Bozkurt Güuenç

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Bozkurt Güuenç

SS5»

TÜR KİYE CUMHURİYETİ NİN YETM İŞBEŞ YILI

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History of

Turkish Educatiorı

Bozkurt Güvenç

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fl Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l P u b l i s h e d B y

S p e c i a l I s s u e H H İ

Education and Scienc

■ ■ ■ f l p r i l 1998, Uol. 2 2 , Ilo:108 ■ ■

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T Ü R K E Ğ İ T İ M D E R N E Ğ İ B İ L İ M K U R U L U Ü Y E L E R İ

Başkan Prof. Dr. Özcan DEMİREL Başkan Yardımcısı Prof. Dr. Sabri KOÇ

Dernek Temsilcisi Yener ERGÜVEN Üye Prof. Dr. Bozkurt GÜVENÇ Üye Prof. Dr. N ingur NOYANALPAN Üye Prof. Dr. İlhan AKHUN

Üye Prof. Dr. Bekir ONUR Üye Prof. Dr. Cemal TALUĞ Üye Prof. Dr. Ayşegül ATAMAN Üye Doç. Dr. Meral ÇİLELİ Üye Dr. Ferhan OĞUZKAN

ISBN - 975-7583-10-3

S ah ib i: Türk Eğitim Derneği Adına Genel Başkan A. Sezer ERGİN S o r u m l u Y a y ın M ü d ü rü : Y enerE R G Ü V E N

Eğitim ve Bilim/Education and ScienceTED Bilim K urulu’nun bilimsel sorumluluğunda çıkarılm aktadır. Türk Eğitim D erneği’nce yılda dört kez yayınlanır.

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A Note on Turkish Historiography

A ccording to a concept o f history held in F rance but p r e v a i l i n g in th e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d th e vvriting o f history, in the proper sense o f the word, may be divided into four principal ages:

1) The Classical (First) Ages: BC 3000-AD 476 (From early writings to the fail o f Rome) 2) The M iddle (Dark) Ages: A D 476-1453

(From the Fail of R om e to the Fail o f B yzantium ) 3) The New Ages: F rom 1453 to the French

R evolution (1789)

4) The R ecent or N ear Ages : F ro m 1789 to the Present

A ccording to records o f C hinese archives, the T u r k s ’ appearance on the historical stage took place ab o u t BC 2 2 0 . B y th is d a t e , T u r k s m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d as l a te com ers to world history. Hence, like many nations o f the E ast, T u rk is h h isto ry f o llo w e d a ro a d o f d e v e lo p m e n t m a rk e d ly d iffe re n t from the p a tte rn e s ta b lis h e d in the W est. F ollow ing the criteria o f w estern historiography, S i n a A k ş i n h a s r e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g chronology:

1) The C lassical (first) A ges (BC 220 - AD 1071).

(From nomadic beginnings to arrival in Asia Minör).

2) The M iddle Ages (AD 1071-1839) up to T anzim at (Reform s)

(An Islamic and slow transition to sedentary life ) 3) The N ew Ages (AD 1839 - 1908)

(Process o f westernisation to a state o f law)

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4) T he R ecen t o r N ea r A ges (AD 1908 - to the Present).

(Wide scale migrations, urbanisation and capitalism) Ali such ch ronologies tend to be tailored to suit the d i v e r s e p u r p o s e s o f h i s t o r i a n s . H e n c e , f r o m t h e standpoint o f educational history, the follow ing schem e m a y be adapted as the three m ain titles or parts o f the essay that follovv:

1) F rom early B eginnings to T anzim at Reforms (ca 1850),

2) From Tanzimat to Modemity: The First Hundred Years (1 8 5 0 - 1 9 5 0 ),

3) From Scholastic to Social Education (1950-to Present).

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P a r t I. F r o m B e g in n in g s to T a n zim a t (ca 18 5 0 ) E d ucation o f the ancient Turks from early beginnings to the T anzim at (or the O ttom an R eform ation) p eriod in the second h a lf o f the 19th century is o v erview ed in three parts:

• Education among Ancient Turks before the Ottomans;

• Schools and Scholars m olding the O ttom an Em pire;

• T he E nderun School and U pbringing o f Janissaries.

1.1. E d u ca tio n o f the A n c ie n t T u rks b efo re O tto m a n s T h e h o m e o f th e a n c i e n t H u n s a n d T u r k s , o f t e n re ferred to as “C entral A s ia ” , was actually in the Altai region located to the north o f China. N om adic p eoples o f t h i s r e g i o n w e r e e n g a g e d in a s e m i - p a s t o r a l a n i m a l husbandry. That is, like m odern M ongolians, they lived in portable, round tents and m o v ed about, grazing their stock on piedm onts, plateaus and back to the plains. T he G re a t W all o f C h in a s ep a rated b u t did not b lo c k them fro m the fertile lands and basins lying in the south. They f r e q u e n t l y c r o s s e d the w all a n d in v a d e d the C h i n e s e territories but, m ore often than not, fell prey to cultural assim ilation with agrarian peoples and becam e Chinese.

A fter the Huns, m igrating to and invading Europe, T urks e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r o w n s t e p p e e m p i r e k n o w n as t h e G ö k tü r k ( A D 5 5 2 - 7 4 5 ) . T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h i s statecraft, they erected the O rhon M on u m en ts with signs and symbols o f the early Turkish cosm ology in both the T u r k i s h ( 3 8 - l e t t e r R u n i c ) a l p h a b e t a n d th e C h i n e s e (k h a n ji) characters. After the Gokturks, Uygurs (A D 745- 950) in the Eastern Türkistan or S in -k ia n g (agricultural)

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r e g i o n o f w e s t e r n C h i n a , l i v i n g i n t o w n s h i p s , h a d com m ercial relations wilh neighbors and used a ne w (14- letter S o g d ) alphabet, adapted to the agglutinative nature o f T u rk ic lan g u ag e s. A fte r a lo n g p ra c tic e o f A lta istic S h a m a n i s m (E l ia d e , 1964), the U y g u r s s e e m to h a v e b e c o m e a c q u a in t e d w ith, and c o n v e r t e d to B u d d h i s m , w h i c h h a d lo n g b e e n d i f f u s i n g f r o m N o r t h e r n I n d i a t o w a r d s C h i n a , K o r e a a n d J a p a n . N o m a d i c T u r k i s h tribesm en, m igrating further vvest, also en c o u n te re d the Islam ic conquest sw eeping the region to the east o f the Caspian Sea and vvest o f the Aral lake, a region alternately referred by Persians as “T u ra n ” or the home o f Turks.

This is w h e re T urks, g ra d u a lly c o n v e rtin g to İslam , established their first and im portant dynasties know n as th e K a r a k h a n i d (A D 9 4 0 - 1 2 1 1 ) , f a ll i n g n o r t h o f the Oxus, and G h a zn av id (AD 963-1186) to the south o f the Oxus. To the north o f these peoples, betvveen the rivers S y r D a r y a a n d A m u D a r y a , l i v e d th e O g h u z (G h u z ) tribes who later founded the S eljuk Dynasty (AD 1038- 1157) in Persia and Asia M inör (Anatolia).

E d u c a tio n in th e p re - I s l a m i c e r a was, as e x p e c te d , m a i n l y by e n c u ltu r a tio n , ie, “m o r e s m a d e e v e r y t h i n g r ig h t .” P eo p le b eliev e d sons w ere born to b e c o m e like f a t h e r s a n d d a u g h t e r s l i k e t h e i r m o t h e r s . H e n c e the m a x im : “ F ath ers e d u c a te th e ir so n s and m o th e r s their d a u g h t e r s . ” T h e f i r s t l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e a p a r t f r o m the im perial C hinese influences seem ed to flourish am ong the Uygurs, who, w ith their sim ple (14-letter S o g d ) alphabet, w ere, acco rd in g to archeo lo g ist B ossert, forerunners in the invention or diffusion o f the printing press, som ewhat ahead o f the Chinese.

E d ucational ideas and practices, in transition from a w a rlike n o m a d is m o f m assiv e h o rd es (from the Turkic

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w o r d o rd u ) to a m o re p e a c e f u l a g g r a r i a n i s m , m a y be found in, or trac ed to the epic stories in the “B o o k o f (m y ) G r a n d a d K o r k u t ” (K itab-ı D ed e(m ) K o rku t). T h e b o o k d e p i c t s t w e l v e s t o r i e s o f O g h u z i a n n a r r a t o r s ( “o z a n s " o r t r a v e llin g folk b a rd s). T h ey a p p e a r to be c o m p o s e d in d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d p l a c e s , s t a r t i n g p ro b a b ly in the lo w e r re a c h e s o f the S y r-D a ry a (f ro m ab o u t 9th to lOth centuries), and in north eastern Asia M i n ö r (fro m lOth to 15th c e n tu r ie s ). T h e sto rie s as a w hole reflect the cultural transition from pre-Islam ic to Islam ic, from the fighting A lp to the wise S u fi o r G hazi, fro m a n om adic stock to an agrarian way o f life. O ghuz t r i b e s m e n d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s n o t o n l y w i t h p h y sic a l b ut also w ith h ig h m o ra l strength. T h e b ra v e o n e w ould not b ra g about his ow n deeds but h o n o r other h e r o e s . S u c h v a l u e s as p r a i s i n g m o r a l i t y , b r a v e r y , d e v o t i o n to h o m e la n d a n d r e s p e c t to a n c e s to rs as the hig h e st virtues w ere h anded dow n from each gene ratio n to the next. K orkut, the wise old man, was the tutor o f th e Khan, princes and co m m o n p eo p le alike. H e w as the u n c h a l l e n g e d a u t h o r i t y , s y m b o l a n d s p e a k e r o f th e ethos. “V alour is dearer than w e a lth ” he said. H e taught t h e ru les o f h o n o r, c o n s c ie n c e , f a it h a n d d e v o t i o n to ancestors. T here is the story about a captive father who w a s declared dead so that his son w ould not be ash a m e d b y his fa th e r’s disgrace. C hildren w ere un d er the care o f th e family until they were 15 years old. C hildless couples w e re held in low esteem.

T w e lv e stories o f the epic, tied to g e th e r aro u n d the G r a n d a d K o rk u t figüre, were transcribed into a w ritten t e x t in the 14th o r 15th c e n tu r y . T h e y are a b o u t the r e l a t i o n s o f th e O g h u z w i th n e i g h b o r i n g A r m e n i a n s ,

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R o m a n s ( R u m s o r B y z a n t i n e s ) a n d G e o r g i a n s . T h e y p r o v id e in s ig h t in to s a c re d c o n v i c t i o n s an d p r a c t i c e s , f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s , e c o n o m i c l i f e a n d p o l i t i c a l o rg a n isa tio n s. A c c o rd in g to C a m s h id o v , the fu n c tio n a l p u rp o se o f the K orkut stories is to defend peace and to o rder in the land and protect the unity and h o n o r o f the O ghuz peoples. C ontrary to the “in n er” (iç) and “o u te r”

(d ış) m o itie s m e n t i o n e d in the s to rie s , B a y ın d ır K h a n living ali the way tıp in north K azan is the c h i e f o f ali O ghuz tribes. W ars break out with enem y attacks b u t end w ith O ghuz victory. The peace loving K han em erges as a charismatic leader. The “ego vs others” structures detected are fictive. R ather than antagonism or dichotom y, a spirit o f diversity, tolera nce, fo rg iv e n ess, love, affe c tio n and c o n ciliation prevails in the land b e tw e e n groups. I f the i n d i v i d u a l t a k e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i y f o r a l i , t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y w ill p r o t e c t th e r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . A m o th e r’s right is held equivalent to G o d ’s. W o m e n appear to be active, leading and respected heroines in ali stories.

A so n n a m e d U r u z , d e f y i n g o r r e b e l l i n g a g a i n s t his father, declares that he is leaving hom e for the A bha za, to a d o p t C h ristia n ity and m arry the p r i e s t ’s d a u g h te r . As s u g g e s t e d by K o e s t l e r in the T h irte erıth T rib e so m e probably converted to Judaism , too.

A n other s o u rc eb o o k o f info rm atio n c o n c e rn in g early T u rk ish education, and re flecting Islam ic in flu e n c e s, is the K utatgu B ilig (“Ethics o f H a ppine ss”) by Y u s u f Has H ajib (1069) o f B alasagun. It was written in the U ygur (ıS o g d ) a lp h a b e t a n d p re s e n te d to H a sa n Ibn S u le im a n A s l a n K ha n o f th e K a ra k h a n id D y n a sty . T h e sc e n a rio consists o f d idactic d ialogues tak in g place b e tw e e n the K h a n r e p r e s e n t i n g j u s t i c e , a n d h i s t h r e e m e n r e p r e s e n t i n g v visdom , r a t i o n a l i t y a n d c o n t e n t m e n t ,

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respectively. W here k now lege was considered to be the h i g h e s t g o o d , a n d h o n e s t y th e b e s t p o l i c y . H u m a n s , b e c o m e m e n b y e d u c a t i o n . P a r e n t s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e m o ra lly a c c o u n t a b l e for the p r o p e r e d u c a tio n o f th e ir c h ild re n : in S e c ti o n 63 and a f te r, th e re are p i e c e s o f educational advice and w isdom generously offered:

Train each child yourself Teach them knowledge, ethics Don ’t trust them to others, For happiness in two worlds, Don ’t let children wander Find a good bride fo r the son For they may go yonder Let daughter be married cıway,

Lucky ifgirls weren ’t born at a li

In the last couplet there is a m arked prejudice against the l'emale sex w h ich is e ith er a ttrib u te d to the a u th o r h im self or the relatively secondary status o f w om en in the new ly adopted İslam , w hich seem s like a departure from the nom adic and the transient G rand ad K orkut teaching o f ethics.

A nother text o f educational significance is the D iva n - ü L u g a t-it T ürk A “C y c lo p a e d ic D ictio n ary o f T u rk is h L a n g u a g e s ”) by M a h m u t o f K ashgar. It was w ritten in B a g h d a d ( 1 0 7 2 - 7 4 ) , w i t h t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f i n t r o d u c in g an d te a c h i n g T u r k i s h to A ra b ic s p e a k in g peoples. As in the other books already m en tio n ed , there i s n o s i g n o f a f o r m a l o r s c h o l a s t i c e d u c a t i o n b u t f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s to b a b y t r a i n i n g , c u l t u r a l a n d in fo rm al p ro c esses such as the im p o rta n c e o f h y g ien e, te n d e r lullabies from by m o th ers for p u tting b a b ie s to s l e e p in a c r a d le ; p r o p e r n u r s in g , to ile t tr a i n i n g , ete.

S o m e ghosts or p hantom s are m e n tio n ed for sca rin g and d i s c i p l in i n g the c h ild w h e n an d if n e c e s s a ry . A ls o , a

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v a r i e t y o f c h i l d g a m e s w e re d e s c r i b e d f o r c o r r e c t l y identifying the nam es o f anim als and plants living in the vicinity. A cco rd in g to M ah m u t o f K ashgar, the T u rk ish w o rd b ilig (as in the title K u ta tg u B ilig a bove ), m e a n s and is used for Science, p h ilo so p h y and logos. T h is b o o k is also a l i n g u i s t i c i n t r o d u c ti o n to T u r k i s h p r o v e r b s : know ledge is an attribute o f State existence; listen to the w ise and do w h a t you learn fro m them , ete. P rin cip les for effective learning o f the T u rk is h language are:

• Proceed from sample cases to general rules, ie. in duetion ra th er than d ed u e tio n which is also followed in Islamic discourse;

• Use samples, poem s and proverbs o f daily eyele;

• A p p ro a ch culture by m eans of, or th rough language;

• Repeat generously and use repetitions for effective teaching-learning.

T a k i n g his o w n a d v i c e M a h m u t w ro te , e d i te d and revised his own b o o k several times. He added to his book a c i r c u l a r m a p o f t h e w o r l d l y i n g a r o u n d t h e O ld (Asiatic) W orld w hich did not inelude Byzantines whom the Seljuks h ad j u s t d e feated (1071). T h ese w e re busy c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e i r m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y i n A s i a M i n ö r (Anatolia).

The Seljuk D ynasty o f Iran was a new state founded by the T u rk is h i n v a d e r s , d e s c e n d in g fro m the Sasanid D y n a s t y . T h e y o v e r w h e l m e d a n d e m p l o y e d t h e old P ersian bure au cratic language, k n o w -h o w and tradition in sta te c ra ft, s u rv iv in g the Is la m ic ta k e o v e r o f Persia.

T h e ir education is m arked by

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(a) the favorable disposition o f statesm en tow ards the arts and sciences

(b) the Institutions o f formal and informal education and (c) the A ta b eks (honorable m a s te r /fa th e r s ) w ho

will be discussed below.

F a m o u s S e l j u k r u l e r s li k e T u ğ r u l B e y , A l p a s l a n , M e lik s h a h , N iz a m - a l M tılk the a u t h o r o f S iy a s e tn a m e ( “ B o o k o f the P o li t i c s ” ) and S a n c a r had ali d i s p l a y e d g re a t tru st an d r e s p e c t for the M a d r a sa sc h o la r s . T h e organisation o f the Great Seljuk State after G hazali was based on secular separation o f the politico-m ilitary affairs and the Khaliphate, responsible for religious affairs. They w e r e , h o w e v e r . c o o r d i n a t e d b y a G r a n d V i z i e r o r S e c r e t a r y o f S ta te , u n d e r b u t a c ti n g on b e h a l f o f the Sultan. Their official motto was that

A true sch o la r w ill not yield o r bow to the am ir, [but ] a true am ir w ill alw ays consult the scholar.

Statesm en serving in ali branches o f the gov ern m e n t w e re trained in the M adrasa. Hence, in İslam, ulem a, o r

“ scholars”, m eans priests and pastors. The seljuks tried to establish and maintain the D a r-al İslam (C o m m o n w ealth o f İslam) in Anatolia, for which they fought to the bitter end. After the first Seljuk M adrasa fo u n d e d in N is h a p u r i n 1040 by T u ğ ru l Bey, several N izam ia M adra sa were fo u n d e d by A lpaslan and his grand vizier N iza m -al M ülk i n B aghdad, They were soon extended to ali m ajör cities lik e Musul, Basra, Herat, Isfahan, Merv, Am ul, R ey and T u s . Several o f the functions and purpose s ass ig n e d to th e new M adrasa were :

• D efending the S ü n n i (O rthodox) faith against the political Shia,

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• Training state bureaucrats for service to the em pire,

• Ensuring the allegiance o f the O ghuz tribesm en to the state,

• Educating the M üslim scholars (M ulla h o r clergy),

• Supervising the education o f people in newly acquired lands,

• Selecting and prom oting the poor for various state functions,

• Initiating statesm en into Science and education for public service.

The instruction was in Arabic, the language o f the holy Koran. The method o f teaching was based on rote learning or m em orizing by repetition. E xcept for the m ain cities, there was only one full professor (mudarris / m aster teacher or i n stru c to r) p e r i n s titu tio n w ith s e v e ra l a s s is ta n ts o r associates. The student enrolments ran ged from an average o f 40 to several hundred. In Konia, the Capital o f Anatolian Seljukids in the 13th century, for example, there were 15 m adrasa enrolling a total o f about 600 students.

F o u n d a t i o n s s e e m to h a v e b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d successful in providing am ple funds for the em plo y m en t o f staff for the em plogm ent o f staft including m asters and s t u d e n t s , a n d f o r th e m a i n t e n a n c e o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n including masters, assistants, tutors, imams and students.

Salaries, stipends and scholarships ranged from a yearly m a x im u m o f 800 dinars (units) p aid to the master, down to 10-15 dinars for the students, in addition to their board and lodging. M adrasa also had special funds earm arked f o r b u y i n g b o o k s , l i g h t i n g a n d f u e l o i l , g e n e r a l housekeeping, ete.

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D uring the less than 200 eventful years o f their reign in A n a to l i a , w h ic h w e re m a rk e d w ith i n c e s s a n t fig h tin g , c l a s h e s a n d c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n S e l j u k s o f I c o n i u m , B y zan tin es o f B y z a n tiu m , n ative pea sants and n o m ad ic T u rkom en o f Asia Minör, not forgetting the several waves o f C r u s a d e r s a n d th e M o n g o l i a n c o n q u e s t o f 1 2 4 0 ’ s w h i c h s h o o k a n d w e a k e n e d t h e S e l j u k h o l d i n g s in A n a t o l i a , th e S e l j u k s b u i l t an i m p r e s s i v e n u m b e r o f c u ltu ra l and c o m m e rc ia l in stitutions, such as m a d ra sa , hospitals, mosques, caravanserais, ete. Despite great odds and h a n d ic a p s c a u se d by p e rs is te n t w ars, they laid the c u l t u r a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f th e T u r k i s h s o v e r e i g n t y in A n a t o l i a , l e a d i n g to e v e n t u a l I s l a m i z a t i o n a n d T urkification o f native and m igrant belligerents. Ali these a c c o m p lis h m e n ts m ay be a ttrib u te d to their in te g ra tiv e p o lic ie s in in t e rc u ltu ra l e d u c a tio n or a c c u ltu r a tio n . In 1 2 7 7 , M e h m e t B e g o f K a r a m a n n e a r K o n i a b o l d l y decreed that “F rom now on, Turkish shall be the official la n g u a g e o f the C o u rt and that o f the L a n d ” , im p ly in g obviously that it was not so until then. As the Seljukids o f Ic o n iu m seem ed to be nearing exhaustion the O ttom ans on the northw est frontier, bordering and reckoning with B y z a n tiu m were getting ready for a takeover to replace the Seljuk Sultanate.

T h e S eljuks h ad in n o v a te d a n d d e v e lo p e d i n fo rm a l institutions like the A h is brothers. C o m p a ra b le in m any ways to the Free Masonic brotherhood o f the W est, This re c e i v e d bo th o p e ra tio n a l (on the jo b ) and s p e c u la tiv e tra in in g , co n sistin g o f the 3-Rs, the b asics o f re lig io n , personal and institutional hygiene and an ethical code o f behaviotır, involving the successive tying and untying o f their business aprons. This ritual sym bolized the closing

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a n d o p e n i n g o f d o o r s : C l o s e t h e d o o r to m i s e r y , exploitation, greed, torture, ca rnal desires, talk in g non- sense or gossiping and that o f the satanic temptations; but o p e n th e d o o r to g e n e r o s i t y , c o n t e n t m e n t , p a t i e n c e , h o n e s ty , tru s t a n d re li a b il i ty ete. T h e f o l lo w i n g th re e should be kept strictly elosed: eyes (not to envy others), m o u th -to n g u e (to refrain from cursing), and dress belts (not to com m it adultery). In contrast, A h is s h o u ld h a v e open hands for generousity, o p en doors for w e lc o m in g

“God-sent guests” and open tables for feeding the hungry.

The traveller Ibn Battuta vividly testifies that A his, ali över A n a to li a , e a r n e s tl y p r a c t i s e d w h a t th e y p r e a c h e d a n d accom odated their foreign guests, visiting the land.

1.2. S ch ools a n d S ch o la rs M o ld in g the O ttom an E m p ire By and large this is the educational scene and stage that the O ttom ans had inherited from the Seljuks, inclu d in g the basic ingredients like m ektep o r ku tta p (sc h o o l and b o o k s ). In the O tto m a n ch a rte rs for fo u n d in g p rim a ry institutions they are referred to as, “m ektep, mektephcıne, m uallim h ane, d a r ü t ’ talim a n d d a r ü l’ilm ” ete, standing re spectively, for school, scho o lh o u se, teacher(s) house, drillhouse and knovvledge house. Prim ary or elem entary institutions were generally located either in, or n ear the m o s q u e o f the c o m m u n i ty . P e o p l e c a lle d th e m e i t h e r

“M a h a lle (n e g ih b o r h o o d ) ” or “S ib y a n " (pupil) m ektep.

T hey were often established by a v a q f (pious foundation), willed by notables o f the state or honorables (a sh ra p h ) o f the lo c a l so ciety . E x p e n d i t u r e s , e s p e c ia lly th at o f the te a c h e r’s salary were paid from the endovved incom e o f the va qf. In k e e p in g w ith M ü s l im p ra c tic e e ls e w h e re , S ib y a n (o r p a r is h ) sc h o o ls f o l l o w e d a s in g le tra c k o f

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simply reading the K oran in the original Arabic, vvithout tra n s la tin g , u n d e r s ta n d in g o r in te r p r e tin g the text. Ibn K h a ldun (1 3 32-1405), the m ort A frican Arab historian, so c io lo g ist and a c o n te m p o r a ry o f ea rly O tto m a n s had confirm ed the im portance o f reading, revering and loving the K o ra n in e a rly c h i l d h o o d . A r a b e h i l d e n w e r e , no d o u b t, le a r n in g th e h e r it a g e o f th e i r c u l t u r e , T u r k i s h children o f the sam e age merely learned and becam e hafez (dcaf and m ute guardians o f the book).

T h e c h a r t e r o f the F a tih ( C o n q u e r o r ’s) F o u n d a t i o n p r e s c r i b e d th e s a m e t e a c h i n g r e g i m e . T h o u g h s o m e schools gave higher priority to orphans, others gave equal o p p o r t u n i t y to ali 5 -6 y e a r o l d b o y s a n d g irls o f the n e i g h b o r h o o d . U n t i l t h e y h a d s u f f i c i e n t l y m a s t e r e d reading, ali children shared the same classroom or space under the supervision o f a single teacher (H ojha). There were no grades or levels. For S u lta n s’ (royal) princes there w e re sp e c ia l (s h e h z a d e g a n ) s c h o o ls w ith in the p a la c e c o m pounds. S om e v a q f schools, depending on the degree o f affluence in the co m m u n ity , p rovided clothing, food and pock e t m oney as well. For en couragem ent o f learning or in com pensation for the hardship that youngsters had to u ndergo and survive, the Sultans and high state officials w o u l d , f r o m t i m e to t i m e , m a k e t o k e n (ie , n o m i n a l

“ tenpence”) distributions o f money. In schools, pupils sat on th e ir k nees on the flo o r c o v e re d w ith m ats o r kilm c a r p e t s o r on s e a t c u s h i o n s t h e y b r o u g h t f r o m t h e i r homes. Books were placed on X-shaped low tables, called

“rahle-i te d ris” (study desk), for reading, repeating and m e m o r iz i n g the lesso n s assig n ed by the teacher. S o m e p r a y i n g r i t u a l s w e r e t a u g h t i n T u r k i s h . P h y s i c a l p unishm ent, slapping girls’ hands and beating b o y s ’ feet,

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was the rule rather than exception. At the school opening ceremonies, it was a com m on ritual to teli the teacher, in pre sen ce o f the child, “Flesh yours, bones m in e !” T he teacher, was thus authorized to p u n ish the child in any w a y he saw fit. In his “M e th o d o f T e a c h i n g ” , (1 4 5 3 ), H u s e y i n o g l u A l i ( h i m s e l f a t e a c h e r ) , r e c o m m e n d e d beating as an effective cure for m isbehaviour and laziness.

He argued that “Even wild animals could be trained with lashes o f the w h ip.” If not beaten that much, the S ulta n’s children too were threatened by the fa la k a (bow and rod) h a n g in g on the wall. T h e bo w w a s u se d for ty in g and h o ld in g the fe et in p o sitio n . T h e m o tto o f the s y s te m seems in effect to have been the sam e “Spare the rod spoil the child” which prevailed in western schools until recent times. H o w e v e r a G e rm an trav e lle r o f the 16th century o b se rv e d that p h y s ic a l p u n is h m e n t in O tto m a n schools was not as harsh as in the western schools o f the times.

Teachers o f the Sibyan schools, popularly referred to or a d d r e s s e d as “ H o j h a ” , w e re g r a d u a t e s o f th e s p e c ia l program s given at the M adrasa.

Ottomans as empire builders were interested in learning t h e p r a c t i c a l a r t s a n d s c i e n c e s b u t n o t so m u c h in metaphysical speculations. Scholars returning hom e from the well established M adrasa lo cated in Egypt, Iran and W estern Asia, brought hom e an old controversy that was g o i n g on a m o n g follovvers o f i m a m G h a z a l i a n d Ibn Rushd, regarding the relationship o f rational thinking to faith. Specifıcally, could the scientific realities o f life, for exam ple, be contradictory to the truth o f faith (pillars of b e lie f or credo)? In 1478, Sultan M eh m et the C onquerer put this crucial question, long over-due, before a select group o f M üslim scholars. After weeks o f deliberations,

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the scholars held up G h a z a li’s ta h a fu t (incom patibility) a rg u m e n t aga inst the c o u n ter v iew s held by Ibn R u sh d who, by the way, had strongly influenced the R enaissance in the west. T h e s c h o la rly v e r d ic t was that the h u m a n mind, vulnerable as it is, m ust stop right there and yield to the faith in dogm a. The Sultan h ad apparently confirm ed this proposition w hich thereafter becam e and rem ained the l a w o f t h e l a n d . It m a r k e d t h e e n d o f a li s c i e n t i f i c enquiries and speculations that m ay have fallen or seemed totally contrary to the established (sunni / orthodox) faith.

T h e O t t o m a n s p r o s e c u t e d m a n y y o u n g a n d t a l e n t e d persons on the grounds o f w ould-be heresy or apostacy.

Soon after the conquest o f C onstantinople, the S ultan h ad conv e rted e ight churches, inclu d in g the fa m o u s A ya (S anta) Sophia, into M adrasa. A n d d u rin g 1463-71 he b u i l t a n ew c o m p l e x , s tili k n o w n to d a y as th e F a tih K ulliya, c o n sistin g o f a Central m o s q u e s u rro u n d e d by several M adrasa, an elem entary school, hospital, library, p u b l i c b a t h s , g u e s t h o u s e s a n d a p u b l i c k i t c h e n . S p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t c u r r i c u l a a r e n o t c o n c l u s i v e b u t initially some ra d o n a l and natural sciences like m a th and m e d ic in e were p ro b a b ly taught, soon to be d iscontinued, h o w e v e r , for f e a r o f “i n c o m p a t i b i l t y ” w ith the S u n n i faith.

B ased on the prototype set by Sultan the C onquerer, S u l e i m a n th e M a g n i f i c e n t h a d h is o w n S u l e i m a n i a K ulliya, designed and built by Sinan, the ch ie f architect a n d m a s t e r b u i l d e r o f th e E m p i r e . T h e S u l e i m a n i a c o m p l e x c o n s i s t e d o f s e v e r a l s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s s u p p o rted by hostels and services ali conveniently located a r o u n d the m osque court. It stili stands erect as the pride

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o f the Empire. F rom charters o f authorisation and salaries p a i d to m a s t e r t e a c h e r s , t h e s e O t t o m a n M a d r a s a , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e b u i l t a n d d e d i c a t e d b y S u l t a n s them selves, seem to have been established especially for the teaching o f İslam . T he edu c atio n lasted one to two years but could be extended i f necessary.

Students were classified with respect to the levels (or schools) they attended:

• T alaba, at the sibyan (or elem entary school) level;

• S o fta or Ş u h ta at low er levels, in early years o f M adrasa,

• D an ishm and, at higher or ad va nced levels o f M adrasa.

T he language o f instruction in ali levels and schools was A rabic w hich in the long run lead to a dich o to m y o f the literate (ulem a, versed in Arabic) versus the illiterate (Juchela, speaking Turkish) and the inevitable low status o f T u rk (m e n )s and their spo k en lan g u ag e s. P ro g ra m s o f teac hing or cu rricu la seem to h a v e been g ro u p e d under three faculties or specialties: (1) R e lig io n a n d Law, (2) The N a tu ra l Sciences, (3) In stru m en ta l (or auxil'ıary fo r other) sciences.

1) R eligion o r Law (the ad vanced k n o w leg e o f İslam) included:

a) Tafsir (the m eaning an d interpretations o f the Koranic text),

b) H ad ith (the P ro p h e t’s sayings and checking the authenticity thereof),

c) Fıqh (the systematic, historical study of Islamic law),

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d) K elam (Isla m ic p h i l o s o p h y d e f e n d in g fa ith in T evhid / unity),

2) The N atural Sciences (rational sciences, philosophy.

mathem atics and astronomy),

3) The instrum ental sciences (logic, rhetoric, eloquence, precis writing and e sth e tic s).

T h is last g r o u p o f u s e f u l s c ie n c e s m a y be s e e n as c o r r e s p o n d i n g to th e triv iu m a n d th e q u c ıd riv iu m o f liberal education, innovated by B yzantines (Ostrogorski) j u s t b e f o r e t h e i r f a i l , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t t h e fundamentals o f western (liberal) education, in addition to th e 2 - R ’ s, w e r e c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e O t t o m a n s as s e c o n d a r y . T h i s n o t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n in t i m e l e a d to vitally critical consequences — as will shortly be seen.

The S h e y k h ’a l İslam (chief m ufti), who carried a wide span o f responsibilities ranging from religious affairs, to e d u c a t i o n ( m a d r a s a ) a n d c u l t u r e , v a q f ( p i o u s foundations), to municipal adm inistration and justice, held the highest office, second in rank only to the S a d ra za m (Grand Vizier). M udarris (masters) o f the M adrasa w ho r a n k e d j u s t u n d e r the S h e y k h ’a l İsla m , e n j o y e d s o m e degree o f adm inistrative autonom y and academ ic freedom or immunity, were subject to court trials but as a rule not given the death penalty. Molla L u tfi’s exceptional case is perhaps com parable to Socrates’.

P ri e s t-p re a c h e rs (Im a m -H a tib s), s tate fu n c tio n a rie s , a n d kadis (judge-governors) o f cities and towns w ere, as a rule, ali M a d ra sa g ra duates. T e a c h e r s o f e le m e n ta ry ( s ib y a n ) s c h o o l s , t e a c h i n g m a i n l y r e a d i n g a n d s o m e w r i t i n g , w e r e g r a d u a t e s o f s p e c i a l p r o g r a m m e s , c o m p risin g A rabic, A rabic gram m ar, literatüre, rhetoric,

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eth ics o f discu ssio n , didactics o f the t e a c h in g -le a r n in g p r o c e s s , m a th e m a t i c s an d g e o g r a p h y . A r i t h m e t i c w a s included in g eom etry w hile history was part of, o r taken up with, geography. Special re quirem ents o f the te a c h e r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s , n a m e l y e t h i c s ( r ı ı l e s ) o f d iscu ssio n s an d d id a c tic s cali for c o m m en t. T h e s e two s e e m to b e u n i q u e a n d o f T u r k i s h i n n o v a t i o n . C a n d i d a t e s in th e t e a c h e r p r o g r a m m e w e re e x e m p t e d f r o m fık ıh (Isla m ic L aw ); T e a c h e r s w e re the a c c e p te d a n d r e s p e c t e d m e m b e r s o f c o m m u n i t y . P r o p h e t M o h a m m a d had declared that “T ea chers are like ca ndle s o f t h i s a n d t h e w o r l d h e r e a f t e r ” . M o r e p o p u l a r l y , e d u c a t i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d as t h e r o a d to m a n h o o d . O t t o m a n s d i s c e r n e d a n d a p p r e c i a t e d , h o w e v e r , a d i f fe re n c e b e tw e e n an e d u c a te d p e r so n and a m a n , as reflected in the follow ing anecdote :

O nce upon a tim e, a f a t h e r to ld h is so n th a t he co u ld n e v e r becom e a man. The son tu rn ed o ut to be a vizier a n d h a d his fa th e r brou g h t to his office.

“F a th e r ,” the V izier said, “yo u see, l ’ve beco m e the V iz ie r .” “Yes, I see w h a t y o u h a ve b e c o m e ” sa id the fa th e r, “But, T d to ld you that yo u c o u ld n ’t becom e a m an — n o t the Vizier.

After 1550, at the height o f the reign o f Suleiman the Magnifıcent, M adrasa seemed to be in a steady decline, like the state they were part o f and serving. Scholars like Kochi Beg (1631), and Katip Chelebi (1656), submitted reports for an overall reform o f education, but to no avail, however.

The M adrasa system just could not prevent its, fail.

D e s p i t e s e r i o u s c u r r i c u l a r s h o r t c o m i n g s ( l a c k o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s ) a n d a n a c h r o n i s t i c as w e l l as o b s c u r a n t i s t t e n d e n c i e s — l o o k i n g b a c k w ith lo n g in g

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ra th e r than surging ahead— M a d ra sa e d u c atio n up to the 1600 may be giv en credit for

1) T he high quality and standards o f physical, plant and academ ic life around the m ain m osques located at the civic centrum;

2) The ex cellent room and b oard ac com odation either free o f charge or within easy m eans and re ach o f scholarship holders;

3) An e d u c a t i o n a l p h i lo s o p h y c o m p a r a b l e to “ ea rn a n d l e a r n ” ; s t u d e n t s o f M a d r a s a , w h o w e r e e x p e c t e d to t a k e c a r e o f t h e m s e l v e s , o f t e n volunteered for trouble shooting assignm ents given by the state.

In addition to H useinoglu A l i ’s (1453) T a r ik ’ü l E deb (W a y s o r M e t h o d s o f E d u c a t io n ) , a lre a d y m e n t i o n e d , three scholars stand out for their works and ideas about O t t o m a n e d u c a ti o n : K ı n a l ı z a d e A li ( 1 5 1 0 - 7 2 ) , K a ti b C h eleb i (1609-56) and İbrahim M ü tefe rrik a (1 6 7 4 -1 7 4 5 ) w h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s w ill n o w b e b r i e f l y m e n t i o n e d . W ritten in 1564, on b e h a lf o f Ali Pasha the g o v e rn o r o f S y r i a (hence the boo k title), K ı n a l ı z a d e ’s A h la k -ı A la i c o n s i s t s o f th re e c h a p te rs: P r a c tic a l E th ic s, E th ic s o f F a m ily R elations (domestic education) and the P olitics o f S ta te c r a ft. O n f a m i l y e t h i c s , K ı n a l ı z a d e s t r e s s e s th e im p o rta n c e o f m oderate and peaceful parental relations f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y o f c h i l d r e n ( o r personality) o f both sexes. In politics he distinguishes two g e n e r i c t y p e s b a s e d o n v i r t u e a n d c o r r u p t i o n . T h e A l m i g h t y ’ s c h o i c e a n d o r d e r is j u s t as H e is th e be ne vole nt adm inistrator, striving for the w elfare o f his p eo p le . T h e h ead o f the state m u s t (a) treat ev e ry b o d y

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equally, (b) distribute with equity, (c) never accept gifts o r bribes, (d) know the enemies well, (e) shun d ec isions taken in fury or hurry. His ideal state model, k n o w n as th e D a ir e -i A d a le t ( “C irc le o f J u s t i c e ” ), se e m s to be inspired either by the neo P la tonist F a r a b i ’s “V irtu o » s C ity ” or taken m ore directly from A ristotle’s Politics. H e s o m e h o w m a n a g e d to e s c a p e o r s u r v i v e G h a z a l i ’ s ( T a h a f u t - a l f a l a s i f e ) , w a r n i n g s c h o l a r s a b o u t t h e incom patibility o f philosophy and ideology.

K â t i b C h e l e b i , w h o w a s a s e l f e d u c a t e d m a n o f s c ie n c e , w ell a h e a d o f his tim e s, stro v e a lm o s t s in g le handedly for an Ottoman Renaissance and Enlightenment.

A m o n g h i s d o z e n s o f b o o k s i s K e s h - f u z Z u n u n a cyclopaedic, annotated dictionary o f about 15 000 titles.

H e d i s l i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n r a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s a n d t h e S h a ria . H e stood for a secular state b ut was ca refu l not to a p p e a r a n t i - s h a r i a ( İ s l a m ) . H e e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e 3 - R ’s ( i n c l u d i n g m a t h ) , n a t u r a l h i s t o r y a n d t h e p r i m a c y o f o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s in education. In a way re m in isce n t o f A ris to tle ’s “G olden r u l e o r r a t i o ” , h e r e c o m m e n d e d m o d e r a t i o n a n d c o n ciliation, rather than conflict and extrem es. H e was c r it ic a l o f M a d r a s a 's “i n s t r u m e n t a l s c i e n c e s ” (ie. the t e a c h i n g o f A r a b i c ) a n d r e c o m m e n d e d g o i n g to th e basic 3-Rs instead. In studying p h ilo s o p h y , one should k n o w w he re to stop and not step o ut o f b o u n d s (Islam ic t e a c h i n g ) - s o s h u n h i m w h o d o e s n o t k n o w o r u n d e r s ta n d . O ne s h o u ld a p p e a r as he is a n d be as he appears; ie, “ K n o w th y se lf” . T h o u g h o thers c a n n o t duly j u d g e , one sh ould also b e lie v e in God. In te a c h in g and l e a r n i n g s c i e n c e s w a tc h the p r o p e r o r d e r (s e q u e n c e ), e a c h b r a n c h o f l e a r n i n g m a y b e a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r

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ochers. A h e ad o f his time, he was, p ro b a b ly , visu alizin g a m o d e rn “p y ra m id o f le a r n in g ” w h e re layers r e s te d one oa an other.

İbrahim M üteferrika, was a H ungarian p risoner o f war a ı d a u n ita ria n t u rn e d M ü slim . In 1727 he in tro d u c e d a ı d operated the first printing press in Turkey. T h o u g h the Jews (since 1492), G regorian A rm enians (since 1567) a ı d O r t h o d o x G r e e k s ( s i n c e 1 6 2 7 ) h a d t h e i r o w n printing p re sse s, M u s lim s w e re d e n ie d the p riv ile d g e . Müteferrika (m eaning “carrier o f dec ree s”), believed that o^scurantism was the m ain re aso n for this delay. A fter the d e f e a t in V i e n n a ( 1 6 8 9 ) O t t o m a n p o w e r w a s in d î c l i n e a n d t h e t i m e w a s up f o r s o m e r e n o v a t i o n . M üteferrika seized on this favorable spirit k n ow n as Lale Devri (the “Tulip E ra”). He was the first to print Turkish- A rabic dictionaries and natural and social science texts for the M a drasa student. T he fact that the total n u m b e r o f books printed am ounted m erely to 180 titles in the first hundred years, will show what a rem arkable fellow this prisoner o f war was.

B e sid e s these th in k ers there are two scientists. T h e ca rto g rap h e r-A d m ira l Piri R eis in the early 16th ce n tu ry d r e w a s e t o f t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e w o r l d m a p s . A f t e r l o o s i n g a s e a b a t t l e h o w e v e r , h e w a s e x e c u t e d . T h e n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n İ b r a h i m H a k k ı o f E r z u r u m ( 1 7 0 3 - 1 7 8 0 ) , in h i s M a r i f e t n a m e ( e p i s t e m o l o g y , 1 7 5 6 ) , a n tic ip a te d Darvvin’s e v o lu tio n a ry theory. A he ad o f his tim e, he ca u tio u sly noted that “T h o s e w ho re fu te such k n o w le d g e may ac tually be c o m m ittin g a erim e a g a in st t h e i r o w n f a i t h . ” T h e f a c t t h a t h i s b o o k w a s f i r s t p u b lis h e d in M e h m e t Ali P a s h a ’s C airo (E gypt) in 1835

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s h o w s th a t he h a d no i m p a c t o f c o n s e q u e n c e o n th e O tto m a n e o s m o lo g y or M ad ra sa ed ucation.

1.3. T he E n d e ru n a n d U p -B rin g in g o f Jcın issa ries Parallel to the M adrasa which educated scholars and s t a t e o f f i c i a l s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I s l a m i c t r a d i t i o n e l s e w h e r e , O t t o m a n s i n n o v a t e d a s p e c ia l an d u n i q u e institution o f education, the Palace or E nd eru n (the “ inner m o s t ” ) S c h o o l s f o r u p b r i n g i n g t h e S u l t a n ’ s K u l l a r

“ s la v e s” , better k n o w n as “J a n is sa rie s” (n e w -so ld iers), w h o w ere o rig in a lly re c ru ite d fro m se le c te d C h r i s t ia n fa m i l i e s and c a ll e d D e vsh irm e ( “ d r a f t e e s ” ) o r A c e m i- o ğ la n la r ( “fresh m en ”). T h e E n d eru n Schools b ro u g h t up t h e s e f r e s h m e n i n t o a p r o f e s s i o n a l c o r p s o f s t a t e g u a r d i a n s . O t t o m a n s s e e m e d to h a v e b e e n f a i r l y successful in this unique experim ent o f trans-[or forced]

c u l t u r a t i o n . M a n y s t a t e s m e n , w h o h e l d t h e s e a l o f a u th o r ity and fa te o f the E m p i r e in th e ir h a n d s, w e re pro d u c ts o f this process. It should be m entio n ed at the outset that the Janissaries as the end products, E n d eru n as th e school and D evshirm e as the selection system w ere closely interrelated. Starting from this last they will now be briefly described.

a) D evshirm e Boys

Every three to five years, the S u lta n ’s special scouts w o u ld co m e to the field in s e a rc h o f n ew talen t to be d r a f t e d . T h e y w o u l d l o o k f o r h e a l t h y , s t r o n g a n d handsom e boys and youths, aged betvveen 8 and 20. There w a s yea rly total o f ab o u t 3000 boys but only o ne boy would be drafted from about 40 Christian families, settled i n R u m e l i a o r t h e B a l k a n s ( A l b a n ia , S e r b i a , G r e e c e , Bulgaria and Hungary). Orphans, only children and those

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who were married would be exempted, as were the Jews, R u s s ia n s , s h e p h c r d ’s s o n s a n d T u r k s t h e m s e l v e s fo r reasons which lie beyond the scope o f this essay.

T h e c h i l d r e n w o u l d b e b r o u g h t to İ s t a n b u l , circ u m siz e d and in itia te d to İs l a m in due p r o c e s s and t a u g h t to s a y t h e S h a h a d a ( G o d is b u t o n e a n d M o h a m m a d is his P ro p h e t). A fte r the ritu al, the boys would be sent to live with selected Turkish families for t h r e e to fiv e y e a r s , l e a r n th e l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e a n d I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e o f p r a y i n g . A f t e r t h i s p r o c e s s o f encu ltu ratio n they w ould be re g iste re d and e n r o lle d in s e v e n A c e m io g la n ( f r e s h m a n ) s c h o o l s , in a n d n e a rb y İstanbul, for re c e iv in g m ilitary drill and basic training, a l o n g w i l h o n e - f i f t h o f w a r p r i s o n e r s ( k n o w n as p entchick). A ccording to the law an d custom s they were considered “slaves” (ku lla r) o f the S u lta n ’s sword. Those m aking the grade then w ould be selected and sent to the E n d e r u n S c h o o l l o c a t e d in t h e T o p k a p ı P a l a c e ( o r C am pus). Those not qualifying for this high honor w ould j o i n t h e f i e l d u n i t s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e r e g u l a r , professional Janissary Corps.

b) The E nderun S ch o o l

T h e incom ing students ca lle d iç o ğ la n la r (the in n er boys) would be further educated by (1) w orking in the S u l t a n ’s s e r v i c e s , (2) m a s t e r i n g n a t u r a l a n d I s l a m i c sciences, (3) developing their physical fitnesses and (4) acquiring some vocational or artistic skills.

1) In-service training in the Palace consisted o f going t h ro u g h seven consecutive cham bers or gates, for o ne to tw o years each, namely:

• T he Littlc R oom (learning m ainly the 3 -R ’s)

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• The Big R oom (preparing for p rom otion to h ig h e r room services)

• The h aw k (D o g h a n c ıla r) R oom (taking eare o f the S ultan’s hunting birds)

• T he W a rd ro b e (Seferli) R oom ( in charge o f clothing)

• The B u tle r’s (Kiler) R oom (catering services for the Palace)

• The Treasury (Hazine) Room (the Sultan’s valuables)

• The Private (Hass) R oom (daily private (valet) services o f the Sultan).

E v e r y 5 -7 y e a r s o r v v h e n e v e r a n e w S u l t a n vvas installed in the Throne (enthroned rather Ihan Crovvned), the alum ni o f the P rivate R oom vvould be a p p o in ted to i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s o r p o s i t i o n s , as q u a l i f i e d p u b l i c servants o f the state.

2) T h e E n d e r u n p r o v id e d a th e o r e tic a l (a c a d e m ic ) education. In addition to the Islam ic sciences taught at M a d r a s a , t h e E n d e r u n o f f e r e d T u r k i s h , P e r s i a n , literatüre, history and mathematics. The syllabi o f courses and scholars invited to teach th em lead to speculations that the E n derun was in fact a school o f liberal arts, vvell above the level o f M adrasa.

3) The E nderun also required physical training or martial arts suitable to the young m en ’s aptitudes and interests, like archery, horse-back riding, sp ea r throw ing, w restling, as vvell as th e fin e a rts li k e m u sic , p o e tr y , c a llig r a p h y , m iniature, draw ing, book-b in d in g ete. The music school located in Palace was known as the M eshkhane.

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c) The Jarıissary Corps

T h e w h o l e s y s t e m w a s p o p u l a r l y k n o w n as th e Y en ich eri O cak (C o rp s ), w he re the S ultan h i m s e l f was re g is te re d and p aid as n u m b e r o ne fellow. S laves o f the S ulta n were not, b efo re the age o f re tire m en t, a llo w e d to g e t r a a r r i e d , h o l d b u s i n e s s o r e n g a g e in t ra d e . T h e y succesfully served the state in pea ce and w ar until 1850, an d the C o rp s su p p lie d 79 g ra nd viziers {S a d ra za m ), 3 S h e ik h - u l İs la m , 36 A d m i r a l s o f the N a v y (K a p ta rı-ı D e rya ), alo n g w ith m u c h g r e a te r n u m b e rs o f offic ers.

T h o u g h the u ltim a te p u rp o s e m u s t h a v e b een to p re v e n t t h e c o r r u p t io n o f s t a t e c r a f t, a c c o r d i n g to G e l l n e r the C o r p s o n ly d e l a y e d it f o r a w h i le u n til th e y b e c a m e c o r r u p t e d t h e m s e l v e s . A l t h o u g h c o n v e r t e d to a n d i n d o c t r i n a t e d fo r the d e f e n c e o f İs la m , they w e re n ot s u b j e c t to, o r p r o t e c t e d b y , th e I s l a m i c L a w . T h e y re m a in e d S u lt a n s ’ “s la v e s ” who h a d no c h a n ce to re g a in th e ir freedom . T h e p re stig e and p o w e r o f o ffic e s held by Janissaries w ere so high that the policy o f isolating a n d k e e p i n g t h e m o u t o f t h e r e a c h a n d b r i b e s o f p r o f i t e e r s — l i k e l y to g a t h e r a r o u n d t h e a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y o f th e M o n a r c h — a n d th e E s p ir it d e C orps g ra d u a lly v a n ish e d and b e c a m e a State bu rd e n instead, r e s i s t i n g ali r e f o r m s and a tte m p t s o f re n o v a t i o n . T h e C o rp s was finally and bru tally d isb a n d e d and re p la c e d in 1826 by a n e w a r m y c o r p s , c a l l e d N iza m -ı C e d id ( N e w O rder). W h ile the E n d e ru n S ch o o l s u rv iv e d the T a n z im a t a n d som ehovv l i n g e r e d on u n t i l th e y o u n g T u r k s ’ t a k e o v e r in 1 9 09, th e M a d r a s a p r o v e d rnore s ta b le and d ura ble — as will be seen in the n ext section.

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P a r t I I . F r o m A T a n z im a t to T u r k is h D e m o c r a c y : A H u n d r e d Y e a r s

I I .l. M ilita r y S ch o o ls: P a vin g a n d L e a d in g th e W a y In t h e y e a r 1 7 7 0 , w h i l e t h e s t e a m e n g i n e w a s becom ing the sym bol o f the B ritish Empire, scholars o f the French E nlightenm ent were busy with new editions o f the E n cy clo p a ed ia and the G e rm an philosopher Kant was starting w ork on his K ritik der reinen Vernunft, a R ussian battle fleet, circum -sailing Europe ali the way fro m the Baltic into the M editerrenean and the Egean, burned the Ottom an Navy lying at anchor in the C heshm e base. In c o n f u s i o n o r d e s p e r a t i o n , th e O t t o m a n s p r o t e s t e d to V enice (presumably) for letting the Russian fleet via the Adriatic. In 1773, the first school o f naval en g in ee rin g

“M ü h en d ish a n e-i B ahri-i H ü m a y u n ” was inaugurated in İs ta n b u l w ith a scien tific c u r ric u la b as e d on g e o m e try {H endese). Since ali m athem atica l subjects w ere taught u n d e r t h e g e n e r i c n a m e o f g e o m e t r y , s c h o o l s o f e n g i n e e r i n g f o u n d e d t h e r e a f t e r w e r e a l w a y s c a l l e d

“M u h e n d is h a n e ”, th e “ H o m e o f G e o m e t r i c i a n s ” . (In m o d e r n T u r k i s h , e n g i n e e r s a r e s t i l i k n o w n as

“ g e o m e t e r s ” .) T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c u r r i c u l a o f t h e M a d ra sa p r o p o s e d by G h a z a l i a n d I b n K h a l d u n h ad a p p a r e n t l y b e e n e i t h e r d i s c o n t i n u e d o r b e c o m e d y s f u n c t i o n a l . N o m a s t e r o f t h e M a d r a s a k n e w or re m e m b e re d E u clid any more. T h erefo re the n ew school h a d to b e g i n w i t h th e 3 - R ’s, m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s lik e F rench and English and m athem atics to be follow ed by m a rin e scie n c e s . Tvventy yea rs later, in 1793 the first M ilitary School o f Engineering {M ühendishane-i B erri-i H u m a y u n ) was o p en e d , to te a c h m ilitary scie n c e s like artillery, military engineering, and cartography. Here too,

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as th e n a m e s u g g e s t s , th e c u r r i c u l u m w a s b a s e d on geom etry, arithm etic, physics and geography. T he naval school join ed the new program , w hich was a revolution in Turkish education (see Table II. 1.1).

T able 11*1.1 P rogram o f the F irst M ilitary S ch ool of E n gin eerin g (1793)

First Year Second Year Third Year Fourth Year

Calligraphy Calculations Geography Conic Sections

Dictation Geometry Trigonometry Calculus

Technical Drawing Geography Algebra Mechanics Arabic Language Arabic Lang Topography B iolog y Plane Geometry French History o f War Signalization

Numerical calculus Dem olution

French Theory o f Drills

Military E n g ’ g

Soıırce : A k y ü z , Türk Eğitim Tarihi. 1 9 9 4 : 126.

Students were taken to the field two days a vveek for practical work, drills, exercises and applications o f their theoretical studies. Seniors sent to public works projects w e re expected to draw and bring b ack m aps o f the area visited.

Sultan Selim III, vvarned and alarm ed by the F rench R ev o lu tio n and trying desperately to m odernize the State, the A rm y and the Im perial H ousehold, was stopped and d is p o s e d by a reactionary p lot (1807).

T h e G re ek C o m m u n ity o f İstan b u l was c h a rte re d in 1805 to establish a medical school. T h e school was — for re aso n s not quite clear— closed in 1812. The first State

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School o f M ed icine and Urban Surgery (T ıphane-i A m ire ve C errahharıe-i M am ure) was o p e n e d in 1827. T h e four y ear program s ineluded:

Arabic, Turkish, French, Grammar, Dictation. Writing, Names ofP la n ts and Drugs (Turkish - Arabic), Religion (in fr e e tim e), A n a to m ic A tla s a n d In tro d u ctio n to Medical Science, Practice o f Surgery.

The language o f instruetion was F rench in the M edical and T u rkish in the Surgery school. E xcept for abolishing the Janissary “H e a rt” and shunning the Bektashi Order, vvhich were deem ed to be necessary for the establishm ent o f the N e w A r m y C o r p s ( 1 8 2 6 ) , th e O t t o m a n U lem a ( M ü s l i m s c h o l a r s ) o p p o s e d a n d s t o p p e d n e a r l y ali a t t e m p t s to r e s to r e the O t to m a n H o u s e . T h e d i e - h a r d resistance — or self defence— o f the Islamic w orld view c o n ti n u e d t h r o u g h the T a n zim a t to R e p u b lic a n T u rk e y and survives even today as the “political İslam ” .

Sultan Mahmut II, who had succeeded Selim, dissolved th e J a n issa ry C o rp s a n d fo u n d e d a N e w A rm y C o rp s, needed literate officers for ru n ning and leading the new army adapted from post-Napoleonic France. The very few graduates o f the existing schools o f m ilitary engineering were inadequate to meet the demand. In the aftermath of the O tto m a n d efeat by the E g y p tian A rm y in 1827, radical measures had to be taken in a hurry. In 1830 Admiral Halil Rıfat Pasha reported to Sultan M ahm ud II that “Unless the European (ie, rational or secular) course is followed, there will be no way left [for Turks], other than going back to A sia.” In 1831, adult sibyan com panies were form ed for teaching the 3-R ’s to the non-commissioned officers of the new army. And fınally in 1834, M ekteb-i Funun-u Harbiye (the School o f Military Sciences) or the W ar College was

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established. Soon thereafter, selected cadets were sent to, and in return professors were invited from, European capitals.

The school was organized in two levels: (1) a prep section of e ig h t g ra d e s and (2) an a d v a n c e d s e c tio n for te a c h i n g military skills and techniques.

P rep a ra to ry Section İ s t grade

2 n d and 3rd grades

4 th and 5th grades

6th grades

7 th and 8th grades

A d v a n c e d S ectio n

(1 0 0 students succesfully com pleting the 8th grade, vvere introduced to)

E n g i n e e r i n g M a g a z i n e s , M a p M a k i n g , A p p l i e d T o p o g r a p h y , A p p l i e d G e o m e t r y a n d t h e S c i e n c e o f G e o m e try .

: The 2 - R ’s

(m astering two letter words) : T he 3 - R ’s

(m astering three letter words) : T he R eligion and F oundations

o f İslam

: Field M anuals and Military Laws

: The Novel, elective writings, dictionaries, official

correspondenc e, draft and com position writing

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T able II.2.3 C ourses Prescribed by the W ar C ollege (1834)

Geometry Chemistry (composition o f matter)

Algebra French Language (study of)

Analitical Geometry Fortifications (light and heavy)

Perspectives Floating Bridge Construction

C onic Sections Technical Drawing

Calculus M ap M aking Techniques

Mechanics Gun, R ifle and Sword Drills

B io lo g y Infantry and Cavalry Drills

Natural History (physics) Z o olog y (w ild animal)

Source : Akyüz : 1994

T he W ar C ollege prescribed an ambitious p ro g ram for teaching sciences which was not plausible in 1834. T he p r o g r a m w a s g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d a n d o f f e r e d a f t e r 1 8 4 7 , ie d u r i n g T a n z im a t. A r m y o f f i c e r s w h o w e r e m e r e l y e x p o s e d to s u c h s c i e n c e s , h o w e v e r , b e c a m e p io n e e r s in t r a n s f u s in g the m o d e r n c u r r i c u l a to o t h e r institutions o f the Tanzim at.

11.2. T h e T a n zim a t R e fo r m s (1 8 3 9 -1 8 7 6 ) In the T anzim at D eclaration officially know n as the

“Im perial G u lh an e D ecree o f 1839” , read by the Grand V izier M ustafa R eshid Pasha in the name o f Sultan, there w as no m e n tio n o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n . It w as ta k e n for g ra n te d h o w e v er that such ra dical m easures co u ld only be possible by educational reform s effected by the state.

In 1845 before the Im perial D e cree o f 1856 c o nfirm ing that E u ro p e an e d u c a tio n , scie n c e and capital w o u ld be

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used, Sultan A bdulm ecid, who succeeded Sultan M ah m u t II, had m essage read, to top officials o f his governm ent.

It stated in effect that:

The Sultan was d isa p p o in ted that no p ro g re ss has been m ade in education.

New schools should be innovated — ev en invented i f n ecessa ry— fo r p u p lic education, fo r g e n e ra l and vocatio nal education a li ö v e r the co u n try a n d f o r h a p p in e s s o f th e p e o p l e in th is a n d th e w o r ld hereafter.

T h e M i n i s t r y o f G e n e r a l S c h o o l s , f o u n d e d in 1 8 4 6 , w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d in 1 8 5 7 to t h e M i n i s t r y o f G e n e ra l Education. T he S u lta n ’s m essage also g ave the startin g signal long needed for substantive reform s and r e n o v a t i o n s , k n o w n as “ T h e 1 8 4 7 D i r e c t i v e s ” . In c om pliance vvith the Imperial Orders, the S ib ya n school p r o g r a m s w e r e r a d i c a l l y r e v i s e d . T h e n e w p r o g r a m included: The A lphabet, Turkish (w riting two and three- le tte r words, ethics (brief, anecdotal stories), Calligraphy a n d R e lig io u s in fo rm a tio n (a b o u t İslam ), K o ra n to be r e a d tw ic e (vvithout m e m o riz in g by heart). A rith m e tic (f o u r basic operations), the O u tline o f O tto m an history a n d o n o u t l i n e o f g e o g r a p h y . F o r w r i t i n g e x e r c i s e s , in tro d u c e d anew, pupils were to be given slate boards to b e supplied by Sultan himself. Schooling was to beg in at t h e a g e o f s e v e n and c o n tin u e fo r fo u r y e a rs vvithout y e a r l y p a s s e s o r f a i l u r e s , b u t t e r m i n a t i n g w i t h a g ra d u a tio n exa m at the end. T h o se failing the final exam s w e r e allowed to rem ain in school until the age o f 13.

This certainly was a bold and brave leap forvvard. Yet th e real revolution o f the 1847 D irective was effected in

Bozkurt Güuenç