facies articularis tuberculi costae - Angulus costae
- Corpus costae Sulcus costae - Genu costae
Cartilago costalis (the rib cartilage)
