AN EVALUATION OF THE TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG
LEARNERS COURSE IN GAZI UNIVERSITY ELT DEPARTMENT
WITH REFERENCE TO THE NEW ENGLISH LANGUAGE
CURRICULUM FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION
M.A. THESIS
By
Safiye Çiğdem GÖREN
Supervisor
Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdullah ERTAŞ
JÜRİ ÜYELERİ İMZA SAYFASI
Egitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Müdürlügü’ne
Safiye Çiğdem Gören’e ait “Gazi Üniversitesi İngilizce Öğretmenliği Bölümündeki
Çocuklara İngilizce Öğretimi Dersinin Yeni İlköğretim İngilizce Müfredatı Açısından
Değerlendirilmesi” adlı çalışma jürimiz tarafından Yabancı Diller Eğitimi Anabilim
Dalında YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ olarak kabul edilmiştir.
(imza)
Baskan: ………..…………..
Akademik Ünvanı, Adı Soyadı
(imza)
Üye: ………..……..
Akademik Ünvanı, Adı Soyadı
(imza)
Üye: ……….……..
Akademik Ünvanı, Adı Soyadı
ABSTRACT
AN EVALUATION OF THE TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS
COURSE IN GAZI UNIVERSITY ELT DEPARTMENT WITH REFERENCE TO
THE NEW ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM FOR PRIMARY
EDUCATION
GÖREN, Safiye Çiğdem
M. A., Department of Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Supervisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdullah ERTAŞ
September, 2008
The present study aims to evaluate the Teaching English to Young Learners
Course in Gazi University ELT department with reference to the new English language
curriculum for primary education. This study has five chapters. Chapter I presents the
general background, problem, aim, significance, scope and limitations and methodology
of the study. In the Review of literature part of the study, Teaching English to Young
Learners, Present English Language Curriculum for Primary Education in Turkey and
the Teaching English to Young Learners course at Gazi University ELT department
have been studied. Chapter III deals with the methodology of the study including
participants involved in the research and the procedure. The analysis of the data
collected has been presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V includes a summary and
conclusion and suggestions for the whole study.
This descriptive study includes two interviews and a questionnaire. One of the
interviews was for the teachers of TEYL course at Gazi university ELT department and
the other was for the English teachers at primary schools. The questionnaire was
prepared for the 4
thclass students at Gazi University ELT department. The results of the
research show that TEYL course can be improved to meet teacher trainees’ expectation.
ÖZET
GAZİ UNİVERSİTESİ İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRETMENLİĞİ BÖLÜMÜNDEKİ
ÇOCUKLARA İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRETİMİ DERSİNİN YENİ İLKÖĞRETİM
İ
NGİLİZCE MÜFREDATI AÇISINDAN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ
GÖREN, Safiye Çiğdem
Yüksek Lisans, İngiliz Dili Eğitimi Bölümü
Danışman: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Abdullah ERTAŞ
Eylül, 2008
Bu çalışmanın amacı Gazi Üniversitesi İngilizce Öğretmenliği Bölümündeki
“Çocuklara Yabancı Dil Öğretimi” dersinin yeni ilköğretim İngilizce Müfredatı göz
önünde bulundurularak değerlendirilmesidir. Beş bölümden oluşan bu çalışmanın
birinci bölümü çalışmaya temel oluşturan unsurları, çalışmanın amacını, problemini,
kapsam ve sınırlıklarını, ve metodunu içermektedir. İkinci bölümde çocuklara yabancı
dil öğretimi, ilköğretimdeki mevcut İngilizce Müfredatı ve Gazi Üniversitesi İngilizce
Öğretmenliği bölümündeki “Çocuklara Yabancı Dil Öğretimi” (ÇYDÖ) dersi
konularında bilgi verilmiştir. Üçüncü bölüm katılımcı ve prosedürü kapsayan
çalışmanın metodunu açıklamaktadır. Toplanan verilerin analizi dördüncü bölümde
verilmiştir. Son olarak bölüm beş çalışmanın genel özeti ve sonuçlarını kapsamaktadır.
Bu çalışma iki görüşme ve bir anketten oluşmaktadır.görüşmelerden biri Gazi
Üniversitesi İngilizce Öğretmenliği bölümündeki ÇYDÖ dersi öğretmenlerine
uygulanmıştır. Diğer görüşme ilköğretimde görev yapan İngilizce öğretmenleriyle
yapıldı. Anket ise Gazi Üniversitesi İngilizce Öğretmenliği bölümündeki 4. sınıf
öğrencilerine uygulandı. Çalışmanın sonuçları, ÇYDÖ dersinin İngilizce öğretmen
adaylarının beklentileri doğrultusunda geliştirilebileceğini gösteriyor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMNTS
It is a real pleasure to thank to people who have contributed to this study.
First of all, I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdullah
ERTAŞ
for his excellent guidance and his continuous patience and encouragement that I have always felt throughout the preparation of this thesis.I owe my thanks to all teacher trainees and teachers for participating in the
questionnaire and interviews without any doubt. I especially want to express my special
thanks to Dr. Neslihan Özkan for her precious contribution to my thesis.
I am thankful to my class-mates Gülden Sümen, Aslı Atalı and Pınar Zeydan for their support and friendship who have patiently listened to me and encouraged my studies.
Special thanks to my lovely friend Emel Doğan
, who was enthusiastic in helping me
at every phase of my study, she has been an inspiration to me; and I am also grateful for
Barış Koç for providing me technical support and the motivation that gave me strength to
complete this study.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my parents Adem Gören and
Zeliha Gören who provided me with love, tolerance and invaluable support throughout my
thesis and throughout my life,
my sister Didem Gören and my brother Mehmet Görkem Gören for their courage and conviction that always inspire me.TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ……….…. iii
ÖZET ……….……… iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……….……. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………. vi
LIST OF TABLES ………...……. ix
LIST OF GRAPHS ………...…………. x
LIST OF FIGURES ……….………. xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION……….……. 1
1.0 Presentation ………..…. 1
1.1 General Background to the Study ………. 1
1.2 Problem of the Study ……….….3
1.3 Aim of the Study ………..………. 4
1.4 Significance of the Study ……….……. 4
1.5 Scope and limitations of the Study ………..……. 5
1.6 Methodology……….……. 5
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ………..…6
2.1 Teaching English to Young Learners ………...……. 6
2.1.1 Defining Young Learners ………..……. 6
2.1.1.1 Piaget Vygotsky ………...… 7
2.1.1.2 Scott and Ytreberg’s Age Classification …………..……... 9
2.1.1.3 Keddle’s Classification………....…10
2.1.2 Theories for the Education of Young Learners………..……12
2.1.2.1 Learning Styles………....13
2.1.2.3 Implications of MI Theory for Foreign Language
Education……….…23
2.2 Present English Language Curriculum for Primary Education in Turkey ….. 25
2.2.1 1997 Reform ……….………25
2.2.2 2006 Curricular Change……….27
2.2.2.1 Theoretical Information Given in the Curriculum………...28
2.2.2.1.1 Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.28
2.2.2.1.2 Course Design…………...………... 32
2.2.2.1.3 Components of a Course……...………... 32
2.2.2.1.4 English Language Teaching Materials ...……… 36
2.2.2.2 English Language Curriculum for 4
thand 5
thGrades …… 36
2.3 Teaching English to Young Learners Course at Gazi University ELT
Department; Present Situation ……….…. 40
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ………...……… 44
3.0 Presentation ………. 44
3.1 Participants ………...…... 44
3.2 Procedure ……….……... 44
CHAPTER IV: DATA ANALYSIS ………47
4.0 Presentation ……….………… 47
4.1 Analysis of the Questionnaire Results ………...…….. 47
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ………...……74
5.0 Presentation ………..74
5.1 Summary ………..74
5.2 Conclusion and Suggestions ……….…75
REFERENCES ……….……79
Appendix A ……….……85
Appendix B………..87
Appendix C ……….………91
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 The major differences between the child, preteen and teenager ………11
Table 2.2 How our Definition of Intelligence Changed ……….17
Table 2.3 Syllabuses ……….……..33
LIST OF GRAPHS
Graft 4.1. Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 1 ………..……48
Graph 4.2 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 2 ……….…49
Graph 4.3 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 3 ………..…50
Graph 4.4 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 4 ………..…51
Graph 4.5 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 5 ……….….52
Graph 4.6 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 6 ……….….53
Graph 4.7 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 7 ………..54
Graph 4.8 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 8 ………..55
Graph 4.9 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 9 ………...56
Graph 4.10 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 10 ………..57
Graph 4.11 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 11 ………...58
Graph 4.12 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 12 ………..59
Graph 4.13 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 13 ………..60
Graph 4.14 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 14 ………..…61
Graph 4.15 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 15 ………..…62
Graph 4.16 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 16 ………..……63
Graph 4.17 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 17 ………..…64
Graph 4.18 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 18 ………..65
Graph 4.19 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 19 ………..66
Graph 4.20 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 20 ………..…67
Graph 4.21 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 21 ………..68
Graph 4.22 Percentages of the Responses Given to Item 22 ………..69
TABLE OF FIGURES
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.0 Presentation
This chapter aims to present an overview of the present study, “An evaluation of the Teaching English to Young Learners Course in Gazi University ELT department with reference to the new English language curriculum for primary education”. Chapter I has six sections. 1.1 gives the general background to the study. Section 1.2 introduces the problem of the study. The aim and research questions of the study have been presented in section 1.3. In section 1.4, the significance of the study is given. Section 1.5 introduces the scope and limitations of the study, and finally, 1.6 describes the methodology of the study.
1.1 General Background to the Study
In a multilingual world, it is natural to find large numbers of people who speak (and have therefore learned) more than one language. Learning a foreign language may nowadays be regarded as a normal, almost everyday activity(Johnson, K., 2001: 6). Therefore, people have always felt the need to learn a foreign language to communicate with other people to keep up with the cultural, social, and technological changes in the world.
English that has been accepted as a global language all around the world for many years is preferred to be learnt by most of the people. For this reason, language teaching approaches, methods, and classroom procedures have been in a dynamic process. The use of the English language has grown throughout Europe and much of the world in recent years. With this changing cultural landscape the interest in introducing foreign language instruction has increasingly included younger learners.
In the last few decades, lowering the age of English language teaching has spread in many European countries. Cameron (2002:13) states that young children can learn a second language particularly effectively before puberty because their brains are still able to use the mechanism that assisted first language acquisition. Ausubel, Hawkins and Collier claims that older learners appear to out-perform younger learners in the rate of language acquisition because they have a better grasp of grammatical patterns which transfer from their mother tongue to the foreign language (cited in Driscoll and Frost, 1999:10). Although it is clear that different young learners have differentEnglish language needs, priorities, and motivations, it is now generally agreed that an early start is desirable and beneficial (Bourke, 2006:279).
It is a known fact that teaching a language to young learners and teaching a language to teenagers or adults are completely different subjects. The needs, expectations, interests, psychological and cognitive developments of children are completely different from those of adults and teenagers. Children are often more enthusiastic and lively as learners (Cameron, 2002:1). They are not interested in rules, explanations, or the subjects that are irrelevant to them in their own world. As they are kinesthetic, easily get bored, easily lose their interest and attention, they do not like just sitting on the chair and listening to their teacher in a strict learning atmosphere. There are some advantages that young learners have over older ones. Young children are sensitive to the sounds and the rhythm of new languages and they enjoy copying new sounds and patterns of intonation. In addition, younger learners are usually less anxious and less inhibited than older learners (Pinter, cited in Lefever, S. 2007: 28).
Not only the educationalists, but also the parents have become more aware of the importance of learning English at an early age. As for Turkey, Turkish Ministry of Education lowered the compulsory introduction of English to 4th grade in State Primary Schools in order to establish good relations with all nations in the world and to keep up with the scientific innovations. Ministry of Education has taken new
decisions in the past two years; Firstly, the curriculum changed in 2006 and two hours of elective English lessons added to the English language curriculum. Then the number of lesson hours increased to three in the fourth and fifth grades. As a result of this, English as a foreign language has been taught in 4th and 5th grades since 1997.
As Cameron (2002: xii) states, the teacher of children needs to be highly skilled to reach into children’s worlds. Teaching languages to children needs all the skills of the good primary teacher in managing children and keeping them on task, plus knowledge of the language, of language teaching, and of language learning. To accomplish this, teachers of young learners need to have special training about how these children perceive the world and how they learn a foreign language because it is the teacher who has a great role in taking advantage of early language learning. Consequently, they need to know not only about the way young learners learn, but also the most effective ways to teach them.
With the inclusion of teaching English to primary school students in the state school system in Turkey, many teachers, who are accustomed to teaching teenagers, now have various difficulties in teaching young learners. It is challenging for them to get used to the new English language teaching system. Among these teachers there are also new teachers who have recently graduated from universities. On the basis of these problems, this study aims to find out if there is an appropriate education of Teaching English to Young Learners in Gazi University ELT department.
1.2 Problem of the study
The introduction of English language into the Turkish education system dates back to The Tanzimat Period, the second half of the eighteenth century, which marks the beginning of the westernization movements in the education system (Kirkgöz 2007: 217). Until the 1997 educational reform, various education systems and English Language Teaching methods have been used and it was just for the secondary education. With the 1997 reform, English language teaching lowered to
4th and 5th grades of primary education. Moreover, Communicative Approach was introduced to ELT for the first time. Therefore, some teachers who are experienced in teaching teenagers are now faced with the challenge of teaching young learners. They have some difficulties in adaptation to new English language teaching system. This is a reality for the English teachers at primary schools but what for the teacher trainees at ELT department of universities?
Gazi university ELT department has the course “Teaching English to Young Learners” in third grade classes which aims to help teacher trainees know young learners closely and learn the ways to teach them English. This study aims to find out if there is an appropriate education of Teaching English to Young Learners in Gazi University ELT department.
1.3 Aim and Research Questions of the Study
Keeping in mind the revision of the English Language Curriculum for Primary Education, the present study aims to evaluate the Teaching English to Young Learners Course in Gazi University ELT department.
This study aims at finding out the following:
1. Is the Teaching English to Young Learners Course at Gazi University ELT Department in accordance with the new English Language Curriculum for Primary Education?
2. Are the teacher trainees at the 4th grade of ELT department qualified for teaching English to young learners?
1.4 Significance of the Study
With the introduction of English language into the primary education, English teachers at primary schools got confused. They are unfamiliar with the new English
language teaching system. On the other hand, the teacher trainees at ELT departments of universities have the course “Teaching English to Young Learners”. They are more familiar with young learners and recent approaches to language teaching but they also have problems after graduation.
This study aims to find out these problems and make some suggestions for a better teacher education.
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study will be carried out in Gazi University ELT department. It contains a questionnaire administered to the target group that is approximately 100 4th grade students studying in Gazi University ELT department.
In order to have information about the process of the new English Language Curriculum for Primary Education, some English teachers at different primary schools were interviewed informally about the new curriculum.
The questionnaire was applied to 4th grade students in only Gazi University ELT Department which may be a limitation of this study.
1.6 Methodology
This is a descriptive study. The data were gathered from two interviews and a questionnaire. The research instrument was composed of three main parts. In the first part, a one question interview was organized for the English teachers at state schools, In the second part, the teachers of Teaching English to Young Learners course were asked seventeen questions about the content of the course. Lastly, a questionnaire was applied to the 4th grade students at Gazi University ELT department.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Teaching English to Young Learners
In the last decades, the age of learning English language has been lowered in many European countries. There is a common belief that foreign language learning should start as early as possible because it is believed that children learn a second language better than adults. Both the educationalists and parents have become more aware of the importance of learning English at an early age. As for Turkey, Turkish Ministry of Education lowered the compulsory introduction of English to 4th grade in State Primary Schools.
In Teaching Young Language Learners, Pinter (cited in Lefever, S. 2007: 27) points out a number of reasons why children can benefit from learning a foreign language. It can:
• develop children’s basic communication abilities in the language • encourage enjoyment and motivation for language learning • promote learning about other cultures
• develop children’s cognitive skills
• develop children’s metalinguistic awareness • encourage ´learning to learn´.
2.1.1 Defining Young Learners
With the 1997 reform English language teaching lowered to 4th grades of state primary schools. Therefore, young learners became a serious focus of attention for the language teachers. It means that English teachers would meet a new student group of young learners which they are not familiar with. Children differ from adult learners in many ways. For that reason, the question of who are young learners and what makes them different should be answered.
Phillips (2000:3) defined the term ‘Young Learners’ as children from the first year of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age. However, it is not so much the children’s age that counts in the classroom as how mature they are. There are many factors that effect children’s maturity.
Brumfit, et al (cited in Yıldız, 2001:11) define the term ‘Young Learners’ by listing shared characteristics:
• Young learners are just beginning their schooling, so teachers have a major opportunity to mould their expectations of life in school.
• As a group, they are potentially more differently than secondary or adult learners, for they are closer to their varied home cultures and new to the conformity increasingly imposed across cultural groupings by the school.
• They tend to be keen and enthusiastic learners.
• Their learning can be closely linked with their development of ideas and concepts.
• They need physical movement and actively as much as stimulation for their thinking and closer together these can be, the better.
2.1.1.1 Piaget and Vygotsky
Jean Piaget concerned with how young children function in the world that surrounds them, and how this influences their mental development (cited in Cameron, 2002:2). According to Piaget, children solve problems they come across while interacting with the world and learning occurs through taking action to solve these problems (Dewan, 2005: 7). Cameron (2002:4) states that we can take from Piaget the very important idea of the child as an active learner and thinker, constructing his or her own knowledge from working with objects or ideas. As Cameron (2002:3) states, a child’s gradual growth is marked with certain fundamental changes that cause a child to pass through a series of stages. This cognitive development stages are sensory motor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational. Piaget associates these stages with specific ages and according to him everyone goes through these stages in the same order.
However, he pointed out that knowing a student’s age is not a guarantee of knowing what the child thinks (cited in Dewan, 2005:7).
As Cameron (2002:3) states Piaget gives a much less important role to language in cognitive development than does Vygothsky. It is action, rather than the development of the first language which, for Piaget, is fundamental to cognitive development.
However, some research has shown that Piaget had underestimated what children can do and that they were indeed capable of many ways of thinking that he had considered too advanced for them (Cameron, 2002:4). Cameron (2002:4) also states that an important dimension of children’s lives that Piaget neglects is the social; it is the child on his or her own in the world that concerns him, rather than the child in communication with adults or other children.
Vygotsky gives priority to children’s social interaction. His views differ from Piaget’s in that the priority he gives language and to other people around children. On the other hand, he doesn’t neglect the individual cognitive development. Cameron (2002:4) states the difference between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views as for Piaget the child is an active learner alone in a world of objects, for Vygotsky the child is an active learner in a world full of other people. Vygotsky argued that personal and social experiences can not be separated and expressed that a child’s cognitive development is not only effected by physical growth, but also by their social surroundings and interactions (Dewan, 2005:8).
According to Vygotsky, language is a new tool for a child and it provides new opportunities for doing things and organizing information through the use of words. Through interaction with others, children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes and values develop. With the help of adults, children can do and understand much more than they can on do their own (Cameron, 2002:5).
Vygotshy (1988) claims that thought is determined by language and both are determined by society. Language guides the child's cognitive growth. Cognition thus develops in different ways depending on the cultural conditions.
Apart from Piaget and Vygotshy, young learners have been classified by some other researchers such as; Scott and Ytreberg and Keddle.
2.1.1.2 Scott and Ytreberg’s Age Classification
Scott and Ytreberg (1990:1) emphasize that there is a big difference between what children of five can do and what children of ten can do. Furthermore, children display individual differences; some children develop early, some later. Some children develop gradually, others in leaps and bound. Scoot and Ytreberg (1990) list the characteristics of different age groups as follows:
Five to seven year olds
What five to seven year olds can do
• They can talk about what they are doing. • They can plan activities.
• They can argue for something and tell you why they think what they think. • They can use logical reasoning.
• They can use their vivid imaginations.
• They can use a wide range of intonation pattern in their mother tongue. • They can understand direct human interaction
Eight to ten year olds
What eight to ten year olds can do
• They can tell the difference between fact and fiction.
• They rely on the spoken word as well as the physical world to convey and understand meaning.
• They have definite views about what they like and don’t like doing. • They have a developed sense of fairness about what happens in the classroom and begin to question the teacher’s decisions.
• They are able to work with others and learn from others.
2.1.1.3 Keddle’s Classification
Keddle (cited in Dewan, 2005: 12) has classified children according to their growth while Scott and Ytreberg have classified them by age. Keddle categorized children under three headings; child, preteen and young teenager. The following table shows the major differences between the child, preteen and teenager.
Child Preteen Teenager
Learn most by doing things Still learn by doing, but is developing new study styles
Learners in a variety of ways, including by doing Good at Total Physical
Response e.g. games, songs, mime etc. promotes learning
TPR can help dissipate energy, if used routinely, it helps learning, but may cause embarrassment
TPR still could be useful task but can be perceived as childish, teenagers may resist more than adults, causes embarrassment Needs frequent changes of
activity
Can concentrate for longer, but still needs frequent change of pace
Capable of longer periods of concentration
Enthusiastic Enthusiasm still a resource to be tapped some students may be disaffected
More dissatisfaction, criticism, complaint, and a sense of superiority inhibits teacher has to win
enthusiasm Limited knowledge of world Growing knowledge and
awareness of world outside home, school and family
Developing knowledge of world development of strong personal opinions and ideas Enters in to a fantasy world
willingly, loves bright
Still enjoys fantasy world, cartoons still popular but not
Engages more willingly with reality fears childishness
colors, cartoon characters etc.
childish cartoons
Not fully developed motor skills-projects will have limitations
Growing motor skills-projects can be more skillful etc.
Almost adult motor skills
Developing social skills More sophisticated social skills-pair work and group work can be used effectively
Maturing though adolescence can slow up social skills development Need more holistic teaching Becoming aware of learning
and studying as a separate skill but skill responsive to holistic teaching
Becoming aware of learning and studying as a separate skill, but skill responsive to holistic teaching
Less self conscious Growing self-consciousness Growing self-consciousness Understand more than they
can articulate
Increasing articulacy and desire to express complex thoughts-able to begin making analytical links
Increasing ability to analyze and draw conclusions
Predominantly oral-based learning
Learning can be accelerated through greater focus on reading and writing
Increasing focus on reading and writing as a medium of study
Learns fast, forgets fast, needs constant
reinforcement, recycling
Still learns fast but able to consolidate and build up knowledge, recycling important
Increasing adult memory levels
Table 2. 1. The major differences between the child, preteen and teenager.
It is obvious in the table that there are certain differences between the three groups. The group named as ‘child’ is enthusiastic for everything with limited knowledge of world. They learn and forget fast. They need recycling with holistic teaching. The ‘preteen’ group has a larger concentration span. They are more self-conscious than children and still need reinforcement and recycling. The last level, teenagers have strong personal opinions and ideas which cause more criticism and complaint. Teachers have to win their enthusiasm.
To sum up, the term ‘Young Learners’ is defined and grouped by different researchers in different ways. Scott and Ytreberg define the term in two groups considering ages Keddle defines it in three groups considering the growth of young learners. It is difficult to discriminate between young learners. Teachers should consider the distinctions provided by these psychologists and researchers and benefit from them in making decisions about their teaching. However, they should be aware of the fact that these distinctions are just generalizations and students can not be labeled with them.
2.1.2 Theories for the Education of Young Learners
It is clear from the characteristics of children given above that their view of the world is less complicated than adults but this doesn’t prove that teaching children is simple and straightforward. On the contrary, teachers of children should reach into children’s worlds and make sense of it (Cameron, 2002: xii). It makes teachers’ job easier to follow the different methods and theories for the education of young learners.
It is believed that children learn a second language better than adults. According to the Critical Period Hypothesis, children can learn a second language particularly effectively before puberty because they still have the ability to use the mechanism that assisted first language acquisition (Cameron, 2002: 13). There are various explanations of researchers that support the advantages of leaning a foreign language at a younger age.
Brumfit (cited in Dewan, 2005: 16) listed the following explanations as benefits of learning a language younger.
o The brain is more adaptable before puberty than after, and that acquisition of languages is possible without self-consciousness at an early age.
o Children have fewer negative attitudes to foreign languages and cultures than adults and that consequently they are better motivated than adults.
o Children’s language learning is more closely integrated with real communication because it depends more on the immediate physical environment than does adult language.
o Children devote vast quantities of time to language learning, compared with adults, and they are better because they do more of it.
There are different theories for children education. Working on how children learn their mother tongue, researchers have developed different theories and techniques for teaching a foreign language to children. The most current theories of foreign language education of children are Learning Styles and MI (Multiple Intelligences).
2.1.2.1 Learning Styles
Each student differs from others emotionally and physically, so he/she learns in a different way. It is commonly believed that people favor some particular method of interacting with, taking in, and processing information. Although students receive the same instruction, they process information differently.
Learning Styles relate to the way that peaople take in, process and recall information. It is important for teachers to identify the ways their learners learn most effectively.
Richards and Lockhart (cited in Juřičková, 2006: 31) suggest that learning styles (also referred to as cognitive styles) have been defined as characteristic
cognitive and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment.
Learning style is the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process, and retain new and difficult information (Dunn R. & Dunn K., 1993:2).
There are a lot of learning styles typologies. Norman and Revell (1997:31) divided the styles according to five senses; visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory and refer to them as VAKOG. We use all the learning styles but V, A, and K are the most predominantly used.
V: we look and see A: we hear and listen
K: we feel externally, internally, or movement O: we smell things
G: we taste
(Revell, 1997)
Dunn R. & Dunn K. (1993:31) state that teachers cannot correctly identify all the elements of a student’s learning style pattern through observation. They added that it is important to identify learning style with a comprehensive instrument, and it is crucial to use one that is both reliable and valid. Dunn R. & Dunn K. (1993:33-34) defines Learning Style Inventory, which is the first comprehensive approach to the assessment of an individuals learning style, is an important step toward identifying the conditions under which each person is most likely to concentrate on, learn, and remember new and difficult academic information.
Visual Learning Style
Visual learners remember what they see. They get information through their eyes. These people like to see things written down, so reading and writing tasks are appropriate for them. They like seeing visual aids while learning.
Auditory Learning Style
Auditory learners get in formation through their ears. They learn and remember better by listening, so they prefer listening to reading (Norman&Revell; 1997:31). They like to hear things, listen to cassettes, and perhaps repeat things in their own head. Oral drills and songs are great for them.
Kinesthetic Learning style
Kinesthetic learners like moving and acting in class. As Norman and Revell (1997:32) states they have a short attention span and lose interest in tasks easily. As they do not like sitting still for a long time, they enjoy using mime and activities that allow movement. Most of the children can be included in this group. According to Doyle and Rutherford (cited in Dewan, 2005:19) kinesthetic learning also occurs through direct manipulation of materials. These learners can be called as tactile. To draw these students’ attention, teachers should have real objects to touch.
Olfactory and Gustatory Learning Styles
These styles are less referred to because it is not that easy to find subjects available to appeal to them. Depending on the activities teachers can bring food, flowers etc. to classroom. For instance, during a lesson about ‘Colors’, the teacher can bring each student a fruit or vegetable with different colors to appeal to their gustatory style.
It is clear from the learning styles that different preferred representational systems will require different learning strategies. Therefore, it is very important to determine students’ learning styles. Various identification of learning styles have been developed such as; self-scoring inventories, computerized instruments, etc. By determining the learning styles of students, teachers can provide a more personalized instruction (Borthwick & Henson, cited in Dewan, 2005:20). Teachers shouldn’t label students with the learning styles but they should provide students with an idea of their own styles. Teachers also have their own primary representational systems.
What they must do is to go beyond their own styles, and plan lessons and activities with different style types in mind (Dewan, 2005:20).
Ozkan (2004:42) states in her study that when the activities presented to the learners are based on their learning styles, they become more successful which, in return, will be a motivating factor for additional learning.
2.1.2.2 Multiple Intelligences
A great importance is attached to the concept of intelligence, but most people are unable to define exactly what intelligence is. For many people, intelligence is something that an intelligence test measures . Traditionally, intelligence was considered as a general ability in varying degrees in all individuals (Christison, 2005:2). Silver et al (2000:6) give the definition of intelligence as the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge; the faculty of thought and reason; superior powers of mind.
Howard Gardner’s (1983) MI (Multiple Intelligences) theory contradicted the traditional views on intelligence as a unitary intellectual capacity. Gardner defines the term intelligence as “… a pluralistic view of the mind, recognizing many different and discrete facets of cognition and acknowledging that people have different cognitive strengths and contrasting cognitive styles” (cited in Christison, 2005:3).Silver et al (2000: 7) summarize Gardner’s definition of intelligence under three items:
• The ability to solve problems that one encounters in real life. • The ability to generate new problems to solve.
• The ability to make something or offer a service that is valued within one’s culture.
Silver et al (2000:7) compare the old and new view of intelligence as in the table 2.1:
Old View New View
• Intelligence was fixed
• Intelligence was measured by a number
• Intelligence was unitary
• Intelligence was measured in isolation
• Intelligence was used to sort students and predict their success
• Intelligence can be developed • Intelligence is not numerically
quantifiable and is exhibited during a performance or problem-solving process
• Intelligence can be exhibited in many ways-multiple
intelligences
• Intelligence is measured in context/real life situations • Intelligence is used to understand
human capacities and the many and varied ways students can achieve
Table 2.2. How our Definition of Intelligence Changed (Silver et al 2000:7)
Citak (2003) states in her study that the central proposition of MI Theory is that there is not one or two ways to be smart, there are many ways to be smart. Multiple Intelligences see learners in different ways. Gardner divides intelligence into eight categories; verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal and naturalistic intelligence. A summary of these eight intelligences is given in the Table 2.1.
Verbal/linguistic Intelligence is the ability to use words effectively both
orally and in writing (Christison, 2005:5). It is the capacity to use language to express what is on his mind and understand other human beings (Ersöz, 2006:22). This intelligence includes the ability to manipulate the syntax or structure of language, the phonology or sounds of language, the semantics or meanings of language, and the pragmatic dimensions or practical uses of language (Armstrong, 1994:3). Silver et al. (2000:7) states that people who have verbal-linguistic intelligence can read for hours at a time. Their auditory skills tend to be highly developed, and they learn best when they can speak, listen, read, or write.
Verbal/linguistic intelligence of students can be developed by creating a rich print environment-things to look at and write about-and by providing many opportunities for interaction-among students and between the teacher and the students (Christison, 2005:5).
Logical/mathematical Intelligence is the ability to recognize a significant
problem and solve it. People with this intelligence use numbers effectively and reason well. It includes skills such as; understanding the basic properties of numbers, developing the ability to analyze data, understanding the principle of cause and effect, and being able to use simple machines (Christison, 2005:5). We use this intelligence in our daily life by making decisions, solving problems, calculating… etc.
Christison (2005:5) also states that teachers can help their students develop their logical/mathematical intelligence by providing manipulative for experimentation with numbers and using simple machines or computer programs to help students think about cause and effect.
Visual/spatial Intelligence is the ability to have sensitivity to form, space,
color, line and shape (Christison, 2005:5). This intelligence involves a high capacity of perceiving, creating, and re-creating pictures and images (Silver H. F. et al., 2000:
8). We use this intelligence to organize a closet, read a map, remember where we put something, rearrange room, make an outline, use our imagination, etc. This intelligence is not only related to sight. It can be developed in those who are blind, so it is called both as visual and spatial.
As Christison (2005:5) states teachers can help their students develop their visual/spatial intelligence by providing opportunities for visual mapping activities and encouraging students to vary the arrangements of materials in space, for example, by creating charts and bulletin boards.
Bodily/kinaesthetic Intelligence entails using all or part of the body to solve
problems or create products (Kornhaber M., Fierros E., and Veerema S., 2004:6). Armstrong (1994:3) emphasizes other essential skills for this intelligence as coordination, balance, dexterity, strength, flexibility and speed. This intelligence enables us to control and interpret body motions, manipulate physical objects and establish harmony between the mind and the body.
A teacher can help his/her students develop their Bodily/kinaesthetic Intelligence by providing opportunities for physical challenges during the foreign language lesson, such as conducting an experiment, acting out an idea, performing a dance, or participating in a role-play (Christison, 2005:5).
Musical Intelligence is the capacity to perceive, discriminate, transform, and
express musical forms. Thish intelligence includes sensitivity to the rhythm, pitch or melody, and timbre or tone color of a music piece (Armstrong, 1994: 3). It is the ability to produce melody and rhythm, as well as to understand, appreciate and form options about music (Silver H. F. et al., 2000: 8).
According to Christison (2005:6) teachers can help students develop musical intelligence by using cassette or CD players for listening, singing along, and learning new songs.
Intrapersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand yourself, your
strengths, weaknesses, moods, desires, and intentions. This includes such skills as understanding how you are similar to or different from others; reminding yourself to do something; knowing about yourself as a language learner; and knowing handle how to handle your feelings, such as what to do and how to behave when you are angry or sad (Christison, 2005:6). Silver et al. (2000:7) define intrapersonal intelligence as the ability to gain access to one’s own feelings and emotional states. Intrapersonal intelligent people usually choose to work on their own as they use and trust their self-understanding to guide them.
Teachers can help their students develop intrapersonal intelligence by giving them opportunities to express their own preferences, reflect on how they participated in an activity, set goals for their own learning, and help them evaluate their own style of learning (Christison, 2005:6).
Interpersonal Intelligence is the ability to perceive and make distinctions in
the moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people (Armstrong, 1994:3).Armstrong (1994:3) states that it includes sensitivity to facial expressions, voice and gestures; the capacity for discriminating among many different kinds of interpersonal cues; and the ability to respond effectively to those cues in some pragmatic way. Students who are strong in this type of intelligence are easy to detect in the classroom. They usually exploit any opportunity to socialize, they are known to have good relationships with friends and exploit a natural tendency for leadership (Erinç, 2006:23).
Interpersonally intelligent people are friendly and outgoing. Most people with this intelligence know how to gauge, identify with, and react to the temperaments of others ( Silver, 2000:8).
Erinç (2006:24) states in her study that the strategies that address interpersonal intelligence have been widely used under the title of Cooperative Language Learning (CLL). This method aims to create an interactive context for maximum level of communication in the target language.
Christison (2005:6) suggest that teachers can help their students develop interpersonal intelligence through activities that require them to work with others to solve problems and resolve conflict, teach each other new skills, and learn how to encourage other members of a group or team.
Naturalistic intelligence is found in those who are highly attuned to the
natural world of plants and animals, as well as to natural geography and natural objects like rocks, clouds and stars (Silver, 2000:8) Naturalistic intelligence allows people to solve problems by distinguishing among, classifying and using features of the natural world (Kornhaber M. et all, 2004:6). Students with high naturalist skills are interested in topics about nature; they are also sensitive to environmental problems. In the EFL classroom, such topics may heighten students' attention and engage them in production of the target language (Erinç, 2006:28). To develop this intelligence, teachers should use activities which include categorization, comparison, and observation, categorizing list of words, pictures, places, shapes, or any other suitable topic activates this intelligence (Dewan, 2005:40). Teachers can also help students develop their naturalist intelligence by focusing their attention on the world outside the classroom. When students work to identify parts of real plants or participate in field trips to learn about different trees or animals, they are developing their naturalist intelligence (Christison 2005:6).
As Silver (2000:9) states all people possess all these intelligences, use all of them in different situations and contexts, and can develop each intelligence. Most people, however, demonstrate an especially high ability in one or two intelligences.
2.1.2.3 Implications of MI Theory for Foreign Language Education
The theory of multiple intelligences seems to harbor a number of educational implications that are worthy of consideration (Christison 2005:7). Armstrong (1994:11-12) has synthesized these ideas into four key points:
• Each person possesses all eight intelligences. In each person the eight intelligences function together in unique ways.
• Intelligences can be developed. Humans have the capacity to develop all eight intelligences to a reasonably high level of performance with appropriate encouragement, enrichment, and instruction.
• Intelligences can work together in complex ways. No intelligence really exists by itself. Intelligences are always integrating with each other.
• There are many different ways to be intelligent. There is no set standard of attributes that one must have in order to be considered intelligent.
Applying MI theory means first understanding that all individuals have at least eight intelligences, many of which do not show up in traditional classroom activities, which tend to focus on linguistic and mathematical intelligences (Stefanakis, 2002:31). Armstrong (1994:65) states that individual differences among students, teachers are best advised to use a broad range of teaching strategies with their students.
Educators have taken the theory, put it together in different ways, and applied it to their lesson planning and program and curriculum development.
Gardner (1999:186) states that educators need to recognize the difficulties students face in attaining genuine understanding of important topics and concepts. They also need to take into account the differences among minds and, as far as possible, fashion an education that can reach the infinite variety of students.
In an MI classroom, the teacher continually shifts her/his method of presentation from linguistic to spatial to musical and so on, often combining intelligences in creative ways (Armstrong, 1994:50).
Applying MI theory means focusing on the uniqueness of the individual learners. Specifically, teachers might have to look more closely at those learners who are not learning in the typical ways teachers expect them to learn (Stefanakis, 2002:8).
Christison (2005:8) suggests 5 steps for applying MI theory in the foreign language classroom:
1- Introduce yourself to the basic theory. A teacher should know the
necessary background of multiple intelligences and how to apply it. Showing L2 teachers how to introduce MI theory to their students is important.
2- Take an MI inventory. Before teachers apply a model of learning to the
classroom, they should apply it to themselves as educators (Armstrong, 1994: 16). Teachers should determine their own multiple intelligence profile firstly. Christison (2005:9) claims that once you learn more about your own multiple intelligence profile, you will become more confident in the choices you make that affect your teaching. The choices you make as a teacher for your classroom can also affect the MI profiles of your students in your classes.
3- Learn to categorize familiar language activities. In order to begin lesson
planning, it is important for the teacher to identify the activities he/she normally use in his/her lessons as they relate to the different intelligences.
4- Conduct a personal audit of your own teaching. Teachers look at the
activities they include in their lessons over a period of time. The activities then categorized according to the different intelligences.
5- Develop assessment techniques that address the eight intelligences.
Assessment practices must be individualized and developmentally appropriate. Teachers must explore multi-modal testing practices based on eight intelligences-not just the verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical practices that dominate educational assessment.
When we recall a favourite teacher, surprisingly it may well be the one who tapped into our multiple intelligences. This was the teacher who knew each of us as an individual, and made us feel smart, perhaps in a variety of ways (Stefanakis, 2002:25)
2.2 Present English Language Curriculum for Primary Education in Turkey
Knowing a foreign language has become very important in Turkey in recent years. It is because of the fact that Turkey plays an important role in the international arena. Teaching and learning English is encouraged because English is the main language for international communication and it is the lingua franca of science, technology and business. For that reason language teaching programs have gained great significance.
2.2.1 1997 Reform
In 1997, compulsory primary education in Turkey has become 8 years long. As a result of this reform, English Language became a part of the curiculum of the 4th and 5th grades of primary education. New language curriculum was designed for the 4th and 5th grades including two semesters with the two-hour English course per week.
The 1997 curriculum introduced the concept of the communicative approach into ELT. It aims to develop students’ capacity of communication using the language
in classroom activities (Kirkgoz, 2007:221). The objectives of the curriculum for 4th and 5th grades are to
• raise pupils’ awareness of a foreign language;
• promote a positive attitude towards the learning of English Language;
• increase pupils’interest and motivation towards the English Language;
• establish classromm situations in the context of games so that pupils can entertain while learning English;
• set up dialogues and meaningful contextualized learning activities, and
• help pupils’ develop appropriate strategies (Kocaoluk and Kocaoluk 2001 in Kirkgoz, 2007:221)
The new curriculum aims to develop learners’communicative capacity. It promotes setudent-centered learning replacing the traditional teacher-centered view to learning. Teacher is the fecilitator of the learning process. (Kirkgoz, 2007:221). Ministry of Education (MEB, 2000:181) states that children should not be exposed to an intense language program, therefore the activities used in classroom should be game-based and interesting to learners. Real-life situations and authentic materials are suggested for the classrom activities.
However, in her survey Kırkgöz (Kırkgöz, 2007:223) mentions:
“Survey findings revealed that the communicative language teaching proposed by The Turkish Ministry of National Education did not seem to have the expected impact on teachers’ classroom practices because classroom activities were largely based on traditional methods of teaching. While lowering the starting age for learning English had been considered worthwhile by the teachers, as this had a positive influence on children’s acquisition of English, the following negative aspects of the curriculum were identified:
• the content of the curriculum, particularly for upper grades was too dense;
• textbooks did not support the proposed communicative teaching methodology;
• teaching time allocated for each grade was insufficient;
• large class size made it difficult to implement the syllabus effectively and a large number of schools lacked adequate resources. (Kırkgöz, 2007:223).”
Apart from these negative aspects, Ministry of Education (MEB, 2000:181) states that teachers should use the lecturing technique which is not appropriate for the suggestions of the curriculum.
2.2.2 2006 Curricular Change
As Burnett and Myers (2004:19) states just as language itself evolves to reflect social, cultural and technological developments, so has the curriculum for English.
Turkey’s recent attempts to join EU has caused various policy changes and these changes have also affected the language policy. Özkan (2004:62) claims; “Considering the fact that the Turkish National Policy aims at becoming a member of the EU, the best thing to do will be integrating the European Language Passport in our language teaching in order to prepare our students for future operations.” Kırkgöz (Kırkgöz, 2007:224) states that “The change in the ELT policy concerns the recent revision of the 1997 primary level ELT curriculum by a team of Turkish experts to adapt it to EU standatrs. In many aspects, the new curriculum is a much more comprehensive and elaborate version of the previous one.”
English Language Curriculum for Primary Education changed with the resolution, no. 14, dated to 10.02.2006, by the Board of Education. The new curriculum has been in use since the 2006-2007 academic year starting from the fourth grades, gradually proceeding to upper grades year by year.
The new curriculum differs from the previous one in giving detailed and theoretical information of ELT such as course design, approaches in ELT, teaching English to young learners and adolescents, teaching materials... etc.
2.2.2.1 Theoretical Information Given in the Curriculum
The importance and the need of learning and teaching English is stated in the curriculum. The reason why English is an indispensable part of the school curriculum is that English has become the means of communication among people and it is the official working language of the United Nations and NATO of which Turkey is a member (Ersöz, et al.2006:16).
In adition to the importance of teaching and learning English some theoretical information is provided on various aspects of ELT including, approaches and methods in language teaching, course design, components of a course and language teaching materials.
2.2.2.1.1 Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching
In the curriculum, the definitions of approach, method and technique are given in these words;
The philosophy at the level of theory and principles concerning the nature of language, language teaching and language learning is called approach. As for a method, it is the overall plan for the instruction of the target language, which is strictly based on and consistent with the selected approach. A technique, on the other hand, is implementation. It is any activity that actually takes place in the classroom in harmony with the preferred method (Ersöz, et al. 2006:16).
There is a brief summary of the methods and approaches that have been used since 1980s. These approaches and methods are the Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method, the Audiolingual Method, Suggestopedia, the Silent Way,
Integrated Approach, Communicative Language Teaching, Brain-based Learning, Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) and the Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
Grammar Translation Method is a way of studying a language first through
detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language (Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S., 2001:5). Grammar is taught deductively in this approach. According to Ersöz et. al. (2006:17) Grammar Translation Method is still one of the most popular and favourite models of language teaching. With this approach, learners remain under the influence of the mother tongue all the time because all the explanations and translation practices involve the first language.
The Direct Method is based on phonetics and scientific grammar. The
followers of this method believed that foreign language learning was similar to first language acquisition (Ersöz, et al. 2006:17). Richards and Rodgers (2001:12) summarized the principles of Direct Method:
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice 6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and
pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas. 7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
The Audiolingual Method was based on the scientific descriptive analysis of
the target language and behavioristic psychologists’ learning theory of conditioning and habit formation. Ersöz et. al. (2006:17) summarized this method with these characteristics:
1. Based on the descriptive, structural, and contrastive linguistics of 1950s
2. Interpretation of learning in terms of stimulus and response, operant conditioning and reinforcement
3. Dependence on mimicry and memorization of set phrases 4. Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills 5. Focus on syntax rather than on morphology
6. Learning vocabulary in context 7. Use of tapes and visual aids 8. Focus on pronunciation
9. Immediate reinforcement of correct responses
The popularity of the Audiolingual Method was not last forever. It is discovered that language was not really acquired through a process of habit formation and overlearning and that structural linguistics did not tell us everything about language that we need to know (Brown H. D., 2007:24).
Suggestopedia emphasizes furniture, decoration, arrangement of the
classroom, the use of music and the authoritative behavior of the teacher (Richards and Rodgers 2001:100). Ersöz et. al. (2006:18) state that this method was developed for learning a language using relaxation as a means of acquiring new knowledge.
The Silent Way rested on more cognitive than affective arguments for its
theoretical sustenance (Brown, 2007:28). Richards and Rodgers (2001:81) summarized the theory of learning behind the Silent Way:
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learnt.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
The Silent Way promotes problem-solving approach to learning. The teacher remains silent, not yielding to the tendency to explain everything to the students (Ersöz et. al. 2006:18). This method has been criticized in some ways. Brown (2007:29) states “The Silent way was too harsh a method, and the teacher too distant
to encourage a communicative atmosphere. Students often need more guidance end overt correction than the Silent Way permitted.”
Integrated Approach is integration of four primary skills (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) and other associated or related skills such as knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, meaning and usage (Ersöz, 2006:18). Öztürk (2007:20) states in her study “This approach allows teachers to track students’ progress in multiple skills at the same time. Integrating the language skills also promotes the learning of real content, not just the dissection of language forms.” Task-based, content-based, and communicative approaches are some of the types for integration of the skills.
Communicative Language Teaching encourages teachers to teach actual
communication, not merely structures out of context (Ersöz, 2006:18). The principles of communicative language teaching were summarized by Richards and Rodgers (2001:172):
• Learners learn a language through using it to communicate. • Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of
classroom activities.
• Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
• Communication involves the integration of different language skills.
• Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error.
Task-Based Teaching and Content-Based Teaching can be considered to be based on Communicative Language Teaching.
Brain-based Learning is based on the structure and function of the brain.
The principles of Brain-based Learning are given by Ersöz et. al. (2006:19):
• The brain is a parallel processor, meaning it can perform several activities at once, like tasting and smelling.
• Learning engages the whole physiology. • The search of meaning is innate.
• The search of meaning comes through patterning. • Emotions are critical to patterning.
• The brain process wholes and parts simultaneously.
• Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.
• Learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes. • We have two types of memory: spatial and rote.
• We understand best when facts are embedded in natural, spatial memory.
• Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. • Each brain is unique.
Teachers should let students learn in terms and use peripheral learning. It is stated in the curriculum that Communicative Language Teaching overshadows all the approaches (Ersöz, et al. 2006:17).
2.2.2.1.2 Course Design
The curriculum suggested a cross-curricular model which is a way of teaching English through content in which the target language is used for interaction.
2.2.2.1.3 Components of a Course
It is stated in the curriculum that the components of a course are the curriculum, syllabus and teaching materials (Ersöz, et al. 2006:22).
A curriculum is defined as “a statement that specifies learning objectives, the selection and sequencing of linguistic data and a way to evaluate the set of objectives.” (Ersöz, et al. 2006:22). Accordance with this definition it is obvious that a curriculum consist of four elements: objectives, content, methods and evaluation. Content and methods are also known as syllabus.
