T. C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
YABANCI DİLLER EĞİTİMİ ANA BİLİM DALI İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRETMENLİĞİ BİLİM DALI
THE ROLE OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
IN
TEACHING ENGLISH
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
DANIŞMAN
ASSIST. PROF. DR. ABDÜLKADİR ÇAKIR
HAZIRLAYAN GİZEM UZUN
i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to complete this thesis. I want to thank in the first instance to Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdülkadir ÇAKIR for giving me permission to commence this thesis, do the necessary research work and to use departmental data. I have furthermore to thank Assist. Prof. Dr. Ece SARIGÜL for her stimulating support.
I am deeply indebted to my family, my colleagues, and Osman Akça Primary School Administration whose stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me in the research and writing of this thesis.
ii ÖZET
İNGİLİZCE ÖĞRETİMİNDE SINIF DEĞERLENDİRMESİNİN ROLÜ
Toplumun gereksinimleri, kültürel, sosyal, ekonomik, siyasi, çevresel ve teknolojik açıdan değiştikçe eğitim sisteminin gereksinimleri de çağa ayak uydurmak için değişmiştir. Türk eğitim sisteminin temel yapısını ortaya koyan mevcut not sistemi, bu değişime ayak uydurarak modern toplumun gereksinimlerini karşılayabilecek bireyler yetiştirilmesini sağlamak için modernize edilmelidir. Bu bağlamda, öğrencinin kendisine öğretilene ortak olması, bu sürecin bir parçası olmasına olanak tanıyan sınıf değerlendirmesi metotları tüm dünya üzerinde kullanılan en yaygın yollardan biridir.
Bu nedenle, Eylül 2007 tarihinde hazırlanan bu tez çalışmasının ana amacı, eğitim alanında değişen gereksinimleri analiz etmek, çağın bu değişim taleplerine cevap oluşturabilecek adımları değerlendirmek, yeni eğitim sistemini şekillendirecek Sınıf Değerlendirmesi olgusunu anlayıp bu olgunun faydalarının İngilizce öğretimindeki yerini ve bu tekniklerin Türk eğitim sistemine nasıl uygulanabileceğini ortaya koymaktır.
Bu tez çalışmasının oluşturulmasının gerekliliği ortaya konulup tez boyunca uygulanan metodoloji açıklanırken tez, sonuca ulaşırken tümevarımcı bir yaklaşım sergilemektedir.Sınıf değerlendirmesi teknikleri Türk eğitim sistemine nasıl uygulanabilir noktasına ulaşılırken, genellikle tezde betimleyici bir metot kullanılmış olmakla birlikte
iii gerçek yaşamdan alınmış örnek vakalarla zenginleştirilmiş ve desteklenmiş sınıf değerlendirmesi ve puanlama karşılaştırması detaylı olarak verilmiştir.
Konuya giriş yapıldıktan sonra tez çalışması sınıf değerlendirmesine odaklanır ve eğitimde bu sistemin kullanılma gerekliliği İkinci Bölümde detaylı olarak incelenmektedir. Sınıf değerlendirmesi ve öğrenci motivasyonu arasındaki ilişki sınıf değerlendirmesine değinilerek özetlenmiştir.
Üçüncü Bölümde, sınıf değerlendirmesi ve yabancı dil öğretimi arasındaki ilişki hedef koyma, karar alma ve problem çözme süreçlerinin anlaşılır örnekleri sunularak değerlendirilmektedir. Dahası, bu bölümde eğitim sisteminin her zaman temel kaygılarından biri olan değerlendirme konusu detaylı olarak sunulmuştur. Aynı zamanda, öğrenci başarısını etkileyen faktörler açık örnekler ve yabancı dil, esasen İngilizce, öğretmenlerine yol gösteren fikirlerle bu bölümde tartışılmaktadır.
Tez boyunca teorik açıdan detaylı olarak analiz edilen sınıf değerlendirmesi ve bu yöntemin mevcut not sistemine göre avantajlarından sonra tez Dördüncü Bölümde sınıf değerlendirmesinin uygulanma gereksinimini kısmen gerçek hayattan alınmış örneklerle pratik olarak da açıklamaktadır. Sınıf değerlendirmesi teknikleri ve not sistemi tekniklerinin uygulandığı aynı seviyedeki sınıflarda ortaya çıkan sonuçlar daha önce verilen teorik bilgiler ışığında irdelenmektedir.
iv Sonuç olarak, bu tez çalışması, sürekli olarak değişen toplumun gereksinimlerini karşılama yeteneğine sahip bireylerin yetişmesine olanak sağlayacak Türk eğitim sistemi için sınıf değerlendirmesi tekniklerinin önemini ortaya koymaktadır.
v ABSTRACT
THE ROLE OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT IN
ENGLISH TEACHING
As the needs of the society have resulted in a number of massive changes in cultural, social, economic, political, environmental, and technological aspects, the educational needs and systems have to be revised to meet the demands of the era. The recent grading system which is typically used as the basic core of education in Turkish educational system is to be modernized in order to bring up individuals who can live up to the expectations of the modern society. Accordingly, the classroom assessment techniques which enable the students to get involved in what is being taught to them arouse as the widely used methodology around the world.
Thus, the main objective of this thesis on “Classroom Assessment” is to analyze the changing needs of educational system and to assess the required steps to deliver the proper answers to the new needs of education, and to understand the concept of Classroom Assessment with respect to this developing new educational system, as well as representing the benefits of the new techniques in English teaching and the ways to apply them to the Turkish educational system.
Following a background to the reasons behind the need of creating such a thesis, and the definition of the methodology to be used in the process, the thesis focuses on a deductive method to reach the final outcome; how the classroom assessment techniques can be applied to the curriculum in Turkish schools. In order to reach that point, mostly a
vi descriptive method is used in the paper, whereas, the comparing and contrasting of the classroom assessment to the recent grading system is studied in detail and supported by a case study based on a partially true-life situation.
Upon the introduction to the topic, the thesis paper focuses on the classroom assessment, the necessity of using it in education in Chapter II. The relationship between the classroom assessment and student motivation is summarized with reference to the enhancements of classroom assessment.
Further in Chapter III, the relationship between classroom assessment and foreign language teaching is presented with clear descriptions of goal setting, decision making and problem solving processes. Moreover, the issue of evaluation, which has always been a major concern of educational systems, is undertaken with great importance. The points effecting the student achievement are also discussed in this chapter with clear exemplification and suggestions to show the way to the teachers of foreign languages, namely English.
Having dealt enough with the theoretical part of classroom assessment and the superiority of its techniques over the grading system, the paper, in Chapter IV, illustrates the necessity with a creative example based upon a partially true-life situation. The classroom assessment techniques and grading system techniques are applied in two classes of the same level and the results are presented with reference to what has already been discussed in the prior stages of the paper.
vii The paper, consequently, reaches to the outcome that the classroom assessment techniques are superior to assessment methods of the existing system in Turkish schools, by the opportunities it serves to create individuals who can meet the requirements of the continually changing society.
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... İ ÖZET ...İİ ABSTRACT ... V TABLE OF CONTENTS ... Vİİİ LIST OF TABLES... X LIST OF FIGURES... Xİ CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION...1
1.1. Background to the Study ...1
1.2. The Purpose of the Study ...2
1.3. Statement of the Problem ...5
1.4. Method, Limitations and Hypothesis...6
CHAPTER II – CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT ...8
2.1. Classroom Assessment Types ...8
2.2. Why is Assessment Necessary?...13
2.3. The Point of Assessment ...15
2.4. Enhancements of Classroom Assessment ...15
CHAPTER III – FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING and ASSESSMENT...18
3.1. Introduction ...18
3.2. Assessment Used in Foreign Language Teaching...20
3.3. Classroom Assessment Model Related to Goal Setting, Decision Making and Problem Solving ...22
3.4. Classroom Assessment and Evaluation ...26
3.5. Assessment for Learning ...27
3.6. Student Achievement...28
3.7.Criterion – Referenced Assessment and Evaluation...30
3.7.1 Key Elements to Student Achievement ...32
3.8 Assessment FOR Learning Rather than OF Learning...32
3.8.1. Competence in Assessment FOR Learning...34
3.8.2. What will work? Learning Teams ...35
3.8.3. New Missions and Its Emotional Promise...38
ix CHAPTER IV - METHODOLOGY...45 4.1. Introduction ...45 4.2. Research Design ...45 4.3. Subjects...47 4.4. Materials ...47
4.5. Data Collection Procedure...48
4.6. The Experimental Group ...49
4.7. The Control Group ...50
CHAPTER V - RESULTS ...51
5.1. Introduction ...51
5.2. Data Analysis Procedure ...51
5.3. Results of the Study...52
5.3.1 Analyses of Pre-Test...52
5.3.2 Post-test Results...54
5.3.3. Retention Test (Delayed Post-test) Results ...56
CHAPTER VI - CONCLUSIONS ...59
6.1. Suggestions for Further Studies...59
BIBLIOGRAPHY...61 APPEDICES ...65 APPENDIX A: ...65 APPENDIX B: ...67 APPENDIX C: ...68 APPENDIX D: ...70 APPENDIX E: ...71 APPENDIX F: ...72 APPENDIX G: ...73 APPENDIX H: ...74 APPENDIX I: ...75
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1. Experimental Design ...46 Table 5.1 Independent Samples T – Test Analysis for Pre – Test Scores of the Groups...53 Table 5.2 Comparison of the Pre-test with Post-test Results within the Control Group...54 Table 5.3 Comparison of the Pre-test with Post-test Results within the Experimental Group ..54 Table 5.4 Comparison of the Experimental and the Control Group for the Post-Test Results ..55 Table 5.5 Comparison of the Pre-test and Retention test Results within the Control Group...56 Table 5.6 Comparison of the Pre-test and the Retention test Results within the Experimental
Group...56 Table 5.7 Comparison of the Experimental and the Control Group for the Retention Test
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 5.1 Independent Samples T – Test Analysis for Pre – Test Scores of the Groups ...53 Figure 5.2 Comparison of the Experimental and the Control Group for the Post-test Results ..55 Figure 5.3 Comparison of the Experimental and the Control Group for the Retention Test
Results ...57 Figure 5.4 Summary of the Pre-test, Post-test and Retention test Results ...58
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study
As societies change, so do the needs of education. To fight this change, educators faced the task of creating schools that will serve their students well. Within the past 50 years, there have been massive cultural, social, economic, political, environmental, and technological changes that have meant that every facet of life and institutions, including education has been subjected to modernization, rethinking and investigation.
Assessment, which can be classified as formal and informal assessment, is a vital part of the educational system. With the beginning of the universal schooling at the turn of the 20th century, the only expectation of people from the children who were attending the school was just to learn basic skills. Therefore, assessment solely acted as a mechanism to make decision for the future education of the children, and to provide the parents with information about the education and learning of their child.
The vitality of schooling became more evident in the middle of the 20th century, since schooling was a key for increasing the quality of life, referred as “social mobility” in other words, due to the fact that success in school was a key opening the doors of opportunity in the business as well. Tests, accordingly, turned out to be of great importance as they defined those who would have higher education. Many jurisdictions instituted standardized testing programs alongside with classroom assessment to ensure fair, accurate, and consistent opportunities for students. The purposes of the classroom assessment have expanded since the 1960s and ‘70s.
2 Peter W. Airasian noted in his work, Classroom Assessment, that “With the frequent pronunciation of the terms “formative assessment” - assessment that takes place during teaching to make adjustments to the teaching process- and “summative assessment” - assessment at the end of a unit or term to convey student progress - , the classroom assessment has taken new dimensions.” ( Airasian, 1996, 21 – 23 )
For the fulfillment of these two purposes, educators extended their assessment practices and began assessing a wider range of student work, such as practical tasks, coursework, projects, and presentations. But, mostly, assessment was still a matter of making statements about students’ weaknesses and strengths.
Recently, the focus in educational policy has turned to preparing all students for tomorrow’s world. At the same time, the expectations for students have increased in depth, dramatically affecting teachers’ instructional and assessment roles, and students’ roles as learners.
1.2 Purpose
The importance of assessment is long accepted since there is considerable evidence that assessment is a powerful process for flourishing learning. Increasing the amount of time on assessment, however, does not necessarily enhance learning. Rather, it is more beneficiary when teachers use classroom assessment to become aware of the knowledge, skills, and beliefs that their students bring to a learning task. Then, in order to promote learning, teachers may use this knowledge as a starting point for new instruction, and monitor students’ changing perceptions as instruction proceeds. When learning is the goal, teachers and students collaborate and use ongoing assessment and relevant feedback to move learning forward.
Frequent and varied classroom assessment enables teachers to learn a great deal about their students. They can gain an understanding of students’ existing beliefs and
3 knowledge, and, consequently, can identify incomplete understandings, false beliefs, and naïve interpretations of concepts that may influence or distort learning. Teachers can observe and examine students’ thinking over time, and can identify links between prior knowledge and new learning.
Another way to enhance learning is to encourage students to think about their own learning, to review learning experiences (What made sense and what didn’t? How does this fit with what I already know, or think I know?), and to apply what they have learned to their future learning. Assessment provides the feedback loop for this process. When students, as well as teachers, become comfortable with a continuous cycle of feedback and adjustment, learning becomes more efficient and students begin to personalize the process of standing outside their own learning and considering it against a range of criteria, not just the teacher’s judgment about quality or accuracy.
It is explained by Palombu that:
When students engage in this ongoing meta-cognitive experience, they are able to monitor their learning along the way, make corrections, and develop a habit of mind for continually reviewing and challenging what they already know. When they are learning in any area, students can make connections and move along a continuum from emergent to proficient. Learners at the emergent stage may be generally uncertain, and rely heavily on direct instruction, modeling, and whatever “rules” may exist to give them direction about how to proceed, with little sense of underlying patterns. (Palombu, 1999, 82 – 84 )
As learners become more competent, they develop more complex plan of understanding, gain confidence and independence, and become efficient in problem-solving within new contexts. They are able to apply the new learning independently and direct their own learning. When teachers understand this emergent-to-proficient process as it relates to curriculum outcomes, they can use assessment as the mechanism for helping students understand and value their own learning and predict what comes next. The
4 ongoing cycle of assessment and feedback can guide students as they move along the learning continuum.
Motivation is essential for the hard work of learning. The higher the motivation, the more time and energy a student is willing to devote to any given task. Even when a student finds the content interesting and the activity enjoyable, learning requires sustained concentration and effort. Past views of motivation were heavily influenced by the behaviorist psychology of the 1960s and 1970s, in which a schedule of rewards and punishments led to either reinforcing or extinguishing a particular behavior. It was believed that assessment and grading motivated students to work hard and to learn. It is now understood that the relationship between grades and motivation is neither simple nor predictable.
Grades have been found to be motivating for some students, and uninspiring for others. Students who generally do well are often motivated by the likelihood of success and praise that accompanies doing well. Students who typically do not do well may choose to avoid the likelihood of a failure by decreasing the value of the assessment process and even school.
According to current cognitive researches, people are motivated to learn by success and competence. When students feel ownership and have choice in their learning, they are more likely to invest time and energy in it. As discussed in the work, “Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in Mind”, assessment can be a “motivator, not through reward and punishment, but by stimulating students’ natural interest”. Assessment can enhance student motivation by:
5
• emphasizing progress and achievement rather than failure • providing feedback to move learning forward
• reinforcing the idea that students have control over, and responsibility for, their own learning • building confidence in students so they can and need to take risks
• being relevant, and appealing to students’ imaginations
• providing the scaffolding that students need to genuinely succeed. ( Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education, 2001, 86 – 91 )
1.3 Problem
Classroom assessment, throughout most of the 20th century, was considered as a mechanism for providing an index of learning, and it followed a simple and predictable pattern: teachers taught, tested the students’ knowledge of the material, made judgments about students’ achievement based on the testing, and then moved on to the next unit of work. More recently, however, as the expectations for schooling changed, this approach to assessment has come into question, cognitive science has provided new insights into the nature of learning and the traditional role of assessment in motivating student learning has been challenged.
Schooling beyond basic skills and knowledge was thought to be required by only a minority in the past. But now, high school graduation is considered a necessity for all, and the educational community is being asked to ensure that graduates be proficient in complex critical thinking, problem-solving, and effective communication to meet demanding societal, economic, and technological challenges, which are among the requirements for a good position in the business world, as well.
Learning was long thought to be an accumulation of tiny bits of knowledge that are sequenced, hierarchical, and need to be explicitly taught and reinforced. However, it is now viewed as a process of constructing understanding, during which individuals attempt to connect new information to what they already know, so that ideas have some personal
6 coherence. The construction of this understanding varies in many different aspects, depending on the personal interests, experience and learning styles of the individuals.
Educators have traditionally relied on assessment that compares students with more successful peers as a means to motivate students to learn. On the contrary, recent researches suggest that students will likely be more motivated and confident learners when they experience progress and achievement, rather than the failure and defeat associated with being compared to more successful peers.
Due to these changes in societal expectations and in knowledge about learning and motivation, the thesis tries to find out answers to the questions of;
- How should the teachers teach? - What should they teach?
- How should they teach by helping students be a part of the process? 1.4 Method, Limitations and the Hypothesis
The present study proposes a research question that will be answered by testing hypotheses;
1- The students whose teachers use classroom assessment techniques will score higher on the post-test when compared to the students whose teachers do not use classroom assessment techniques.
2- The students whose teachers use classroom assessment techniques will have permanent knowledge on the topic and will score higher on the retention test when compared to the students whose teachers do not use classroom assessment techniques.
The changing needs of the society, which have brought new dimensions to every field of life as well as to the education, made it necessary to renew the educational systems. Classroom assessment, a significant part of the educational system, therefore, is to be investigated once again and updated in accordance with the needs of today. By the help of the educators all around the world, who spent time and effort on the modernization of the
7 simple and predictable classroom assessment process, in which the teacher teaches, makes a test, evaluates test results and finalizes the success of the student, the first steps reflecting the vitality of a breakthrough in the classroom assessment have been taken. The new terms as formative and summative assessment were the first signals of the change.
Since both these developments in the society and the need of change in the educational system are striking enough, the classroom assessment and its role in English teaching is defined as the subject of this thesis. Accordingly, the thesis is focused on the classroom assessment, its change and the areas of application of it in teaching English. The classroom assessment itself, the new forms of it, and the way these forms are used in English teaching will be dealt in this thesis by comparing and contrasting the prior and recent forms of classroom assessment
The comparing and contrasting method, since it would be more appropriate to define the terms first, and then to compare and contrast them to the other methods. The thesis is limited to the classroom assessment, and therefore, no other forms of educational systems will be mentioned in the thesis, though the subject will be deeply analyzed through exemplification.
Hence, the objective of this thesis on “Classroom Assessment” is primarily to analyze the changing needs with respect to education, and to assess the required steps to deliver the proper answers to the new needs of education, and to understand the concept of Classroom Assessment with respect to this developing new educational system, as well as representing the benefits of the new techniques in English teaching and the ways to apply them to the Turkish educational system.
8 CHAPTER II
CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT 2.1 Assessment Types
The new requirements of education are mainly due to the changing needs of the era, we are all living in, and the demands of the new generation, which are quite different from these of the previous generations. The speed of change is enormous; therefore, the educational system must be perfectly designed as tailor-made for this new generation and changing needs.
There are so many research findings, which have been derived to present the profile of the new generation, and there are even some solid terminologies, which are publicly well-known, such as Indigo or Crystal children. These children are unique and have high skills, which need to be brought out to surface. And this process of development is achievable only via a new educational system, and there are new educational systems, such as high-scope, or involvement learning. And in order to determine whether these children are being cared for regarding their educational needs, necessitates a profound analysis of “how learning would occur”. The process that answers the question of “How Will We Know If Learning Occurs?” is named as “assessment”. Because we need to measure items prior to generate conclusions out of what we analyze.
Assessment is the process of gathering and interpreting information about how students’ learning. This information is used to provide feedback to students, educators, parents, and other stakeholders to promote changes within the individual classroom or institution. Assessment is most effective when it is an ongoing process with the goal of improving teaching, learning and program effectiveness continually.
9 The necessity for a change in the ways of assessment is clear although there are many different theories about the assessment. Basically there are three different assessment theories and these are:
Authentic Assessment
Classroom Assessment Techniques Portfolio Assessment
The thesis proposed here is designed to analyze the “Classroom Assessment” subject, with a criticism through defining, comparing and contrasting of these three theories of assessment, as being stated in the following sections of this document.
Simply testing an isolated skill or a retained fact does not effectively measure a student's capabilities. To evaluate accurately what a person has learned, an assessment method must examine his or her collective abilities. This is what is meant by authentic assessment. Authentic assessment presents students with real-world challenges that require them to apply their relevant skills and knowledge. As set by Meyer, authentic assessment accomplishes each of the following goals:
Requires students to develop responses rather than select from predetermined options Encourages higher order thinking in addition to basic skills
Directly evaluates holistic projects Synthesizes with classroom instruction
Uses samples of student work (portfolios) collected over an extended time period Stems from clear criteria made known to students
Allows for the possibility of multiple human judgments Relates more closely to classroom learning
Teaches students to evaluate their own work ( Meyer, 1992, 6 )
"Fairness" does not exist when assessment is uniform, standardized, impersonal, and absolute. Rather, it exists when assessment is appropriate--in other words, when it's
10 personalized, tailor-made, natural, and flexible; when it can be modified to pinpoint specific abilities and function at the relevant level of difficulty; and when it promotes a rapport between examiner and student.
Authentic assessment is designed to be criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced. Such evaluation identifies strengths and weaknesses, but does not compare or rank students. The objective with this is to develop whatever is required.
Authentic assessment is often based on performance: Students are asked to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, or competencies in whatever way they find appropriate. There are several challenges to using authentic assessment methods. They include managing its time-intensive nature, ensuring curricular validity, and minimizing evaluator bias.
Portfolio assessment, on the other hand, provides a body of student work--essentially, a portfolio--that can be used to appraise student performance over time. Charlotte Danielson highlights that “Portfolio assessment ranges from portfolios, that demonstrate the student's best work to an "expanded student record" that holds a full representation of the student's work, from Math equations to essays on literature.” (Danielson, 1997, p.25 - 40 )
There has been some confusion in the field as to who the portfolio is being kept for. For example, in some cases, student portfolios serve as a replacement for the high school diploma or transcript.
The disadvantage of portfolios is that they are not as quick and easy to evaluate, moreover, they are hard to rank, as with a grade or score. Because portfolios are qualitative, many employers find them difficult to use as a determinant of a candidate's skills. Often, employers would rather see a quantitative demonstration of a student's best skills and work.
11 Some schools create portfolios that serve as a representative sample of a student's work, showing the range of performance and experience. Such records usually hold far more information than employers need. Other schools want to use portfolios as an assessment tool to provide an alternative to standardized or teacher testing.
In some schools, there has been much discussion on who "owns" the portfolio, the student or the school? Ownership is who decides what goes into the portfolio, where the portfolio is stored, and what happens to the portfolio after graduation.
Grace and Shores defines the following implications on the following elements of education:
Curriculum: Some people believe that using portfolios will enable teachers to broaden their
curriculum to include areas they traditionally could not assess with standardized testing. How well this works depends on how much a curriculum is developed "to the test," in other words, how much curriculum is geared towards achieving high test scores rather than learning for learning's sake.
Instruction: Portfolio assessment appears to compliment a teacher's use of instructional
strategies centered on teamwork, projects, and applied learning. Portfolios are also compatible with more individualized instruction, as well as strategies focused on different learning styles.
Assessment: A portfolio can be used as an assessment tool. External assessors--employers,
evaluation panels, and so on--can benefit from them. Teachers can also utilize them to judge student performance. Furthermore, students can use their own portfolios for self-assessment and reflection. ( Grace and Shores, 1998, p. 60 – 72 )
In comparison to the Authentic Assessment and Portfolio Assessment, Classroom Assessment Techniques consist of a variety of feedback and discussion methods that gauge the quality of the learning process.
Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs), also known as Classroom Research or Action Research, are a series of tools and practices designed to give teachers accurate information about the quality of student learning. Information gathered is not used for grading or teacher evaluation. Instead, it is used to facilitate dialogue between students and
12 teacher on the quality of the learning process, and how to improve it. As authors Patricia Cross and Thomas Angelo state in their book, Classroom Assessment Techniques ( Cross and Angelo; 1993 ), that "teaching without learning is just talking," CATs provide both teachers and students with "in process" information on how well students are learning.
The three basic questions CATs ask are:
1) What are the essential skills and knowledge I am trying to teach? 2) How can I find out whether students are learning them?
3) How can I help students learn better?
The classroom assessment process assumes that students need to receive feedback early and often, that they need to evaluate the quality of their own learning, and that they can help the teacher improve the strength of instruction.
The basic steps in the classroom assessment process are: Choose a learning goal to assess
Choose an assessment technique Apply the technique
Analyze the data and share the results with students Respond to the data
CATs provide teachers with a "menu" of evaluation tools that: Check for student background knowledge
Identify areas of confusion
Enable students to self-assess their learning level Determine students' learning styles
Target and build specific skills
13 2.2 Why Is Assessment Necessary?
Having a sense of the importance of the classroom assessment and the necessity of the change or somehow “modernization” in the classroom assessment, the focus is now on the benefits of the classroom assessment. Why do we need classroom assessment? Why is the classic assessment not enough anymore?
To begin with classroom assessment provides information for improvement. Schools engage in frequent review of their curricula and propose frequent changes in courses and degree programs. These activities are best informed by clear evidence of what is working and not working, information that can be provided by regular assessment. If the goal is to provide the strongest academic programs for students, assessment should be an integral part of an ongoing cycle of academic program review, evaluation, and change.
Classroom assessment, further, supports professional development, since it enables you to see your own pros and cons neutrally. Conducting regular assessments of teaching and learning in your classroom can help you determine where you are successful and where you are less successful. Documenting the process of assessment and improvement in your own instruction provides strong evidence of your ongoing commitment to professional development and can be used in promotion and tenure as well as for annual reviews and post-tenure review.
It is also for sure that assessment is required by external authorities due to its easy access to effectiveness. There is an increasing climate of accountability in higher education. Many degree programs are accredited by outside agencies and are required to provide evidence of effectiveness.
14 Assessment is best conducted by faculty at their own pace and for their own purposes rather than in response to an external mandate. The unfortunate reality is that the latter is not always able to be conducted in a climate which favors thoroughness and wide participation. If faculty takes control of the process of assessment, it can become a systematic, ongoing activity, rather than a sporadic one, with a greater chance that the faculty will be willing to use the results of the assessment to make meaningful changes.
The advantages of classroom assessment are not limited to these. There are further benefits of the assessment, among which saving time is a significant point. Faculties all have goals for their courses and too often do not know whether they are achieving those goals in the most efficient manner. Assessment can allow faculty to refocus class time to activities that are most relevant and important to learning outcomes. A properly designed assessment program can help you answer such questions as: Did my students really learn what I wanted them to learn; Which parts of the course elicited the learning I wanted and which parts turned out to be ‘filler’; Which parts of the course work just fine and which parts need work?
It has to be mentioned that assessment also helps the students write better examinations. Every student must have thought about whether he/she is satisfied that the examinations and other assessment tools which are being used in the courses give the information on what he/she learned and how deeply he/she learned it. The fact is evaluated by finding out whether there are more effective ways of obtaining this information. There are a variety of assessment tools and methods that can help you with both of these common teaching problems.
In combination with the effectiveness of the curriculum, assessment helps to demonstrate teaching effectiveness, creating an option to differentiate the teaching quality.
15 Few schools are satisfied with student evaluations as the primary method for demonstrating their effectiveness as teachers. It is important to learn a variety of ways to conduct one’s own assessments that provide more diverse information on the individual’s strengths and weaknesses as a teacher.
Since assessment creates an opportunity to follow the success of the curriculum, teacher and student success, it can lead to a research program at ease. Assessment is typically thought of as a tool for improving and evaluating teaching and learning, but it can also lead to a research program.
2.3 The Point of Assessment
Some classroom assessment activities, homework assignments, classroom observation, in-class writing, and quizzes for instance, are used to measure the process of learning during a course. These tools give the instructor information to help diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of students’ learning in time to provide meaningful intervention. If the results of a quiz demonstrate that most students do not grasp an important concept, the instructor could provide supplementary material or devote additional class time to re-teach the concept, which is known as formative assessment.
Assessment activities such as final papers, exams, or portfolios are often used to demonstrate a student’s ultimate degree of success in accomplishing the learning objectives of a course. They are usually used to judge student achievement at the completion of instruction. This activity is known as summative assessment.
2.4 Enhancements of Classroom Assessment
Teachers are responsible for setting a positive classroom climate in which students feel comfortable learning about and discussing topics the class. Teachers may also wish to consider the following:
16 Involve students in establishing guidelines for group discussion and presentations. Guidelines might include using appropriate listening and speaking skills, respecting students who are reluctant to share personal information in group settings, and agreeing to maintain confidentiality if sharing of personal information occurs.
Promote critical thinking and open-mindedness, and refrain from taking sides on one point of view.
Develop and discuss procedures associated with recording and using personal information that may be collected as part of students’ work for the purposes of instruction and/or assessment (e.g., why the information is being collected, what the information will be used for, where the information will be kept; who can access it — students, administrators, parents; how safely it will be kept).
Ensure students are aware that if they disclose personal information that indicates they are at risk for harm, then that information cannot be kept confidential.
Teachers should consider using a variety of assessment techniques to assess students’ abilities to meet the prescribed learning outcomes. Tools and techniques for assessment might include:
teacher assessment tools such as observation checklists, rating scales, and scoring guides
self-assessment tools such as checklists, rating scales, and scoring guides peer assessment tools such as checklists, rating scales, and scoring guides journals or learning logs
video (to record and critique student demonstration)
written tests, oral tests (true/false, multiple choice, short answer) worksheets
17 student-teacher conferences.
Also the following tools help to enhance the assessment process: case studies and simulations
group and class discussions brainstorms, clusters, webs research projects
role plays
charts and graphs
posters, collages, models, web sites oral and multimedia presentations peer teaching
personal pledges or contracts.
Having discussed the assessment types, through which we are able realize the importance and success of classroom assessment, and the pros and cons of it as well as defining the way to enhance a well-working assessment profile, it will further be discussed in this thesis how the classroom assessment can be used in teaching foreign languages, namely English.
18 CHAPTER III
Foreign Language Learning & Assessment 3.1 Introduction
This chapter gives a detailed analysis of the relationship between teaching foreign language and classroom assessment. Testing, which can be used in or out of the class, is still the most widely used assessment tool. However, as the focus of the foreign language instruction has changed from independent skills as – reading, grammar, listening, and speaking, to the development of communicative proficiency, the testing has turned to be out of fashion. The result was seen as a change from traditional test methods, in which multiple choice, true/false or matching questions were used, to proficiency test during the 1980s. With the contribution of many new assessment techniques, now the proficiency test, including hybrid test, were used very often in foreign language teaching. The shift from traditional testing techniques to the new proficiency tests in foreign language teaching are discussed compared and contrasted by the help of clear examples in this chapter.
As the ability to speak more than one language becomes more important, so does the need to assess the language abilities of second language learners. In the classroom, assessment can be seen as an ongoing process, in which the teacher uses various tools to measure the progress of the learner. Among those tools are portfolios, self-assessment, and, of course, tests. If assessment can be seen as a movie, then a test is a freeze frame: it gives a picture of the learner's language at a particular point in time. Used properly, these tools can help the teacher develop a full picture of the learner's progress. It is important to note that all types of testing and assessment are important in gathering information about your students.
Testing has traditionally been the most widely used assessment tool in the classroom, and in many classrooms, it still is. Moreover, testing has applications out of the classroom.
19 Foreign language programs test students for placement, colleges and universities test students for credit, and employers test the abilities of prospective employees. In any testing situation, it is important to consider which of the four skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) needs to be assessed, who will be taking the test, and for what purposes the test results will be used.
Clearly, a test which is appropriate in one situation may be inappropriate in another: a test designed to measure the reading abilities of elementary school learners will not be appropriate for college placement. Thus, when choosing a test to use, it is important to define the testing situation, and then to find or develop a test that fits the situation. It is also important to know the reliability and validity of the test, especially if the test is to be used for high-stakes purposes, such as entrance into a college or university. Reliability measures the consistency of the test; validity is the extent to which the test measures what it claims to measure. Large scale standardized tests have more reliability and validity requirements than classroom tests, and many books, articles, research projects, and other materials have been devoted to this issue. This resource guide provides information on all aspects of assessment, from large-scale norm-referenced tests to classroom-based assessments.
Foreign language instruction has been observed to have moved from an almost exclusive focus on the components of language, namely grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation — to a focus on the development of communicative proficiency, which is the ability to communicate in the target language in real-life contexts. This change in focus is also evident in foreign language assessments “As the focus of foreign language instruction has moved away from the discrete language skills of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation toward the development of communicative proficiency, so has the focus of language testing moved away from discrete-point tests toward measures of actual performance.” ( Thompson, 2001 )
20 Catalysts for change in foreign language instruction and assessment have come from the "top down" in the form of national assessment and standards initiatives and from the "bottom up" as seen in local assessment initiatives. The national initiatives have widely influenced instruction and assessment practices. The local assessment initiatives have appeared in response to curricular and instructional changes.
3.2. Assessment Used in Foreign Language Teaching
During 1980s, a major shift toward proficiency-oriented assessment had taken place in the field. Only 33% of the tests were placement examinations, end-of-year examinations, end-of-unit examinations, and tests of passive knowledge (listening, reading, or vocabulary skills). These tests reflected traditional perspectives and focused on discrete linguistic elements, using multiple-choice, true-false, or matching item types. In contrast, 67% of the tests were proficiency based or had some proficiency-based components.
Hybrid tests (that combine features of traditional assessments and proficiency-based assessments) included pro-achievement tests, situational based tests with multiple-choice items, authentic materials within a traditional format, and testing packets that included traditional formats for assessing listening and reading and proficiency-based, holistically rated written and oral performance tasks. (Thompson, 2001: 205)
Alternative assessments included checklists; holistically rated authentic reading, writing, speaking, and listening tasks using culturally authentic materials and scenarios; student self-assessments; portfolios; oral proficiency interview procedures or holistic rubrics for rating; and, for the first time, performance tasks that integrated language and content learning.
Further increasing use of alternative assessments took place. In 1996-97, more than 50 new assessments were added to the literature. Some of the new tests were hybrids, but
21 most were alternative assessments focusing on proficiency. Assessments included projects such as creating and presenting autobiographical pop-up books or shadow boxes, and writing and presenting children's stories. These projects are end-of-the-unit assessments that are rated holistically by the teacher and fellow students. Traditional test formats are still in use primarily as placement tests or end-of-year examinations, although they now use more authentic materials and content.
The legacy of the proficiency movement can be seen in important consensus-building events in foreign language education and in the types of assessments created over the last 20 years. Foreign language learning and assessment have moved from a preoccupation with discrete aspects of language to a broader, richer, communicative context to promote and document foreign language learning.
At the same time, foreign language assessment was being influenced by the evolution in approaches to foreign language instruction. Proficiency-oriented or communicative language teaching called for a shift from teaching language as a set of discrete skills to teaching students to communicate in the target language in real-life contexts.
Traditionally, foreign language tests measured language development on the basis of the number of correct answers to discrete-point items. Such tests were often multiple-choice or true-false and assessed students' ability to recognize the correct answer rather than produce it. As teachers embraced proficiency-oriented instruction, they also gradually incorporated the use of new, alternative practices in assessment that focused on language use. This new breed of assessments required students to demonstrate their knowledge and were scored holistically, using a set of scoring criteria.
22 The 1990s have been characterized as the standards decade. Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century, the result of an unprecedented collaborative undertaking of national associations of foreign language teachers, have initiated profession-wide change. The standards describe what students should know and be able to do in the languages they are learning. The standards establish goals and activities for learning in five areas: communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities.
The legacy of communicative language teaching continued in the national standards, which encourage teachers to focus on communicative ability as a whole and not to separate components of language learning into distinct skills that must be mastered individually. The standards strive to create a community of learners who are able to communicate in meaningful and appropriate ways in the languages they are learning.
3.3. Classroom Assessment Model Related to Goal Setting, Decision Making and Problem Solving
Problem solving and decision making should be seen as processes for exploring possibilities and opportunities; in this context, a “problem” is not necessarily a negative circumstance. In assessing decision making, problem solving, and goal setting, it is important to focus on the process — whether the student demonstrates thoughtful and critical examination of the situation. In most cases, it is not appropriate to assess the goal or decision itself.
Several activities throughout the Classroom Assessment Model suggest the use of case study and role play scenarios. These scenarios may be print or video based, and can be developed by teachers, created by students, derived from recommended learning resources, collected from news media, or found online.
23 The curriculum of the courses requires students to be able to use and analyze the most current information to make informed decisions on a range of topics. This information is often found on the Internet as well as in other information and communications technology resources. When organizing for instruction and assessment, the teachers should consider how students will best be able to access the relevant technology, and ensure that students are aware of school district policies on Internet and computer use.
The following concepts of media education are examples of the ways in which teachers and students can examine a range of media messages relevant to a certain topic.
• Purpose: People make media messages to inform, entertain, and/or persuade for political, commercial, educational, artistic, moral, and/or other purposes.
• Values: Media messages communicate explicit and implicit values.
• Representation: Media messages are constructed; they are only representations of real or imaginary worlds.
• Codes, Conventions, and Characteristics: Each medium has its own set of codes, conventions, and characteristics that affect the way messages are transmitted and understood.
• Production: People who understand the media are able to make purposeful media messages better.
• Interpretation: Audience members bring their knowledge, experience, and values to their interpretation of and emotional response to media messages.
• Influence of Media on Audience: Media messages can influence people’s attitudes, behaviors, and values.
24 • Influence of Audience on Media: People can influence media institutions and the messages they produce and transmit.
• Control: People who control a society’s dominant institutions have disproportionate influence on the construction and distribution of media messages and the values they contain.
• Scope: Media technologies influence and are influenced by the political, economic, social, and intellectual dimensions of societies.
• Goal Setting
o state purpose for goal — visualize the ideal outcome, define the goal in specific, realistic, measurable, and timely identify (brainstorm) a range of terms alternative solutions
o break down long-term goals into manageable short-term steps
• Decision Making
o identify the decision or issue
o assess the pros and cons of each alternative (and their research alternatives consequences) for self and others assess each alternative (and their consequences) in terms of personal values, in relation to societal norms
• Problem Solving
o anticipate or identify the problem and describe the ideal end or issue product in terms of logistics (time, create a timeline for each step in effort, resources; cost-benefit)
25 o identify potential challenges to short-term and long-term risks and benefits
o meeting the goal, and identify ways to overcome those challenges
o select and articulate an informed decision effects on all stakeholders
o select and articulate a plan for addressing the problem(e.g., personal, financial)
Next Steps:
• apply the decision • carry out the goal steps • carry out the plan
• assess the results and modify the decision as required • re-evaluate the goal periodically and adjust as necessary
• reflect on the process and consider applications for future problems
Prescribed Learning Outcomes and Suggested Achievement Indicators
Arranged by curriculum organizer, sub-organizer and, as applicable, by topic, each set of prescribed learning outcomes identifies the content standards for that unit. The corresponding achievement indicators provide additional information about the expected level or degree of student performance and can be used as the basis for assessment.
Assessment activities have been included for each set of prescribed learning outcomes and corresponding achievement indicators. Each assessment activity consists of two parts:
26 • Planning for Assessment — outlining the background information to explain the classroom context, opportunities for students to gain and practice learning, and suggestions for preparing the students for assessment
• Assessment Strategies — describing the assessment task, the method of gathering assessment information, and the assessment criteria as defined by the learning outcomes and achievement indicators.
A wide variety of activities have been included to address a range of learning and teaching styles. The assessment activities describe a variety of tools and methods for gathering evidence of student performance.
These activities are suggestions only, designed to provide guidance for teachers in planning assessment to meet the prescribed learning outcomes.
3.4. Classroom Assessment and Evaluation
Assessment is the systematic gathering of information about what students know, are able to do, and are working toward. Assessment evidence can be collected using a wide variety of methods, such as:
• observation
• student self-assessments and peer assessments • quizzes and tests (written, oral, practical) • samples of student work
• projects
• oral and written reports • journals and learning logs • performance reviews • portfolio assessments
27 Student performance is based on the information collected through assessment activities. Teachers use their insight, knowledge about learning, and experience with students, along with the specific criteria they establish, to make judgments about student performance in relation to prescribed learning outcomes.
There are three major types of assessment that can be used in conjunction with each other to support student achievement.
• Assessment for learning is assessment for purposes of greater learning achievement.
• Assessment as learning is assessment as a process of developing and supporting students’ active participation in their own learning.
• Assessment of learning is assessment for purposes of providing evidence of achievement for reporting.
3.5. Assessment for Learning
Classroom assessment for learning provides ways to engage and encourage students to become involved in their own day-to-day assessment — to acquire the skills of thoughtful self-assessment and to promote their own achievement.
This type of assessment serves to answer the following questions: • What do students need to learn to be successful?
• What does the evidence of this learning look like?
Assessment for learning is criterion-referenced, in which a student’s achievement is compared to established criteria rather than to the performance of other students. Criteria are based on prescribed learning outcomes, as well as on suggested achievement indicators or other learning expectations.
Students benefit most when assessment feedback is provided on a regular, ongoing basis. When assessment is seen as an opportunity to promote learning rather than as a final
28 judgment, it shows students their strengths and suggests how they can develop further. Students can use this information to redirect their efforts, make plans, communicate with others (e.g., peers, teachers, parents) about their growth, and set future learning goals.
Assessment for learning also provides an opportunity for teachers to review what their students are learning and what areas need further attention. This information can be used to inform teaching and create a direct link between assessment and instruction.
Using assessment, as a way of obtaining feedback on instruction, supports student achievement, by informing teacher planning and classroom practice.
Assessment as learning actively involves students in their own learning processes. With support and guidance from their teacher, students take responsibility for their own learning, constructing meaning for themselves. Through a process of continuous self-assessment, students develop the ability to take stock of what they have already earned, determine what they have not yet learned, and decide how they can best improve their own achievement.
Although assessment as learning is student-driven, teachers can play a key role in facilitating how this assessment takes place. By providing regular opportunities for reflection and self-assessment, teachers can help students develop, practice, and become comfortable with critical analysis of their own learning.
Assessment of learning can be addressed through summative assessment, including large-scale assessments and teacher assessments. These summative assessments can occur at the end of the year or at periodic stages in the instructional process.
3.6. Student Achievement
Exams gather information on student performance students’ achievement in relation to provincial and throughout the province and provide information for national standards.
29 1) Formative assessment ongoing in the classroom
2) Summative assessment occurs at end of year or at key stages 3) Teacher assessment,
4) Student self-assessment,
5) Student peer assessment criterion-referenced — criteria based on prescribed learning
The outcomes of the student achievement, as identified in the provincial curriculum, is reflecting performance in relation to a specific learning task, involves both teacher and student in a process of continual reflection and review about progress, in which teachers adjust their plans and engage in corrective teaching in response to formative assessment.
Self-assessment provides students with information on their own achievement and prompts them to consider how they can continue to improve their learning student-determined criteria based on previous learning and personal learning goals students use assessment information to make adaptations to their learning process and to develop new understandings
Teacher assessment may be either criterion-referenced (based on prescribed learning outcomes) or norm-referenced (comparing student achievement to that of others) information on student performance can be shared with parents/guardians, school and district staff, and other education professionals (e.g., for the purposes of curriculum development) used to make judgments about students’ performance in relation to provincial standards.
Examples include: • portfolios
• student-teacher conferences • performances and
30 • presentations charts, webs, mind maps projects
• student-developed scoring
• guides describing various levels of achievement
• multiple choice tests, oral tests short answer questions and essays true/false quizzes
3.7 Criterion-Referenced Assessment and Evaluation
In criterion-referenced evaluation, a student’s performance is compared to established criteria rather than to the performance of other students. Evaluation in relation to prescribed curriculum requires that criteria be established based on the learning outcomes.
Criteria are the basis for evaluating student progress. They identify, in specific terms, the critical aspects of a performance or a product that indicate how well the student is meeting the prescribed learning outcomes. For example, weighted criteria, rating scales, or scoring guides (reference sets) are ways that student performance can be evaluated using criteria.
Wherever possible, students should be involved in setting the assessment criteria. This helps students develop an understanding of what high-quality work or performance looks like.
Criterion-referenced assessment and evaluation may involve these steps: Step 1:
Identify the prescribed learning outcomes and suggested achievement indicators that will be used as the basis for assessment.
Step 2:
Establish criteria. When appropriate, students should be involved in establishing criteria.
31 Step 3:
Plan learning activities that will help students gain the attitudes, skills, or knowledge outlined in the criteria.
Step 4:
Prior to the learning activity, inform students of the criteria against which their work will be evaluated.
Step 5:
Provide examples of the desired levels of performance. Step 6:
Conduct the learning activities. Step 7:
The appropriate assessment instruments should be used (e.g., rating scale, checklist, scoring guide) and methods (e.g., observation, collection, self-assessment) based on the particular assignment and student.
Step 8:
Review the assessment data and evaluate each student’s level of performance or quality of work in relation to criteria.
Step 9:
Where appropriate, provide feedback and/or a letter grade to indicate how well the criteria are met.
Step 10:
Communicate the results of the assessment and evaluation to students and parents / guardians.
32 3.7.1. Key Elements of Student Achievement
Key elements provide an overview of content in each curriculum organizer. They can be used to determine the expected depth and breadth of the prescribed learning outcomes.
To support teachers in assessing provincially prescribed curricula, there are sets of achievement indicators in relation to each learning outcome.
Achievement indicators define the specific level of attitudes demonstrated, skills applied, or knowledge acquired by the student in relation to a corresponding prescribed learning outcome. They describe what evidence a teacher might look for to determine whether or not the student has fully met the intent of the learning outcome. In some cases, achievement indicators may also include suggestions as to the type of task that would provide evidence of having met the learning outcome (e.g., a constructed response such as a list, comparison, analysis, or chart; a product created and presented such as a report, drama presentation, poster, letter, or model; a particular skill demonstrated such as goal setting).
Achievement indicators are not mandatory; they are suggestions only, provided to assist teachers in assessing how well their students achieve the prescribed learning outcomes. Teachers are encouraged to modify and expand on these suggestions as required to address local needs.
3.8. Assessment for learning rather than assessment of learning
Without question, assessment remains among the very hottest topics in school improvement. High-stakes state accountability assessments and adequate yearly progress continue to represent the driving forces of school improvement these days. But, as accountability systems evolve, attention to this topic has turned in an interesting direction. Educators have concluded that testing once a year does not provide sufficient evidence to
33 inform many crucial, more frequently made instructional decisions, which has generated renewed interest in formative assessment.
Traditionally, the term has referred to assessments used to support learning. But, in the current environment, formative assessment as defined by the test publishers has taken on a narrow meaning. In this context, it refers to a system of more frequent summative assessments administered at regular intervals (often quarterly) to determine which students have not yet met state standards - an early warning system, if you will.
We both applaud and, at the same time, challenge this thinking. On the one hand, it helps us identify students who need help when we still have time to help them. On the other hand, while this very expensive assessment process helps us identify the problem, it doesn't help those students find greater success. For that, we must expand our definition.
Assessment for learning happens in the classroom and involves students in every aspect of their own assessment to build their confidence and maximize their achievement. It rests on the understanding that students, not just adults, are data-driven instructional decision makers. Several key features differentiate assessment for learning from formative assessment as currently being sold by test publishers: To begin with, state standards are deconstructed into classroom-level learning targets, which we translate into language our students understand so they know what they are responsible for learning.
In addition, we turn those classroom-level targets into dependably accurate classroom assessments, aspects of which we integrate into daily instruction. In short, everyone understands the definition of success from the outset and we generate an ongoing flow of descriptive feedback that permits students to watch them grow. In this case, students and their teachers become partners in the classroom assessment process, relying
