19. Yy Tarihi Tuğla Yiğma Duvarlarin Davranişi Üzerine Kapsamli Deneysel Bir Çalişma

(1)

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY  INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Ph.D. Thesis by Medine ĠSPĠR

Department : Civil Engineering Programme : Structural Engineering

JUNE 2010

A COMPREHENSIVE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON THE BEHAVIOR OF HISTORICAL BRICK MASONRY WALLS OF 19TH CENTURY

(2)

(3)

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY  INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Ph.D. Thesis by Medine ĠSPĠR

(501002103)

Date of submission : 03 October 2009 Date of defence examination: 28 June 2010

Supervisor (Chairman) : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alper ĠLKĠ (ITU) Members of the Examining Committee : Prof. Dr. Zeki HASGÜR (ITU)

Prof. Dr. Zekeriya POLAT (YTU) Prof. Dr. Zekai CELEP (ITU)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Oğuz Cem ÇELĠK (ITU)

JUNE 2010

A COMPREHENSIVE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON THE BEHAVIOR OF HISTORICAL BRICK MASONRY WALLS OF 19TH CENTURY

(4)

(5)

HAZĠRAN 2010

ĠSTANBUL TEKNĠK ÜNĠVERSĠTESĠ  FEN BĠLĠMLERĠ ENSTĠTÜSÜ

DOKTORA TEZĠ Medine ĠSPĠR

(501002103)

Tezin Enstitüye Verildiği Tarih : 03 Ekim 2009 Tezin Savunulduğu Tarih : 28 Haziran 2010

Tez DanıĢmanı : Doç. Dr. Alper ĠLKĠ (ĠTÜ) Diğer Jüri Üyeleri : Prof. Dr. Zeki HASGÜR (ĠTÜ)

Prof. Dr. Zekeriya POLAT (YTÜ) Prof. Dr. Zekai CELEP (ĠTÜ) Doç. Dr. Oğuz Cem ÇELĠK (ĠTÜ) 19. YY TARĠHĠ TUĞLA YIĞMA DUVARLARIN DAVRANIġI ÜZERĠNE

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

FOREWORD

I would like to express my gratitude and thanks for my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alper İlki for his guidance, support, valuable suggestion, and encouragement.

I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Süheyl Akman, Prof. Dr. Nahit Kumbasar, Prof. Dr. Zekariya Polat and Prof. Dr. Zeki Hasgür for their interest. I would like to Prof. Dr. Tülay Tulun and her team for carrying out chemical tests.

The companies of Akaretler Tourism Investment Co., Erk Construction, BASF and Pimsan Mach. are acknowledged for their technical supports. Architect Levent Abay is also highly acknowledged for his invaluable support while studying on site. I wish to record my thanks to Civil Engineer Ercan Arslan for his help in the construction of the test specimens and in the providing auxiliary test equipments. I also want to thank to Civil Engineer Engin Cüneyt Seyhan for providing materials in time.

I would like to thank to Emre Yılmaz for his help and friendship along this work. Special thanks to all my friends that accompany me during this study: Cem Demir, Deniz Korhan Dalgıç, Mustafa Cömert, Kayhan Kolcu, Emre Karamuk, Doğan Akgün, Fundagül Aş, Bahadır Demirtaş, Ozan Gönay, Yasin Candan and Orkun İncecik.

I would like to thank to all staff of Structural&Earthquake Engineering and Structural Material Laboratories for their technical assistances.

I am grateful to Gülseren and Ayhan Tokuri, Dr. Sibel Gürel and Civil Engineer Hakan Saruhan for their support.

Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my family, especially, to my brother for their love, support, and patience.

October 2009 Medine İspir

(10)

(11)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD ... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

ABBREVIATIONS ... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ... xxii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xxv

SUMMARY ... ...xxxiii

ÖZET ... ... .xxxv

1. INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1 Objectives of the Thesis ... 2

1.2 Outline of the Thesis ... 4

1.3 Brief History of Bricks, Mortar and Masonry Walls ... 6

1.3.1 Bricks ... 6

1.3.2 Mortar ... 7

1.3.3 Masonry Walls ... 7

1.4 An Overview of Literature ... 8

1.4.1 The characteristics of historical masonry ... 8

1.4.2 The predictions of masonry compressive strength ... 15

1.4.3 The relationships proposed for masonry stress-strain ... 20

1.4.4 The relationships proposed for modulus of elasticity-compressive strength of masonry ... 21

1.4.5 The shear strength components ... 23

2. GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE AKARETLER ROW HOUSES AND DESCRIPTION OF ORIGINAL TEST MATERIALS ... 27

2.1 General Outline of the Akaretler Row Houses ... 27

2.2 Description of Original Test Materials ... 31

3. DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MASONRY CONSTITUENTS OF BRICKS AND MORTAR ... 35

3.1 Mechanical Tests on Bricks ... 36

3.1.1 Flexural tests on bricks... 36

3.1.1.1 Specimen preparation ... 36

3.1.1.2 Test procedure ... 37

3.1.1.3 Test results ... 38

3.1.2 Compression tests on bricks ... 39

3.1.3 Compression tests on brick specimens in parallel to bed joint ... 51

3.1.4 Compression tests on three-brick specimens ... 53

(12)

3.1.5 Rebound hammer tests on the bricks ... 61

3.2 Mechanical Tests on Mortar ... 63

3.2.1 Flexural tests on mortar ... 63

3.2.2 Compression tests on mortar ... 66

3.2.3 Rebound hammer tests on mortar joints ... 73

3.3 Physical Tests on Bricks ... 74

3.4 Chemical Tests on Brick and Mortar ... 77

3.5 Evaluation of the Tests ... 80

4. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON ORIGINAL MASONRY - CORE, WALLET AND IN-SITU WALL TESTS ... 87

4.1 Mechanical Tests on Cores ... 88

4.1.1 Splitting tests on cores ... 88

4.1.2 Compression tests on cores ... 92

4.1.3 Shear tests on cores ... 104

4.1.3.3 Test results ... 107

4.2 Compression Tests on Wallets ... 115

4.2.1 Compression tests on wallets under monotonic loads ... 115

4.2.1.3 Test results ... 118

4.2.2 Compression tests on wallets under cyclic loads ... 122

4.2.2.3 Test results ... 122

4.3 In-situ Shear Tests on Walls ... 133

4.3.1 In-situ shear tests on walls under monotonic loads ... 133

4.3.1.2 Test results ... 135

4.3.2 In-situ shear tests on walls under cyclic loads ... 149

4.3.2.3 Test results ... 150

4.4 Evaluation of Compression and Non-destructive Tests ... 153

4.5 Evaluation of Shear Tests ... 155

5. TESTS ON PRISMS AND WALLS BUILT WITH HISTORICAL BRICKS AND REPRODUCED MORTAR ... 161

(13)

5.1 The Reproduced Mortar ... 162

5.2 Mechanical Tests on Reproduced Mortar ... 163

5.2.1 Flexural tests on reproduced mortar ... 163

5.2.1.3 Test results ... 164

5.2.2 Compression tests on reproduced mortar ... 166

5.2.2.3 Test results ... 167

5.3 Evaluation of Reproduced Mortar Tests ... 172

5.4 Comparison of Original Mortar and Reproduced Mortar ... 175

5.5 Mechanical Tests on Masonry Prisms ... 176

5.5.1 Compression tests on masonry prisms under monotonic loads ... 176

5.5.1.3 Test results ... 180

5.5.2 Compression tests on masonry prisms under cyclic loads ... 185

5.5.2.3 Test results ... 186

5.5.3 Shear tests on prisms (triplets) ... 196

5.5.3.3 Test results ... 200

5.6 Mechanical Tests on Walls ... 208

5.6.1 Compression tests on walls ... 208

5.6.1.3 Test results ... 213

5.6.2 Diagonal tension tests on walls ... 215

5.6.2.3 Test results ... 217

5.6.3 Shear tests on walls ... 221

5.6.3.3 Test results ... 223

5.7 Evaluation of Compression Tests... 229

5.7.1 Relation between masonry prism and wall, brick unit and mortar ... 229

5.7.2 Relation between Young's modulus and compressive strength of masonry 230 5.8 Evaluation of Shear Tests... 232

6. OVERALL EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS ... 233

6.1 The Test Results of Masonry Components ... 233

6.2 The Compression Test Results of the Masonry ... 234

6.2.1 Comparison of core, wallet, prism, and wall test results ... 234

6.3 The Shear Test Results of the Masonry ... 239

6.4 Interaction Curves ... 242

(14)

6.5.1 Compression... 245

6.5.2 Shear... 247

7. NUMERICAL ANALYSES ... 251

7.1 The Material Models ... 251

7.1.1 The classical metal plasticity model... 252

7.2 Masonry Modeling ... 253

7.3 The Analyses of the Prisms under Compression... 254

7.3.1 The establishment of the model ... 254

7.3.2 The results of the numerical analyses of the prisms... 256

7.4 The Analyses of the Masonry Walls under Compression ... 260

7.4.1 The establishment of the model ... 260

7.4.2 The results of the numerical analyses of the walls... 262

7.5 The Numerical Analyses Results of the Masonry ... 264

8. CONCLUSIONS... 269

REFERENCES ... 275

APPENDICES ... 283

(15)

ABBREVIATIONS

a : A constant of compressive strain-compressive stress function Amb : The area of a mortar bed joint

Amb,ul : The total initial area of upper and lower bed joints for in-situ wall

Ao : Initial cross section area of any specimen

ASTM : American Society for Testing Materials Aw : The percentage of water absorption

Awdt : Area of wall specimen of diagonal tension test

b : A constant of compressive strain-compressive stress function bb : Width of brick

bb,p : Width of brick tested in parallel to bed joint

BC : Brick tested under compression loads BCh : Brick samples of chemical tests

BCp : Brick tested in parallel to bed joint under compression loads BFT : Brick tested under flexural tension effects

bm : Width of mortar

BP : Brick specimen of physical tests

BR : Brick specimen of rebound hammer tests brm : Width of reproduced mortar

bt : Width of triplet

btb : Width of three-brick

bw : Width of wall

bws : Width of in-situ wall for in-situ shear test

bwt : Width of wallet

C : Constant of Young's modulus-compressive strength function CC : Core specimen of compression test

CoV : Coefficient of variation CS : Core specimen of shear test CST : Core specimen of splitting test

D : Constant of compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength function

Dcx : Diameter of core in x direction

Dcy : Diameter of core in y direction

e : Constant (depending on the quality of workmanship) of Eq. (1.6)

E : Young’s modulus

Ebc : Young’s modulus of brick

Ebc,s : Secant modulus of brick at peak

Ecc,p : Young’s modulus of core

Ecc,s : Secant modulus of core

Emasc : Young’s modulus of masonry

Emc : Young’s modulus of mortar

Epc : Young’ modulus of prism

(16)

Epcall : Young’s modulus of prism when monotonic and cyclic tests are

evaluated together

Epcall,s : Secant modulus of prism when monotonic and cyclic tests are

evaluated together

Epcf : Young’s modulus of prism obtained from numerical analysis

Ermc : Young’s modulus of reproduced mortar

Ermc,a : Average Young’s modulus of reproduced mortar

Etbc : Young’s modulus of three-brick

Etbc,s : Secant modulus of three-brick

Euc : Young’s modulus of masonry unit

Ewc : Young’s modulus of wall

Ewcf : Young’s modulus of wall obtained from numerical analysis

Ewtc : Young’s modulus of wallet

f : Compressive strength

F : Constant of compressive stress at the visible crack-compressive strength function

fbc : Compressive strength of brick

fbft : Flexural tensile strength of brick

fc : Compressive strength

fcc : Compressive strength of core

fcc,c : Characteristic compressive strength of concrete

fcft,c : Characteristic flexural tensile strength of concrete

FEMA 356 : Federal Emergency Management Agency fft : Flexural tensile strength

fmasc : Compressive strength of masonry

f'masc : Specified compressive strength of masonry

fmasc,c : Characteristic compressive strength of masonry

fmc : Compressive strength of mortar

fmft : Flexural tensile strength of mortar

fpc : Compressive strength of prism

fpcall : Compressive strength of prism when monotonic and cyclic tests are

evaluated together

fpcf : Compressive strength of prism obtained from numerical analyses

frmc : Compressive strength of reproduced mortar

frmc,a : Average compressive strength of reproduced mortar

frmf : Flexural tensile strength of reproduced mortar

frmf,a : Average flexural tensile strength of reproduced mortar

ftbc : Compressive strength of three-brick

fuc : Compressive strength of unit

fuc,n : Normalized compressive strength of unit

fwc : Compressive strength of wall

fwcf : Compressive strength of wall obtained from numerical analyses

fwtc : Compressive strength of wallet

g : Gauge length

Gwdt : Shear modulus of wall obtained from diagonal tension test

hb : Height or thickness of brick

hb,p : Height of brick tested in parallel to bed joint

hc : Height of core

hm : Height of mortar

(17)

ht : Height of triplet

htb : Height or thickness of three-brick

hw : Height of wall

hws : Height of in-situ wall for in-situ shear test

hwt : Height of wallet

ID : No reliable or insufficient data

K : Constant coefficient of Eqs. (1.3) and (1.13) k : Modulus of sub-grade reaction of soil lb : Length of brick specimen

Lb : The distance between the centers of the supports for flexural tension

test of brick

lb,p : Length of brick specimen tested in parallel to bed joint

lc : Length of core specimen

lm : Length of mortar specimen

Lm : The distance between the centers of the supports for flexural tension

test of mortar specimen lo : Initial gauge length

lrm : Length of reproduced mortar specimen

Lrm : The distance between the centers of the supports for flexural tension

test of reproduced mortar specimen lt : Length of triplet specimen

ltb : Length of three-brick specimen

LVDT : Linear variable displacement transducer lw : Length of wall specimen

lws : Length of in-situ wall specimen for in-situ shear test

lwt : Length of wallet specimen

MC : Mortar specimen tested under compression loads

MCF : Mortar specimen, which is obtained from the flexural test, tested under compression loads

MCh : Mortar samples of chemical tests n : Number of specimens tested NA : Not available data

Nbr : Rebound number of brick

nd : Not detected

Nmr : Rebound number of mortar joints

p : Equivalent pressure stress

PC : Prism specimen tested under monotonic compression loads Pc : The load applied to any specimen during compression test

PCC : Prism specimen tested under cyclic compression loads PCF : Prism analyzed for compression loads

Pcst,m : Maximum load recorded during splitting test of core specimen

Pft : The load applied to any specimen during flexural tension test

Pft,m : The maximum load resisted by any specimen during flexural tension

test

Po : Porosity of any specimen

Pts : Shear load recorded during shear test of triplet specimen

Pwdt : Load recorded during diagonal tension test of wall specimen

Pws : Shear load recorded during in-situ shear test of wall specimen

R : Correlation coefficient R2 : Coefficient of determination

(18)

Stdev : Standard deviation Strg : Straingage

TBC : Three-brick tested under compression loads Tmax : Maximum shear load recorded

tmb : Thickness of mortar bed joint

tmh : Thickness of mortar head joint

TS : Triplet specimen tested under shear loads TSDC : Turkish Seismic Design Code

ucs,f : Relative horizontal displacement at shear strength level of core

specimen

ucs,n : Normalized relative horizontal displacement of core specimen

ucs,p : Relative horizontal displacement at proportional shear limit of core

specimen

uws,cr : Horizontal displacement at the first crack level of in-situ wall

specimen

uws,f : Horizontal displacement at shear strength level of in-situ wall

specimen

uws,p : Horizontal displacement at proportional limit of in-situ wall

specimen

WC : Wall tested under compression loads

WCF : Wall analysed under monotonic compression loads Wd : Dry weight of brick

WDT : Wall specimen of diagonal tension test Ws : Saturated weight of brick

WS : Wall specimen of in-situ monotonic shear test WSC : Wall specimen of in-situ cyclic shear test WSh : Wall tested under shear loads

WtC : Wallet specimen of monotonic compression test WtCC : Wallet specimen of cyclic compression test X : Predictor variable

Y : Criterion variable

εcc,cr : Compressive strain at the first crack level of core specimen

εcc,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of core specimen

εcc,n : Normalized compressive strain of core specimen under compression

loads

εcc,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of core specimen

εen,n : Normalized compressive envelope strain

εf : Compressive strain at compressive strength

εmasc : Compressive strain of masonry

εn : Normalized compressive strain

εp : Compressive strain at proportional limit

εp,n : Normalized compressive plastic strain

εpc,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of prism specimen

εpc,n : Normalized compressive strain of prism specimen

εpc,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit level of prism specimen

εpcall,cr : Compressive strain at the first visible crack of prism specimen when

monotonic and cyclic tests are evaluated together

εpcall,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of prism specimen

(19)

εpcall,n : Normalized compressive strain of prism specimen when monotonic

and cyclic tests are evaluated together

εpcall,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of prism specimen when

εpcf,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of prism obtained

from numerical analysis

εpcf,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of prism obtained from

numerical analysis

εrmc,n : Normalized compressive strain of reproduced mortar specimen

εv,bc : Compressive strain of brick under compression load

εv,bc,0.85f : Compressive strain at the 85 percent of compressive strength in the

descending branch for brick

εv,bc,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of brick

εv,bc,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of brick

εv,mc,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of mortar

εv,mc,n : Normalized compressive strain of mortar

εv,mc,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of mortar

εv,tbc,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of three-brick

under compression load

εv,tbc,n : Normalized compressive strain of three-brick under

compression load

εv,tbc,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of three-brick under

compression load

εv,wtc,cr : Compressive strain at the first visible crack of wallet under

compression load

εv,wtc,f : Compressive strain of wallet under compression load

εv,wtc,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of wallet under compression

load

εwc,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of wall

εwc,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit level of wall

εwcf,f : Compressive strain at compressive strength level of wall obtained

from numerical analysis

εwcf,p : Compressive strain at proportional limit of wall obtained from

numerical analysis

μ : Ductility

μbc : Ductility of brick under compression loads

μcc : Ductility of core under compression loads

μcs : Friction coefficient of core

μf : Friction coefficient

μmc : Ductility of mortar under compression loads

μpc : Ductility of prism under compression loads

μpcall : Ductility of prism when monotonic and cyclic tests are evaluated

together

μpcf : Ductility of prism obtained from numerical analysis

μrmc : Ductility of reproduced mortar under compression loads

μrmc,a : Average ductility of reproduced mortar under compression loads

μtbc : Ductility of three-brick under compression loads

μwc : Ductility of wall under compression loads

μwcf : Ductility of wall obtained from numerical analysis

(20)

μws : Friction coefficient of in-situ wall

μwtc : Ductility of wallet under compression loads

ρA,b : Bulk density of brick

ρR,b : Real density of brick

σ : Compressive (vertical) stress applied

σallowable,c : Allowable stress of the cores according to TSDC (2007)

σallowable,p : Allowable stress of the prisms according to TSDC (2007)

σallowable,w : Allowable stress of the walls according to TSDC (2007)

σallowable,wt : Allowable stress of the wallets according to TSDC (2007)

σbc : Compressive stress of brick

σbc,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of brick

σcc,cr : Compressive stress at the first crack level of core

σcc,n : Normalized compressive stress of core

σcc,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit level of core

σcr : Compressive stress at the first crack

σmasc : Compressive stress of masonry

σmc,n : Normalized compressive stress of mortar

σmc,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of mortar

σp : Compressive stress at proportional limit

σpc,n : Normalized compressive stress of prism

σpc,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit level of prism

σpcall,cr : Compressive stress at the first visible crack of prism when

σpcall,n : Normalized compressive stress of prism when monotonic and cyclic

tests are evaluated together

σpcall,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of prism specimen when

σptf,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of prism obtained from

numerical analysis

σrmc,n : Normalized compressive stress of reproduced mortar

σsa : Allowable bearing capacity of soil

σtbc,n : Normalized compressive stress of three-brick

σtbc,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of three-brick

σwc,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of wall

σwtc,cr : Compressive stress at the first visible crack of wallet

σwtc,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of wallet

σwtf,p : Compressive stress at proportional limit of wall obtained from

numerical analysis υmc : Poisson’s ratio of mortar

υuc : Poisson’s ratio of masonry unit or brick

υwtc : Poisson’s ratio of wallet specimen

n : Normalized compressive stress

 : Constant (shape factor) of Eq. (1.13) and conversion factors for of brick compressive strength

 : Constant of Eq. (1.3)  : Constant of Eq. (1.3)

 : Shear strength

cs,f : Shear strength of core

cs,n : Normalized shear stress of core

(21)

cs,p : Shear stress at proportional limit of core specimen

Hwdt : Extension in vertical direction of wall of diagonal tension test

o : Shear strength at zero nominal compression stress (shear bond

strength)

ts : Shear stress of triplet under shear loads

ts,f : Shear strength of triplet under shear loads

Vwdt : Shortening in vertical direction of wall of diagonal tension test

wdt : Shear strain of wall of diagonal tension test

wdt : Shear stress of wall of diagonal tension test

wdt,f : Shear strain at shear stress level of wall of diagonal tension test

wdt,f : Shear strength of wall of diagonal tension test

wdt,p : Shear strain at proportional level of wall of diagonal tension test

ws : Shear stress of in-situ wall

ws,cr : Shear stress at the first crack level of in-situ wall

ws,f : Shear strength of in-situ wall

ws,o : Shear strength at zero nominal compression stress of in-situ wall

ws,o : Shear strength at zero nominal vertical stress of in-situ wall

ws,p : Shear stress at proportional limit of in-situ wall

(22)

(23)

LIST OF TABLES

Page Table 1.1 : Proposals for values in Eq. (1.17). ... 22 Table 1.2 : The compressive stress range for the calculation of modulus of elasticity.

... 22 Table 1.3 : The values of shear strength components given in several codes. ... 25 Table 1.4 : The values of shear strength components collected from the literature. . 26 Table 2.1 : The geometrical characteristics of the blocks. ... 30 Table 2.2 : Soil properties of the historical houses. ... 31 Table 2.3 : The range of sizes of the original bricks. ... 33 Table 3.1 : The brick sizes for the flexural tension tests. ... 37 Table 3.2 : The flexural tensile strengths of the bricks. ... 38 Table 3.3 : The statistical parameters of the brick flexural tension test results. ... 38 Table 3.4 : The brick sizes for the compression tests. ... 40 Table 3.5 : The allowable values according to Chauvenet Criterion. ... 44 Table 3.6 : The results of the brick compression tests. ... 46 Table 3.7 : The statistical parameters of the brick compression tests. ... 47 Table 3.8 : The comparison of Young’s moduli for the bricks (LVDTs and strain

gages). ... 49 Table 3.9 : The brick specimen sizes for the compression tests. ... 52 Table 3.10 : The compressive strengths of the bricks tested in parallel to the bed

joint and anisotropy ratios. ... 52 Table 3.11 : The statistical parameters of the compression tests on the bricks tested

in parallel to the bed joint. ... 52 Table 3.12 : The three-brick specimen sizes for the compression tests. ... 54 Table 3.13 : The results of the three-brick compression tests. ... 57 Table 3.14 : The statistical parameters of the three-brick compression tests. ... 57 Table 3.15 : The rebound numbers of the narrow side of the bricks... 62 Table 3.16 : The rebound numbers of the wide sides of the bricks... 62 Table 3.17 : The statistical parameters of the brick rebound number. ... 63 Table 3.18 : The mortar specimen sizes for the flexural tension tests. ... 64 Table 3.19 : The results of the mortar flexural tension tests. ... 65 Table 3.20 : The statistical parameters of the mortar flexural tension tests. ... 65 Table 3.21 : The mortar specimen sizes of the first group. ... 67 Table 3.22 : The mortar specimen sizes of the second group. ... 67 Table 3.23 : The results of the mortar compression tests (the first group). ... 70 Table 3.24 : The results of the mortar compression tests (the second group). ... 70 Table 3.25 : The statistical parameters of the mortar compression tests (all

specimens). ... 70 Table 3.26 : The rebound numbers of the mortar joints. ... 74 Table 3.27 : The dry and saturated weights of the bricks. ... 75 Table 3.28 : The bulk and real densities of the bricks. ... 76 Table 3.29 : The water absorption and real porosity values of the bricks... 76

(24)

Table 3.30 : The oxide components of the brick samples. ... 77 Table 3.31 : The oxide components of the mortar samples. ... 78 Table 3.32 : The loss of ignition and organic matter of the brick samples. ... 79 Table 3.33 : The loss of ignition and organic matter of the mortar samples. ... 79 Table 3.34 : The mineralogical of the brick samples. ... 79 Table 3.35 : The mineralogical of the mortar samples. ... 79 Table 4.1 : The core sizes for the splitting tests. ... 90 Table 4.2 : The results of the core splitting tests. ... 91 Table 4.3 : The core sizes for compression tests. ... 94 Table 4.4 : The results of the core compression tests. ... 96 Table 4.5 : The statistical parameters of the core compression tests. ... 97 Table 4.6 : The stress and strain values at the first cracks for several cores. ... 102 Table 4.7 : The statistical parameters of the compressive stress and strain at the first

cracks. ... 102 Table 4.8 : The core specimen sizes of the shear tests. ... 105 Table 4.9 : The results of the core shear tests. ... 109 Table 4.10 : The statistical parameters of the core shear tests. ... 110 Table 4.11 : The wallet sizes for the monotonic compression test. ... 116 Table 4.12 : The results of the wallet monotonic compression tests. ... 120 Table 4.13 : The statistical parameters of the wallet monotonic compression tests.

... 120 Table 4.14 : The wallet sizes for the cyclic compression tests... 122 Table 4.15 : The results of the wallet compression tests (cyclic). ... 127 Table 4.16 : The statistical parameters of the wallet compression tests (cyclic). ... 127 Table 4.17 : The stress and strain values at the first cracks of the several wallets

under the compression loadings. ... 130 Table 4.18 : The statistical parameters concerning the first cracks of the several

wallets under the compression loadings. ... 130 Table 4.19 : The statistical parameters of the wallet compression tests. ... 131 Table 4.20 : The wall specimen sizes for the in-situ shear tests. ... 135 Table 4.21 : The results of the in-situ monotonic shear tests on the walls. ... 138 Table 4.22 : The statistical parameters of the in-situ monotonic shear tests on the

walls. ... 139 Table 4.23 : The values of the shear stress and horizontal displacement at the first

cracks of the in-situ monotonic shear tests on the walls. ... 146 Table 4.24 : The statistical parameters regarding the first cracks of the in-situ

monotonic shear test walls. ... 146 Table 4.25 : The wall specimen sizes for the in-situ cyclic shear tests. ... 149 Table 4.26 : The results of the in-situ cyclic shear tests on the walls. ... 152 Table 4.27 : The statistical parameters of the in-situ cyclic shear tests on the walls.

... 152 Table 4.28 : The average compressive strengths and shear strength components of

the other buildings. ... 157 Table 5.1 : The reproduced mortar specimen sizes of the flexural tension tests. .... 164 Table 5.2 : The results of the reproduced mortar flexural tension tests. ... 165 Table 5.3 : The statistical parameters of the reproduced mortar flexural tension tests.

... 166 Table 5.4 : The reproduced mortar specimen sizes for the compression tests. ... 167 Table 5.5 : The results of the reproduced mortar compression tests. ... 168

(25)

Table 5.6 : The statistical parameters of the reproduced mortar compression tests. ... 168 Table 5.7 : Young’s modulus and ductility of the reproduced mortar specimens at

the age of 210 days. ... 171 Table 5.8 : The increment rate of compressive strength for the concrete and

reproduced mortar. ... 172 Table 5.9 : The flexural and compressive strengths of several mortars compiled from

the literature. ... 174 Table 5.10 : The prism sizes for the monotonic compression tests... 178 Table 5.11 : The results of the monotonic compression tests on the prisms. ... 181 Table 5.12 : The statistical parameters for the monotonic compression tests on the

prisms. ... 181 Table 5.13 : The correction factors for the prisms (ASTM C 1314-03b). ... 182 Table 5.14 : The prism sizes for the cyclic compression tests. ... 185 Table 5.15 : The results of the cyclic compression tests on the masonry prisms.... 188 Table 5.16 : The statistical parameters of the cyclic compression results on the

masonry prisms. ... 188 Table 5.17 : The stress and strain values at the first cracks of several prisms. ... 193 Table 5.18 : The statistical parameters of the first cracks for several prisms. ... 193 Table 5.19 : The statistical parameters for all compression tests on the prisms. .... 193 Table 5.20 : The triplet sizes for the shear tests. ... 197 Table 5.21 : The results of the triplet shear tests. ... 201 Table 5.22 : The statistical evaluation of the compressive stresses recorded during

the triplet shear tests. ... 204 Table 5.23 : The wall sizes for the compression tests. ... 211 Table 5.24 : The size requirements of TS EN 1052-1 (2000). ... 211 Table 5.25 : The results of the wall compression tests... 214 Table 5.26 : The statistical parameters of the wall compression tests. ... 214 Table 5.27 : The wall sizes for the diagonal tension tests. ... 216 Table 5.28 : The results of the wall diagonal tension tests. ... 220 Table 5.29 : The statistical parameters of the wall diagonal tension tests. ... 220 Table 5.30 : The wall sizes of the shear tests. ... 222 Table 5.31 : The results of the wall shear tests. ... 225 Table 5.32 : The statistical evaluation of compressive stress recorded during the wall shear tests. ... 225 Table 5.33 : The failure mechanisms of the walls (shear tests). ... 227 Table 5.34 : The compressive strengths of masonry prism or wall, brick and mortar.

... 230 Table 6.1 : The average results of the flexural tensile tests. ... 233 Table 6.2 : The average results of the compression tests. ... 233 Table 6.3 : The average results of the masonry compression tests. ... 234 Table 6.4 : The correction factors. ... 235 Table 6.5 : The constants of the relations of the compression tests. ... 238 Table 6.6 : The shear strength components obtained from the tests. ... 239 Table 6.7 : The prediction of the friction coefficient for the other buildings. ... 240 Table 6.8 : The predictions of the shear strength components for the laboratory tests.

... 241 Table 6.9 : The allowable shear components of the shear tests. ... 248 Table 7.1 : The masonry components of the prisms for the numerical analyses. ... 256 Table 7.2 : The results of the numerical analyses for the masonry prisms. ... 259

(26)

Table 7.3 : The masonry components of the walls for the numerical analyses. ... 261 Table 7.4 : The results of the numerical analyses for the masonry walls. ... 263 Table 7.5 : The comparison of the numerical analyses for the prisms and walls. ... 265 Table 7.6 : The comparison of the compressive strengths (numerical analysis and

Eurocode 6 prediction). ... 266 Table A.1 : The conversion factors for the brick compressive strength ... 283 Table A.2 : The normalized compressive strengths of the bricks ... 284 Table A.3 : The normalized compressive strengths of the bricks in parallel to the bed joint. ... 284

(27)

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 2.1 : The aerial view of the historical row houses. ... 28 Figure 2.2 : The façade of Block B. ... 28 Figure 2.3 : The original vaulted slabs of Block B. ... 28 Figure 2.4 : The masonry walls and reinforced concrete slabs of Block C. ... 29 Figure 2.5 : The mortar joints of the historical walls of the houses. ... 29 Figure 2.6 : The plan of Block B (entrance level). ... 30 Figure 2.7 : The longitudinal section of Block B. ... 30 Figure 2.8 : A view of fill layer of Block C. ... 31 Figure 2.9 : The bricks collected from the historical row houses. ... 31 Figure 2.10 : The examples of the bricks collected from the historical row houses. 32 Figure 2.11 : The definition of sizes of the bricks. ... 33 Figure 2.12 : Examples of warpages of the bricks. ... 33 Figure 2.13 : The composition and colors of the bricks... 34 Figure 2.14 : The visual appearance of original mortar. ... 34 Figure 3.1 : The test setup with measurement system for the brick flexural tests. ... 37 Figure 3.2 : The failures of BFT-1 and BFT-4 bricks under flexural effect. ... 39 Figure 3.3 : The test setup with measurement system for the brick compression. ... 41 Figure 3.4 : The ductility definition. ... 43 Figure 3.5 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the bricks.

... 45 Figure 3.6 : The Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for the bricks.

... 48 Figure 3.7 : The compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength

relationship for the bricks. ... 48 Figure 3.8 : The Young's modulus-secant modulus at peak relationship for the

bricks. ... 49 Figure 3.9 : The failure of BC-2 under compression loads. ... 49 Figure 3.10 : The comparison of the compressive stress-compressive strain

relationships for the bricks (LVDTs and strain gages). ... 50 Figure 3.11 : The description of the brick specimens tested in parallel to bed joint. 51 Figure 3.12 : The failure of the bricks compressed in direction parallel to the bed

joint... 53 Figure 3.13 : The description of the three-brick specimens. ... 54 Figure 3.14 : The test setup with measurement system for the three-brick

compression tests... 55 Figure 3.15 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the

three-brick specimens. ... 56 Figure 3.16 : The normalized compressive stress-normalized compressive strain

relationship for the three-brick specimens. ... 58 Figure 3.17 : The Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for the

(28)

Figure 3.18 : The compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength relationship for the three-brick specimens. ... 60 Figure 3.19 : The failure mechanism of TBC-14. ... 60 Figure 3.20 : The Young's modulus-secant modulus at peak relationship for the

three-brick specimens. ... 61 Figure 3.21 : The test setup with measurement system for the mortar flexural tests.

... 64 Figure 3.22 : The failure of the mortar specimens under the flexural effect. ... 66 Figure 3.23 : The test setup with measurement system for the mortar compression

tests. ... 68 Figure 3.24 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the first

group of the mortar. ... 69 Figure 3.25 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the second

group of the mortar. ... 69 Figure 3.26 : The normalized compressive stress-normalized compressive strain

relationship for the mortar specimens. ... 71 Figure 3.27 : The Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for all mortar

specimens. ... 72 Figure 3.28 : The compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength

relationship for the mortar specimens. ... 72 Figure 3.29 : The Young's modulus-secant modulus at peak relationship for the

mortar specimens. ... 73 Figure 3.30 : The average oxide components of the brick and mortar samples. ... 78 Figure 3.31 : The average results of mineralogical analysis of the brick and mortar

samples. ... 80 Figure 4.1 : The drilling of the cores from the structural masonry walls of the

Akaretler Historical Row Houses. ... 89 Figure 4.2 : The preparation of the cores. ... 89 Figure 4.3 : The schematic view of the cores. ... 90 Figure 4.4 : The test configuration of the core splitting tests. ... 91 Figure 4.5 : The view of CST-2 core during and after the splitting test. ... 91 Figure 4.6 : The view of CST-3 core during the splitting test. ... 92 Figure 4.7 : The capping of the cores for the compression tests. ... 92 Figure 4.8 : The schematic view of the cores tested under compression. ... 93 Figure 4.9 : The setup with measurement system for the core compression tests. ... 93 Figure 4.10 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the cores.

... 95 Figure 4.11 : The normalized compressive stress-normalized compressive strain

relationship for the cores. ... 97 Figure 4.12 : The Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for the cores.

... 98 Figure 4.13 : The compressive stress at proportional limit and compressive strength

relationship for the cores. ... 99 Figure 4.14 : The Young's modulus and secant modulus at peak relationship for the

cores. ... 100 Figure 4.15 : The damage of CC-25 core during and after the compression test. .. 101 Figure 4.16 : The compressive stress at the first crack and compressive strength

relationship for several cores. ... 102 Figure 4.17 : The stress-to-strain ratio at the first crack and at the proportional limit

(29)

Figure 4.18 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relation for cores with characteristic points. ... 104 Figure 4.19 : The schematic view of the cores of the shear tests. ... 105 Figure 4.20 : The test setup with measurement system for the core shear tests. .... 106 Figure 4.21 : The shear stress-relative horizontal displacement relationships for the

cores under the compressive stress of 0.05 MPa. ... 108 Figure 4.22 : The shear stress-relative horizontal displacement relationships for the

cores under the compressive stress of 0.15 MPa. ... 108 Figure 4.23 : The shear stress-relative horizontal displacement relationships for the

cores under the compressive stress of 0.30 MPa. ... 109 Figure 4.24 : The shear strength-vertical stress relationship for the cores. ... 111 Figure 4.25 : The normalized shear stress normalized relative horizontal

displacement relationship (linear) for the cores. ... 112 Figure 4.26 : The normalized shear stress-normalized relative horizontal

displacement relationship (parabolic). ... 112 Figure 4.27 : The shear stress-to-relative horizontal displacement ratios at strength

level and at proportional limit relationship for the cores. ... 113 Figure 4.28 : The damage development of CS-0.15-4. ... 114 Figure 4.29 : The failure of CS-0.15-4... 114 Figure 4.30 : The view of the several wallets of the compression test. ... 115 Figure 4.31 : The testing machine of the Instron Satec 1000RD. ... 117 Figure 4.32 : The measurement system for the wallet compression tests. ... 117 Figure 4.33 : The compressive stress-vertical strain relationships under monotonic

compression for the wallets (through LVDTs). ... 119 Figure 4.34 : The compressive stress-horizontal strain relationships under monotonic compression for the wallets (through LVDTs). ... 119 Figure 4.35 : The Poisson’s ratio-vertical strain relationships for several wallets

under monotonic compression. ... 120 Figure 4.36 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships under cyclic

loadings for several wallets (through LVDTs). ... 124 Figure 4.37 : The envelope curves of the compressive stress-vertical strain under

cyclic loadings relationships of several wallets (through LVDTs). .. 124 Figure 4.38 : The compressive stress-horizontal strain relationships under cyclic

loadings for several wallets (through LVDTs). ... 125 Figure 4.39 : The envelope curves of the compressive stress-horizontal strain

relationships for several wallets under cyclic loads (LVDTs). ... 125 Figure 4.40 : The relationships of the Poisson’s ratio-compressive strain of several

wallets under cyclic loads. ... 126 Figure 4.41 : The normalized compressive stress-normalized compressive strain

relationship for the wallets. ... 128 Figure 4.42 : The Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for several

wallets... 129 Figure 4.43 : The compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength

relationship for several wallets. ... 129 Figure 4.44 : The compressive stress at the first crack-compressive strength

relationship for several wallets. ... 131 Figure 4.45 : The development of failure of WtCC-5 wallet specimen. ... 132 Figure 4.46 : The characteristic points on the compressive stress-compressive strain

curve for the wallets. ... 133 Figure 4.47 : The images of the in-situ shear test site... 134

(30)

Figure 4.48 : The test setup with measurement system for the in-situ shear tests on the walls. ... 135 Figure 4.49 : The shear stress-horizontal displacement relationships for the in-situ

walls at entrance. ... 136 Figure 4.50 : The shear stress- horizontal displacement relationships for the in-situ

walls at the first story. ... 137 Figure 4.51 : The shear stress- horizontal displacement relationships for the in-situ

walls at the second story. ... 137 Figure 4.52 : The pre-peak branches of the shear stress-horizontal displacement

curves for the entrance walls. ... 139 Figure 4.53 : The pre-peak branches of the shear stress-horizontal displacement

curves for the first story walls. ... 140 Figure 4.54 : The pre-peak branches of the shear stress-horizontal displacement

curves for the second story walls. ... 140 Figure 4.55 : The shear strength-vertical stress relationship for the in-situ walls. . 142 Figure 4.56 : The shear stress-to-horizontal displacement ratios at strength level and

at proportional limit relationship for the in-situ walls. ... 143 Figure 4.57 : The damage state of specimen WS-E-4 during the in-situ shear test. 145 Figure 4.58 : The view of the WS-E-4 wall after the in-situ shear test. ... 146 Figure 4.59 : The shear stress at first crack-shear strength relationship for several

in-situ walls. ... 147 Figure 4.60 : The shear stress-to-horizontal displacement ratio at the first crack level and at strength level relationship for several in-situ walls. ... 148 Figure 4.61 : The shear stress-horizontal displacement relation of in-situ walls with

characteristic points. ... 148 Figure 4.62 : The shear stress-horizontal displacement relationships for the in-situ

walls under cyclic loadings. ... 151 Figure 4.63 : The envelope curves of shear stress-horizontal displacement the

relationships for the in-situ walls. ... 151 Figure 4.64 : The pre-peak branches of the shear stress-horizontal displacement

curves for the in-situ walls under cyclic loadings. ... 152 Figure 4.65 : The relationship between compressive strength of core and rebound

number of brick. ... 154 Figure 4.66 : The comparison of shear strength-vertical stress values for the core and in-situ tests. ... 156 Figure 4.67 : The shear strength-vertical stress relationships for the in-situ walls and

cores. ... 157 Figure 4.68 : The shear bond strength-compressive strength relationship for the

cores. ... 158 Figure 4.69 : The friction coefficient-compressive strength relationship for the cores.

... 159 Figure 5.1 : The ingredients of the reproduced mortar. ... 162 Figure 5.2 : The production steps of the reproduced mortar. ... 163 Figure 5.3 : The development of flexural tensile strength by age for the reproduced

mortar. ... 165 Figure 5.4 : The view of RMF-210-3 mortar specimen after the flexural test. ... 166 Figure 5.5 : The development of compressive strength with age for the reproduced

mortar. ... 169 Figure 5.6 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for reproduced

(31)

Figure 5.7 : The normalized compressive stress-normalized compressive strain relationship for reproduced mortar at the age of 210 days. ... 170 Figure 5.8 : Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for the reproduced

mortar specimens at the age of 210 days. ... 171 Figure 5.9 : The appearances of RMCF-28-1-A mortar specimen during and after the compression test. ... 171 Figure 5.10 : Flexural tensile and compressive strength relationship for the

reproduced mortar. ... 173 Figure 5.11 : The comparison of the flexural tensile and compressive strengths of

the original mortar and reproduced mortar. ... 175 Figure 5.12 : The construction steps of the prisms. ... 177 Figure 5.13 : The view of the prisms. ... 178 Figure 5.14 : The test setup and measurement system for the prism compression

tests. ... 179 Figure 5.15 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the prisms

tested under monotonic loadings (obtained from the LVDTs). ... 181 Figure 5.16 : The normalized compressive stress-normalized compressive strain

relationship for the prisms tested under monotonic loading. ... 183 Figure 5.17 : The Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for the prisms under monotonic loading. ... 183 Figure 5.18 : The compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength

relationship for the prisms tested under monotonic loading. ... 184 Figure 5.19 : The Young's modulus-secant modulus at peak relationship for the

prisms tested under monotonic compression. ... 185 Figure 5.20 : The cyclic compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the

prisms. ... 187 Figure 5.21 : The envelope curves of cyclic compressive stress-compressive strain

relationships for the prisms. ... 187 Figure 5.22 : The normalized compressive stress-normalized strain relationship for

the prisms tested under monotonic and cyclic loading. ... 189 Figure 5.23 : The Young’s modulus-compressive strength relationship for the prisms tested under monotonic and cyclic loading. ... 190 Figure 5.24 : The compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength

relationship for the prisms tested under monotonic and cyclic loading. ... 191 Figure 5.25 : The Young's modulus-secant modulus at peak relationship for the

prisms tested under monotonic and cyclic loading. ... 192 Figure 5.26 : The compressive stress at the first crack level- compressive strength

relationship for several prisms. ... 192 Figure 5.27 : The plastic strain-envelope strain relationship for the prisms. ... 194 Figure 5.28 : The stiffness degradation in the prisms under cyclic compression load.

... 195 Figure 5.29 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relation of the prisms with

special points. ... 195 Figure 5.30 : The construction steps of the triplets. ... 197 Figure 5.31 : The description of the triplets. ... 198 Figure 5.32 : The test setup with measurement system for the triplet shear tests. .. 199 Figure 5.33 : The measurement system for the triplet shear tests. ... 200 Figure 5.34 : The shear stress-shear displacement relationships for the triplets

(32)

Figure 5.35 : The variation of compressive stress during the shear tests of TS-0.13-1, TS-0.13-2, TS-0.25-1 and TS-0.25-2. ... 203 Figure 5.36 : The variation of compressive stress during the shear tests of TS-0.50-2, TS-0.50-4, TS-0.75-1, TS-0.75-2, TS-1.00-1 and TS-1.00-2. ... 204 Figure 5.37 : The shear stress-shear strain relationships for TS-0.13-1, TS-0.13-2,

TS-0.25-1, TS-0.25-2, TS-0.50-2 and TS-0.50-4. ... 206 Figure 5.38 : The shear stress-shear strain relationships for TS-0.75-1, TS-0.75-2,

TS-1.00-1 and TS-1.00-2 (through Ac-Bc and Ad-Bd LVDTs). ... 207 Figure 5.39 : The failure of the triplets under the compression stresses of 0.13, 0.25,

and 0.50 MPa. ... 207 Figure 5.40 : The failure of TS-1.00-1 triplet. ... 208 Figure 5.41 : The shear strength-compressive stress relation for the triplets. ... 208 Figure 5.42 : The construction steps of the walls. ... 210 Figure 5.43 : The wall specimens. ... 211 Figure 5.44 : The test setup with measurement system for the wall compression

tests. ... 213 Figure 5.45 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the walls.

... 214 Figure 5.46 : The wall specimens for the diagonal tension tests. ... 216 Figure 5.47 : The test setup with measurement system for the wall diagonal tension

tests. ... 217 Figure 5.48 : The shear stress-horizontal strain and shear stress-vertical strain

relationships for the wall diagonal tension tests. ... 218 Figure 5.49 : The comparison of shear stress-vertical strain relations for the wall

diagonal tension tests. ... 219 Figure 5.50 : The shear stress-shear strain relationships for the wall diagonal tension

tests. ... 219 Figure 5.51 : The failures of the walls (diagonal tension tests). ... 221 Figure 5.52 : The wall views of the shear tests. ... 222 Figure 5.53 : The test setup with measurement system for the wall shear tests. .... 223 Figure 5.54 : The shear stress-horizontal displacement relationships for the walls.

... 224 Figure 5.55 : The variation of compressive stress during the shear tests of

WSh-0.13-1, WSh-0.13-2, WSh-0.25-1, WSh-0.25-2 and WSh-0.25-3. ... 226 Figure 5.56 : The variation of compressive stress during the shear tests of

WSh-0.50-1, WSh-0.50-2, WSh-0.75-1 and WSh-0.75-2. ... 227 Figure 5.57 : The failure of WSh-0.13-2 wall. ... 228 Figure 5.58 : The failure of WSh-0.50-2 wall. ... 228 Figure 5.59 : The shear strength-vertical stress relation for the walls. ... 229 Figure 6.1 : The friction coefficient-shear bond strength relationship (the shear tests

in the laboratory). ... 240 Figure 6.2 : The friction coefficient-shear bond strength relationship (the shear tests

of the Akaretler Row Houses and the other buildings in the laboratory). ... 241 Figure 6.3 : The interaction between shear and compressive stresses of the cores. 243 Figure 6.4 : The interaction between shear and compressive stresses of the triplets.

... 243 Figure 6.5 : The interaction between shear and compressive stresses of the walls. 244 Figure 7.1 : Modeling of masonry (Lourenço, 1994). ... 254 Figure 7.2 : The description of the prism. ... 255

(33)

Figure 7.3 : The finite element model of the prism and the element type used. ... 256 Figure 7.4 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of PCF-1. ... 257 Figure 7.5 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships obtained from

the numerical analysis. ... 259 Figure 7.6 : The comparison of compressive stress-compressive strain relationships

obtained from the tests and numerical analyses (prisms). ... 260 Figure 7.7 : The finite element model of the wall. ... 261 Figure 7.8 : The mesh of the wall. ... 261 Figure 7.9 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of WCF-1. .... 262 Figure 7.10 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships for the walls

(numerical analysis). ... 263 Figure 7.11 : The comparison of compressive stress-compressive strain relationships obtained from the tests and numerical analyses (walls). ... 264 Figure 7.12 : The compressive stress-compressive strain relationships of the prisms

and the walls (numerical analysis). ... 265 Figure B.1 : The relationships of compressive stress-vertical strain. ... 285 Figure B.2 : The relationships of compressive stress-vertical strain and their

envelope curves under cyclic loads. ... 286 Figure C.1 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of PCF-2. ... 287 Figure C.2 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of PCF-3. ... 288 Figure C.3 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of PCF-4. ... 288 Figure C.4 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of WCF-2. ... 289 Figure C.5 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of WCF-3. ... 289 Figure C.6 : The compressive stress contours and deformed shapes of WCF-4. ... 290

(34)

(35)

A COMPREHENSIVE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON THE BEHAVIOR OF HISTORICAL BRICK MASONRY WALLS OF 19TH CENTURY BUILDINGS

SUMMARY

Turkey has several historical structures ranging from city walls, bridges, palaces, churches, mosques, underground cisterns and residental buildings, which are the remainings of Roma, Byzantine, and Ottoman periods. The wish to protect them for the future requires evaluating the present situation of these structures. One of the necessary steps for the structural evaluation is to determine the in-situ material characteristics. The related literature investigation indicates that the number of the study on the material characterization of the historical structures in Turkey is very limited. Consequently, in this study, it is aimed to carry out a comprehensive experimental study on historical masonry samples, which were obtained from historical Akaretler Row Houses built in 19th century in İstanbul. The row houses are the first examples of row houses in Ottoman Empire. The load-bearing walls of the row houses were constructed with solid clay brick laid in mortar joints. Since several walls of the houses were to be removed according to the restoration design, a large number of different types of specimens could be collected for laboratory tests and considerable amount of in-situ destructive and non-destructive tests were carried out as well. It is considered that the historical masonry knowledge obtained from these experimental studies may be used in structural assessment and restoration works of the other historical masonry row houses/buildings constructed in 19th century in Turkey. Particularly, Beyoğlu (Pera) district in İstanbul has many historical brick masonry buildings and row houses, which were built during the same period.

This study can be divided into four main parts. In the first part, the material characterizations of the historical masonry componets (brick and mortar) are carried out with mechanical, physical, and chemical tests. These tests were performed on the brick and mortar samples, which were collected from the walls of the houses. According to the test results and visual observations, it is concluded that the bricks were simply produced in field kilns, and the binder of the mortar was hydrated lime without brick powder. Additionally, the surface hardnesses of the in-place bricks and mortar joints are measured.

In the second part, the structural behavior of the historical masonry samples (core and wallet) extracted from the walls is investigated under tension, compression and shear loads. According to this study, the wallet compressive strength may be taken as about 60% of the core compressive strength. By evaluating the results of destructive (core tests) and non-destructive tests (rebound hammer tests), an equation is suggested to find compressive strength of masonry core specimens from the in-situ rebound number of bricks. By testing the materials extracted from several 19th century historical buildings, the relationships of shear bond strength-compressive strength and friction coefficient-compressive strength are obtained for the core specimens.

(36)

In the third part, tests on reproduced masonry (prism and wall), which were constructed with historical bricks collected from the walls of the houses and reproduced mortar, are given. Since the process of taking test specimens from existing structures is destructive, the application of this process on the historical structures is not generally allowed. Even if allowed, to take non-damaged specimens and to take appropriate specimens in terms of number, size required for the test type, and composition required for the simulation of in-place load-bearing masonry may not be possible. In such cases, masonry properties may be identified through tests performed on the reproduced specimens. In this study, the reproduced prisms specimens are tested under monotonic/cyclic compression, and shear loads. The cyclic characteristics of the prisms are defined through the envelope and plastic strain relationships and stiffness degradation. The tests conducted on the reproduced walls are compression, diagonal tension and shear tests. Using compressive strength, shear strengths and corresponding compressive stresses, the interaction curves of shear and compressive stresses are obtained. These curves indicate that Mohr-Coulomb criterion should be used for cases under which the levels of compressive stress are lower than 30-40% of corresponding compressive strengths.

In the last part, numerical analyses are performed on masonry prisms and walls under compression loads. The main objective is to obtain the compressive stress-compressive strain relations for comparing with the related relations obtained from tests. It should be noted that in order to define the masonry components (brick and mortar) in the numerical analyses, the experimental data of these components were used.

Additionally, in the related parts of this thesis, in order to express the compression test results quantitatively, the compressive strength and corresponding strain, the compressive stress at proportional limit and corresponding strain, the Young’s modulus and the ductility of each specimen are obtained. The relationships of Young’s modulus-compressive strength, compressive stress at proportional limit-compressive strength and Young’s modulus-secant modulus at peak are expressed with various linear functions. Modeling the relationships between compressive stress and compressive strain, parabolic functions are proposed based on the regression analysis conducted on the corresponding test data. For evaluating the shear tests quantitatively, the shear strength components (bond strength and friction of coefficient), shear modulus, and shear stress-horizontal displacement relationships are inferred from the test results. In the analysis and/or assessment of the existing masonry structures, these functions can be utilized.

The obtained results are also evaluated according to Turkish Seismic Design Code (TSDC) (2007) in a comparative manner. This evaluation may be concluded that the specimens to be tested should be clearly described and that the knowledge on the masonry buildings built with lime mortar should be provided by the code. The statements related to Young’s modulus of the masonry wall should be clearer. The design procedure of masonry structures and default values given in the code are generally referred as the assessment procedure of the existing masonry structures. This procedure may be developed taking into account the common characteristics of the existing masonry structures.