Information Technology and Non-traditional Work Arrangements: Employee Preferences
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(2) İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. si]. ite. rs. niv e. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. /20. 21. se. l. Introduction In the last decade, the impact of rapid development in information technologies became so intense that it pressured scholars in social sciences to review and re-establish the theoretical foundations of their respective disciplines. Many fundamental theories and core beliefs in these discourses were revisited and a number of new technology-related constructs were defined. The fields of management, marketing, operational research, finance, accounting, and information systems had gone through significant re-conceptualization processes (Losey et al, 2005; Merritt, 2007; Peterson et al, 1997; Watson et al, 2002). The world of practice was no different. Effective management of continuously evolving information technologies provided both organizations and employees with a significant competitive advantage in adapting to the challenges of the 21st century. More recently, due to advancements in mobile technologies, the internet has infiltrated virtually every aspect of organizational life, creating an increasingly mobile workforce. Consequently, the ways in which a work is performed have been fundamentally affected by the ongoing advancements in information and communication technology (ICT). The early years of the internet revolution saw publication of visionary articles about the future of “workplace” and the radical changes that were expected to happen (Ulrich, 1997). Direct consequences of the internet revolution, include the change in communication patterns, shrinking of global distances, introduction of new technologies in the workplace, changes in the context of workplace, increased diffusion and transparency of information, and increased dependence on knowledge caused intense changes in the work environment. Although the literature is in agreement on the direction of the change occurring in the work environment (e.g., Boswell and OlsonBuchanan, 2007; Fenner and Renn, 2004), and ample research has focused on the attitudes towards the technologies that trigger these changes (e.g., Agarwal and Prasad, 1997; Rafaeli, 1986), little empirical evidence exists regarding the favorability of these changes as perceived by the employees. The distinction between the attitude toward the information technology itself, and the attitude toward the changes inflicted by the information technology in a specific context is both theoretically and practically important. Attitudes towards a phenomenon are important because they drive the behavioral intentions associated with that particular phenomenon, which in turn predict actual behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Davis, 1989). The majority of the existing literature on the adoption of ICT in the workplace investigates attitudes toward the information-technology itself in predicting its acceptance (e.g., Rafaeli, 1986; Venkatesh et al., 2003). However, depending on personal taste, an employee may prefer to work inside, rather than outside, the office or may favor fixed. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 28.
(3) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. si]. ite. rs. niv e. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. hours over flexible hours. Employees may not prefer the new arrangements enabled by ICT, but may still be glad that the technology exists and enjoy the benefits that the technology provides. This issue is largely overlooked in the literature, and hence little is known about the impact of ICT on the preferred work setting. Therefore, the present research examines employees’ attitudes towards the changes inflicted by ICT in their work settings, not their attitudes towards ICT itself. Extant studies based on boundary theory and the accumulated literature on work-family conflict have it that the blurring of the borders of the traditional office and extension of work hours may significantly burden employees in terms of their work-life balance and psychological well-being (Ashforth et al, 2000; Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007). Drawing on boundary theory, this study examines employees’ preferences towards the change occurring in their work arrangements driven by information technology. Although ICT effects the traditional work arrangement in a number of ways, the present study focuses on the changes occurring in four specific dimensions of the work setting: 1) work hours, 2) workplace, 3) the mode of business communication, and 4) the level of performance-related internal information transparency. Employees’ perceptions and preferences toward the changes occurring along these four aspects of the work setting are explored in a conjoint experiment. Our results provide important insights about the relative importance of these four work-setting attributes on the ‘preferred work arrangement’ as perceived by the employees. They also serve to elucidate the relationships between two personal factors—namely work-family conflict and technology-readiness— and employee preferences regarding these non-traditional work arrangements. This article has the following organization. The first section reviews relevant background literature for the focal research and context. The second section explains the methodology. The third section reports the results, and the final section discusses the theoretical and practical implications.. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. Theoretical Background The introduction of computer technology to the workplace spawned two streams of research: one focused on the possible consequences of the rising use of computers in the workplace (Brosnan, 1998a; Demirkaya, 2007; Smith and Caputi, 2001), the other tried to explain and predict the adoption and effective use of computer technology in the workplace (Agarwal and Prasad, 1997; Davis, 1989; Venkatesh and Davis, 1996). The former stream of research produced substantial evidence supporting the positive relationship between the use of computer technology in the workplace and micro-level performance-related organizational outcomes (Banker and Johnston, 1994; Weill and Olson, 1989). Consequently, as an. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 29.
(4) İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. si]. ite. rs. niv e. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. /20. 21. se. l. antecedent of effective use of technology in the workplace, attitudes and perceptions employees hold toward technology became a strategically important domain of investigation. The latter stream of research identified an extended array of personal, technology-based, and organizational factors that shape technology-related attitudes and perceptions of employees, such as computer anxiety and frustration (Cohen and Waugh, 1989; Maurer, 1994), computer self-efficacy (Brosnan, 1998b; Compeau and Higgins, 1995), individual innovativeness (Goodman and Griffith, 1991; Rogers, 2003), perceived utility of the technology (Venkatesh and Davis, 1996), system quality and characteristics (Lin and Lu, 2000), the symbolic nuances of technologies (Sitkin et al, 1992), job/task specific conditions (Withey et al, 1983), and the set of norms shared among the organization’s members (Markus, 1994). Attitudes and perceptions employees hold toward ICT have also been examined in relation to other work-related attitudes, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (e.g., Martins, 2004; Rafaeli, 1986). In the present research, we examine employees’ preferences for the changes induced by ICT to the way work is performed. Our unit of analysis is the employee who uses ICT as a supportive tool in performing workrelated tasks. We do not focus on employees whose job is solely dependent on information technologies (e.g. teleworkers). Our work best fits to the theoretical background of the technology-assisted supplemental work practices. Fenner and Renn (2004, p. 179) describe technology-assisted supplemental work as “the performance of role-prescribed job tasks by full-time employees with the aid of advanced information and telecommunications technology at home or when away from home while on holiday.” According to these authors, working time is extended by the use of information technology, because employees remain connected to work outside regular work hours. They (2010, p. 66) summarize the three characteristics of technologyassisted work as follows: “(1) It is distributed supplemental work performed at home by full-time employees after regular working hours, (2) it is often discretionary, performed by professional or other white-collar workers, and is not covered by a formal contract or compensation agreement, and (3) it is performed with information and communications technologies, such as laptops, cellular phones, Blackberrys, and PDAs”. The new work arrangements made possible by ICT have both positive and negative effects on employees’ lives. On the positive effects, employees become much more flexible in terms of their workplace and work hours, so that the spatial and temporal boundaries of work can be extended, based on preference. Since the technology allows employees to perform work related. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 30.
(5) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. si]. ite. rs. niv e. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. tasks online and through connectivity technologies, they no longer have to be physically present in the office all the time. They can work at any given time throughout the day. Increased efficiency, responsiveness, accessibility, and productivity are among the work quality related professional benefits of these technologies (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Employees also benefit socially from not having to refrain from interaction with friends and family during work hours (Wajcman et al, 2008). Finally, there may be psychological benefits. As employees’ ability to connect to work from outside the office increases, they feel less stress and anxiety, because their sense of control over their business is enhanced, and they feel empowered by this (e.g. Middleton, 2007). These benefits not only motivate employees, but also save their time and energy (e.g. by reducing travel to meetings). On the other hand, being always on duty and always available brings costs along with its benefits. As it becomes normal to perform work related tasks after hours outside the traditional office, work extends in such a way that it gradually spreads to all aspects of the daily life of an employee. The ubiquitous connectivity enabled by mobile handsets made people accustomed to the practice of reaching anyone, anywhere, anytime. It became impossible to postpone work-related stimuli such as e-mails, calls, messages, and notifications (Orlikowski, 2007), and hence concerns related to the workplace came to infiltrate all aspects of an employee’s existence. The theoretical background of work and nonwork boundary negotiations as articulated above falls into the conceptual domain of the boundary theory. Boundary theory is a general cognitive theory of social classification, which mainly focuses on the processes and outcomes of work–nonwork interactions, especially on how people create or dismantle boundaries across work/nonwork domains to foster segmentation or integration in their lives (Ashforth et al., 2000). It posits that through their interaction with and across work and nonwork domains people shape their environments and, in turn, are shaped by them (Clark, 2000). According to boundary theory, the key conditions that facilitate boundary crossing by individuals are flexibility and boundary permeability. Flexibility determines the ability for individuals to transfer between multiple roles they may be playing during daily activities by shifting the temporal and spatial boundaries such as work time and work location. Permeability determines the ability of individuals to psychologically or behaviorally shift to work or nonwork domain while being physically located in the other domain (Ashforth et al., 2000). Prior research based on boundary theory postulates that cross domain ICT use (i.e., to perform work at home) may have a negative effect on segmentation of work and nonwork domains (Tennakoon, Silveira and Taras, 2013), hence contributes to work-family conflict, because the collision of the. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 31.
(6) İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. si]. ite. rs. niv e. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. /20. 21. se. l. roles and family roles may lead to disruption of functioning in either role, due to the inability to fully disengage from one role to enact the other (Fenner and Renn, 2010). As the borders of personal life are invaded by the ever expanding workplace, traditionally separate domains of one’s life overlap, in turn creating work-family conflict (Ashforth et al, 2000; Boswell and OlsonBuchanan, 2007; Edwards and Rothbard, 2000; Fenner and Renn, 2010; Galinsky et al, 2001; Valcour and Hunter, 2005) and threatening work-life balance (Kalliath and Brough, 2008; Orlikowski, 2007). A study conducted by Boswell and Olson-Buchanan (2007) provides empirical evidence of the positive relationship between work-life conflict and the use of communication technologies after hours. These conflicts result in stress and guilt as psychological personal costs, objections from others as social costs, with distraction and decreased efficiency as professional costs (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Weighing all these benefits and costs, the new work arrangements driven by ICT may be perceived as positive or negative from the perspective of the employees. Work-Family Conflict Greenhaus and Buetell (1985, p. 77) define work-family conflict as “a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is, participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family (work) role”. In simple terms, continued concentration on work while at home causes one to ignore the needs and expectations of family members, leading to tension and unhappiness. This role conflict reduces satisfaction and good functioning both at home and at work (Clark, 2000). The Literature suggests that, when work behavior extends to family domains, negative spillover occurs, resulting in negative moods and fatigue (Crouter, 1984; Edwards and Rothbard, 2000). Work-family conflict has also been found to be positively related to job stress (Frone et al, 1992) and time spent working (Ford et al, 2007). Its antecedents and consequences have also been studied in the context of telework (Martinez-Sanchez et al, 2007; Maruyama et al, 2009). Recently, the impact of technology-assisted work practices on work-life conflict was well documented by Boswell and Olson-Buchanan (2007). Work-family conflict has been similarly described by Fenner and Renn (2010). Their findings suggest that adverse influence occurs through the intrusion of the work role into one’s personal life, facilitated by the use of technology. Extant literature has mainly conceptualized work-family conflict as a consequence of use of ICT as a supportive tool to perform work-related tasks outside hours (Fenner and Renn, 2010). In the present research, we do not. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 32.
(7) +0 30 0. se. l. treat work-family conflict as an outcome, but attempt to assess whether or not employees who are experiencing work-family conflict tend to dislike the type of work arrangement that is creating the conflict. Drawing upon the boundary theory, we expect that, those who experience work-family conflict would be against flexible work-hours and out-of-office work. In other words, those who experience high levels of work-family conflict would not be in favor of the non-traditional work arrangements made possible by ICT. Based on these premises, the following hypotheses are formulated:. /20. 21. 13. :02 :00. H1: Those employees who indicate higher levels of work-family conflict would prefer predefined and strict work hours (would object to new ICTdriven work arrangements), when compared to those who indicate lower levels of work-family conflict.. ih:. ar. ], T. ge. 25. /02. H2: Those employees who indicate higher levels of work-family conflict would prefer to work within the physical boundaries of the traditional office (object to new ICT-driven work arrangements), when compared to those who indicate lower levels of work-family conflict.. si]. ite. rs. niv e. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. 7.1. 49. .30. Technology Readiness Another personal determinant of preference towards the ICT-driven work arrangements may be related to perceived self-efficacy using ICT. Selfefficacy is the belief in one’s capacity to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to meet given situational demands (Wood and Bandura, 1989). A measure of self-efficacy with respect to the use of new technologies, technology-readiness, was developed by Parasuraman (2000). A measure of self-efficacy with respect to the use of computers was developed by Compeau and Higgins (1995). Technology-readiness is a personal-level trait that defines the extent to which a person is likely to utilize technological devices in general. People who score highly in technology-readiness are considered more likely to explore advances in technological developments and more eager to use new technological tools and devices. This construct specifically captures the attitude toward the technology itself, the concept that we have deliberately distinguished from the attitude toward the changes inflicted on traditional work arrangements by information technology. We postulate that two attributes of the work setting investigated in the present study, the mode of business communication and the degree of internal performance-related information transparency, may be closely related to technology-readiness. Next we discuss the conceptual definitions of these two attributes and how they are hypothetically related to technology-readiness.. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 33.
(8) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. Mode of business communication. The mode of business communication refers to the medium through which business-related communication takes place. The rise of ICT use in the workplace gradually resulted in face-to-face, paper, telephone, and fax-based communication being replaced by electronic information exchange through the networked systems (Straub and Watson, 2001). Today, the majority of business communication occurs in hypermediated environments (Herrmann, 2006). Although this transformation increased efficiency and effectiveness of information exchange, enhancing the global integration of all stakeholders in organizations, it also presented serious challenges. Hyper-mediated channels often fail to communicate nuances of meaning and emotional tone (Kiesler et al, 1987). Hence messages transferred through hyper-mediated environments may become depersonalized and thus potentially misunderstood. Prior research has shown that experience and knowledge regarding a particular phenomenon alters perceptions of an innovation and attitudes towards it (Sheth, 1968). Previous experience and past usage has been found to be influential on future intentions and behavior (Oullette and Wood, 1998). Accordingly, we expect that as people become more familiar with ICT in general, their perceptions of complexity and risks involved in conducting an important business communication (e.g. job-related meetings and negotiations) through an online medium will be attenuated, and hence they will feel more comfortable as they assimilate to use of ICT as the principal mode of business communication.. si]. ite. rs niv e. il. , IP. H3: Those employees who indicate higher levels of technology readiness will prefer to use computer-mediated environments as the mode of business communication when compared to those who indicate lower levels of technology readiness.. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. Transparency of Internal Information. Information systems (IS) have increased the level of information transparency, both within organizations and to outsiders. Employment of IS dramatically increases information sharing between individuals and within organizations. Thus IS is viewed as a transparency enabler (Alavi and Leidner, 1999; Braunstein, 1999). There are two types of transparency, external and internal. The former focuses on the inbound and outbound communication across the boundaries of the organizational entity, whereas internal transparency is related to the information flow occurring within the organization itself. In the present research, we focus on internal transparency. Street and Meister (2004, p. 477) define internal transparency as “an outcome of communication behaviors within an organization that reflects the degree to which employees have. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 34.
(9) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. si]. ite. rs. niv e. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. access to the information requisite for their responsibilities”. Examples of IS technologies that enable internal information transparency include internal feedback systems and online evaluation forms, which may enable increased efficiency and transparency of 360-degree performance appraisal systems. Online evaluation forms available on the intranet allow employees to provide evaluations of others and the organization effectively, at low cost, sometimes anonymously. Also, Human Resources (HR) internet portals, corporate information exchange systems, online newsletters, online training materials, online tests and surveys, and internal advertising via the intranet are useful means of dissemination of information within an organization. Through these online channels, employees are now better informed about the chain of events in their businesses, are able to communicate smoothly and discretely, and can better monitor their environments. The use of such information technologies in the workplace increased both the amount of information and the rate at which it flows within the organization. Consequently, employees’ access to information became a prerequisite for their success. Most importantly, internal benchmarking systems made accomplishments and failures more visible. As information has become more publicly available, the work environment became much more transparent. In the present research, we focus on internal transparency, and attempt to examine employees’ preference for increased performance-related information transparency in the work environment enabled by IS. We expect to observe a positive relationship between technology readiness and preference for increased internal information transparency. We propose that more technology friendly employees would feel greater confidence in their ability to control and monitor the IS that enables transparency, and hence feel as they have more power within these systems. On the other hand, those who are intimidated by ICT would fear that they would not be able to effectively control information flow. Hence their privacy concerns would be heightened. They will perceive transparency enabled by IS as complex and risky. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is formulated:. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. H4: Those employees who indicate higher levels of technology readiness will prefer increased levels of internal information transparency enabled by IS within their organization when compared to those who indicate lower levels of technology readiness.. B. Methodology In order to address the two objectives of the present research, we employed a two stage data analysis, in which findings of the first stage. İnd. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 35.
(10) İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. si]. ite. rs. niv e. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. /20. 21. se. l. were fed into the second stage of the analysis. In the first stage, a conjoint analysis was performed in order to estimate 1) the relative importance of the four dimensions of change induced by ICT on the choice of the best work setting at the aggregate level, and 2) the favorability of the changes driven by ICT along these four dimensions at both the aggregate and the individual level. The second phase of the analysis used a series of analyses of variance (ANOVAs) in order to test the four hypotheses by assessing the relationship between personal factors and the individual outputs of the conjoint analysis (i.e., the desirability of the direction of change driven by ICT along each of the four characteristics of work setting for each respondent). Conjoint analysis was utilized because it not only allows for the estimation of the relative importance of the stimulus factors, but also allows for a more realistic assessment of preferences by representing choice as a multi-attribute judgment environment (Green and Srinivasan, 1978). In the present research, the conjoint task allowed for the construction of a number of alternative work settings, each having a different combination of attributes. The four dimensions of work setting substantially influenced by the developing information technologies constituted the four attributes, each having two levels (as shown in the Appendix A). The total number of stimuli resulting from all possible combinations of the levels was 2 (fixed vs. flexible work hours) x 2 (working in-office vs. out-of-office) x 2 (conducting businessbased communication face-to-face vs. online) x 2 (transparency vs. nontransparency of performance-related information) = 16. In order to reduce the fatigue on the subjects having to rank a set of 16 stimuli, an orthogonal fractional factorial design of eight stimuli was employed. These alternative work conditions were presented to the respondents who were asked to rank them in terms of their overall preference—from 1 (most preferred) to 8 (least preferred). Since alternatives were constructed in a specific manner using an orthogonal fractional factorial design, it was possible to determine the influence of each attribute on the utility judgment of each respondent from the overall rankings of the alternatives. This conjoint task was coupled with a short questionnaire which included a set of demographic variables and two literature-based 5-point multi-item scales (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree), one for technology readiness (Meuter et al, 2003), and one for workfamily conflict (Netemeyer et al, 1996). Scale items are available in the Appendix B. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the technology-readiness scale was 0.88, and for the work-family conflict was 0.89, with all items having item to total correlations higher than 0.50.. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 36.
(11) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. si]. ite. rs niv e. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. Sample Following the sampling methodology employed by Fenner and Renn (2010), a sample of full-time employees was drawn from the following sources: a) managerial and professional employees who were members of a Chamber of Commerce association for small to medium sized firms located in a major city in the western Turkey; b) executive MBA students and recent graduates from a university located in northwestern Turkey; c) partners/ associate partners in a national consumer goods manufacturing company; and d) employees from a publicly traded telecommunication company located in the northwestern Turkey. The rationale for this sampling strategy was to populate the sampling frame with people having a diverse range of work nonwork integration and segmentation levels and ICT use in work domains. Five hundred questionnaires were distributed. Two hundred and forty six usable surveys were returned (an initial response rate of 49 percent), 22 of which were screened out, based on the filter question measuring the use of ICT to perform work-related tasks outside regular work hours. This resulted in 224 useable questionnaires. Response rates for specific target groups did not differ significantly. Conjoint analysis produces goodness of fit measures for each individual. 33 individuals who had poor goodness of fit measures (either having a perfect Kendall’s tau or an insignificant Kendall’s tau at 0.05 confidence level) were eliminated from the sample. The resultant sample size for further analysis became 191. Participants were full-time employees, 54.5% female (n = 104) and 45.5% male (n = 87), whose ages ranged from 27 to 52 (M = 30.69, SD = 6.57). 47.6% of the participants were married (n = 91), and 24.6% had children (n = 47). Participants also reported their education levels as having a high school degree (6.8%, n = 13), a college degree (51.8%, n = 99), and a graduate degree (41.4%, n = 79).. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. Results Conjoint analysis generated part-worth utilities for each level of each attribute in the conjoint profiles of the alternative work conditions, as shown in Table 1. Results showed that respondents are not happy with the new nontraditional work arrangement driven by ICT. Increasing flexibility in terms of work hours and extension of the workplace beyond traditional boundaries of office environment are among the most prevalent impacts of ICT on working conditions. Our results reveal that at an aggregate level, fixed work hours are preferred over flexible work hours, and in-office work is preferred over out-of-office work. Increased performance-related internal information transparency is also not preferred. These preferences are in the opposite direction to the changes caused by ICT in the work environment. Although. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 37.
(12) İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. online communication seems to be the preferred mode when compared to face-to-face communication, the utility estimate suggests that the difference is negligible.. l. :02 :00. 13. 21. se. +0 30 0. Utility Std. Attribute Level Estimate Error Contrasts Flexible - 0.043 0.042 Fixed > Flexible Fixed 0.043 0.042 Workplace Out-of-office - 0.117 0.042 In-office > Out-of-office In-office 0.117 0.042 Table 1. Part-worth utilities for conjoint profiles Communication Medium Online 0.012 0.042 Online > Face-to-face Utility 0.042Std. Face-to-face - 0.012 Attribute Transparency Transparent Attribute Level - 0.353 Estimate 0.042Error Contrasts > Transparent Information Non-transparent Work Hours Flexible 0.043 0.042 Fixed > Flexible Non-transparent 0.353 0.042. Attribute Work Hours. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. ge. 25. /02. /20. Fixed 0.043 0.042 Workplace Out-of-office - 0.117 0.042 In-office > Out-of-office In addition, the relative importance0.117 of each attribute was calculated In-office 0.042 by dividing the part-worth utility range 0.012 of the attribute by the sum of the Communication Medium Online 0.042 Online > Face-to-face part-worth utility ranges of all four attributes. Table 2 shows the relative Face-to-face - 0.012 0.042 importance assigned to each attribute by respondents when ranking alternative Table 2. Relative importanceTransparent of work setting attributes Information Transparency - 0.353 0.042 Non-transparent > Transparent work settings in terms Non-transparent of their favorability. Results show that the level of Attribute Relative Importance (%) Contrasts 0.353 0.042. :[ 19. 4.2. 7.1. 49. performance-related internal information caused Work Hours (WH) 8.10 transparency IT > WP > WH >by CMICT has the highest on the choice of the ‘preferred work setting’, followed by Workplaceimpact (WP) 22.32 Communication Medium (CM) 2.37 and the medium of business-related the workplace. Flexibility of work hours Information Transparency (IT) 67.21 communication have relatively smaller impacts on the overall preference. * n = 191, Kendall’s tau = 0.929, p<0.001.. si]. ite. 8.10 22.32 2.37 67.21. Contrasts IT > WP > WH > CM. rs. Bi lgi Ü. Work Hours (WH) Workplace (WP) Communication Medium (CM) Information Transparency (IT). niv e. il. , IP. Table 2. Relative importance of work setting attributes Attribute Relative Importance (%). * n = 191, Kendall’s tau = 0.929, p<0.001.. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Besides aggregate level results, conjoint analysis also estimates partworth utilities for each level of each attribute at the individual level. This output reflects the preferences of each respondent along the four attributes. For instance, if respondent A’s part-worth utility of fixed work hours has a positive value (then part-worth utility of flexible work hours will have a negative value), it means that respondent A prefers having fixed, rather than flexible, work hours. If the part-worth utilities of the levels of an attribute are zero, it means that the respondent has a neutral stance and does not prefer one. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. Table 1. Part-worth utilities for conjoint profiles. 38. 1.
(13) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. si]. ite. rs. niv e. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. level of the attribute to another. These personal-level outputs are used as the intersubjective factors in the consecutive analyses, in order to examine the relationship between employee preferences toward the non-traditional work arrangements with two personal factors, namely work-family conflict and technology-readiness. Prior to testing the hypotheses, the influence of respondents’ demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, marital status, industry, having children) on dependent variables was analyzed. Among the demographic variables none had a significant effect on any of the dependent variables. Therefore they will not be discussed any further. In order to assess the relationship between work-family conflict and preference for flexible vs. fixed work hours an ANOVA was conducted, with work hours (flexible vs. fixed) designed as an intersubjective factor. The group of respondents who prefer fixed work hours (M=3.20; SD=0.95) does not differ significantly from those who prefer flexible work hours (M=3.26; SD=1.02) with respect to their work-family conflict scores (F=0.13; p=0.716). Therefore, H1 is not supported. A second ANOVA is conducted to examine the relationship between work-family conflict and preference for in-office vs. out-of-office work. Workplace (in-office vs. out-of-office) is designed as the between subjects factor. Supporting H2, the results of the ANOVA reveal a significant main effect for workplace (F=4.20; p<0.05). The group means indicate that those who prefer to work in the office (M=3.40; SD=0.85) report significantly higher levels of work-family conflict when compared to those who prefer to work outside the office (M=3.06; SD=0.97). The two ANOVAs on technology readiness resulted in a strong internal performance-related information transparency effect (F=32.95; p<.000). However, the effect of mode of business communication is insignificant (F=0.05; p=0.833). Supporting H4, those who prefer increased information transparency in the workplace (M=2.82; SD=0.64) have significantly higher scores in terms of technology readiness when compared to the group that does not prefer transparency (M=2.06; SD=0.81). Since the groups established based on mode of communication do not differ in terms of technology readiness, H3 is not supported.. B. ire. n:. [İs. tan. Discussion The present research employed a two-stage research design in order to capture employees’ aggregate and individual preferences toward the ICTdriven changes in the way work is performed. Four attributes of work setting in which the influence of the technology is most vividly evident and most frequently mentioned in the literature were used to generate the experimental stimulus for data collection. These work setting attributes were: 1) work. İnd. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 39.
(14) İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. si]. ite. rs. niv e. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. /20. 21. se. l. hours, 2) workplace, 3) mode of business communication, and 4) the level of performance-related internal information transparency. Our findings regarding the overall attitude toward the non-traditional work arrangements enabled by ICT were largely counter-intuitive. Conjoint results revealed that respondents generally prefer to work in the office, within rigid and predetermined work hours, and especially that they are not happy with the increased level of internal performance-related information transparency. On the other hand, as expected, they cherish the opportunity to conduct business-related communication through online channels. In summary, the trend we found was for a ‘preferred work arrangement’ depicted as the one which is performed in the office, within regular and strict work hours and non-transparent in terms of performance-related information. However, when individual differences in terms of technology readiness and work-family conflict were taken into account, findings become more meaningful and comprehensible. It seems that tolerance for a high level of information transparency enabled by ICT is positively related with one’s perceived self-efficacy towards utilizing and monitoring ICT. Those who do not have confidence in their ability to use ICT experience a heightened level of anxiety towards internal transparency. Today’s work environment can be characterized by fierce competition among peers, therefore keeping up impressions and gaining social support from others within the organization is crucial for intra-organizational championship and consequently for career advancement. In light of these premises, our findings lead us to speculate that internal transparency is preferred to the extent that it is perceived as useful towards the end of one’s own impression management, which is only attainable if it is believed that one can effectively use and monitor the tools for information dissemination within the organization. Otherwise, employees might not be in favor of an increased level of internal information transparency. A majority of the responders, regardless of their level of technologyreadiness, preferred online communication channels over face-to-face communication as the mode of business communication (rejection of H3). It seems that prior concerns regarding the reduced intimacy and loss of nuances caused by the switch from offline to online communication are being abandoned (e.g., Kiesler et al, 1987). This finding may be mainly attributable to the fact that the Internet has virtually infiltrated every aspect of daily life and the media richness and vividness allowed by new online communication technologies have increased dramatically. The number of Facebook relationships of an average young adult has already surpassed the number of offline relationships (Donath and Boyd, 2004), and online communities have already transformed into functional, self-evolving, real communities populated by real people (Kozinets, 2009). Consequently, many people,. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 40.
(15) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. si]. ite. rs. niv e. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. especially the younger generations, have already become accustomed to the idea that, in a global future, most of the communication, both business-related and social, will be carried out through online communication channels. Our findings regarding employees’ preference for workplace revealed that in-office work is preferred over out-of-office work. Developing information technologies have been praised mainly for their ability to free employees from spatial constraints (e.g., Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Especially, smart phones and handheld devices have been quickly adopted by large corporations. They were handed out to employees in order to facilitate their connectivity with headquarters while working in the field. However, findings of the present research suggest that ‘the preferred work setting’ might be characterized by in-office work. Where work is performed (in-office vs. out-of-office) has surfaced as the second most important predictor of choice of ‘the preferred work setting’. Although sample size and characteristics prohibits generalization of these findings, the mere fact that in-office work can be preferred over out-of-office work deserves further attention. Analyses conducted in the second stage of the research have shown that those who prefer to work in the office are more troubled by increased levels of work-family conflict, when compared to those who prefer to work outside the office. This finding implies that employees’ motivation to use ICT to supplement their regular work while they are away from the office may be diminished if they experience role conflict at home. Facilitated by the use of ICT and driven by the increasing performance expectations fueled by the fierce competition in global markets, work expands to invade individuals’ personal lives. Our findings suggest that this expansion must eventually be curbed. Otherwise businesses may not be able to capitalize on the benefits provided by ICT due to the resistance of employees to the non-traditional work arrangements. Our failure to find a significant relationship between the preference towards flexible work hours enabled by ICT and work-family conflict (rejection of H1) prohibits us from offering deductive explanations as to why people choose rigid and regular work hours over flexible work hours. Our findings suggest that employees do not perceive a relationship between increased flexibility of work hours and work-family conflict. Instead, they attribute the negative effect of work-family conflict to out-of-office work. Although speculatively, this might suggest that flexibility of work hours do not violate the tangible and psychological boundaries across work and nonwork domains, as out-ofoffice work does. Although people prefer rigid work hours, probably to be able to spend more quality time with family and non-work social connections in an organized and regular schedule, this preference is not related with work-. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 41.
(16) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. family conflict, as flexible work hours does not necessarily mean assuming work related roles at home. However, out-of-office work requires individuals to make transitions across roles in an intermittent manner, especially at home. For instance, a mother working from home through ICTs would have to waver her attention away from her children from time to time to process work-related tasks, creating work-family conflict. On the other hand, the apparent insignificance of this relationship in this study calls for further research, especially in light of prior claims about the process through which technology-assisted work practices influence work-family conflict (Boswell and Olson-Buchanan, 2007; Fenner and Renn, 2010). The present research contributes to the relevant literature by focusing, not on the attitude toward a technology itself, but instead, on the preferences toward the direction of technology-induced changes in the way work is performed. This difference is important, because an employee’s positive attitude towards a particular technology does not necessarily mean that the employees favor the new work environment shaped by that technology. In recent years, progress in ICT has occurred at a radical pace, inflicting drastic changes in the work environment. Due to the inevitable penetration of the internet into every aspect of the daily life, individuals in developed countries have no choice but to learn how to use it and to live with it. We hope to contribute to such the understanding of such processes of adaptation through our assessment of employees’ perceptions towards non-traditional work arrangements enabled by ICT rather than by conducting abstract assessments of overall attitudes towards ICT.. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. si]. ite. rs. niv e. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. Limitations and Conclusion One potential limitation of the present study relates to external validity, to generalizability of the results. A scientific theory should never be generalized to a setting where it has not yet been empirically tested and confirmed (Lee and Barkerville, 2003). Therefore, as the sample of this study consists of mid-level managers who live in Turkey, the results should be considered as tentative for other employee groups and for employees in other cultures. Additionally, the cross-sectional design of the study does not permit causal interpretation. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that strong relationships exist between choice of workplace (in-office vs. out-of-office) and workfamily conflict and between preference for performance-related internal information transparency and technology-readiness. Future studies might focus on these relationships and establish causal explanations which could have strategic implications for management of ICT driven work practices. Interestingly, the level of internal performance-related information transparency has surfaced as the strongest predictor of work-setting preference. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 42.
(17) +0 30 0. :02 :00. 13. ih:. ar. ], T. .30. 49. 7.1. si] ite rs niv e. İnd. ire. n:. [İs. tan. bu l. Bi lgi Ü. il. , IP. :[ 19. 4.2. ge. 25. /02. /20. 21. se. l. of employees characterized by the four dimensions of change induced by ICT. It seems also that, as ICT increases the internal performance-related information transparency, employees’ concern about the need to monitor and control information flow within the organization increases. The anxiety produced by increased internal information transparency surpasses other potential concerns related to extended work hours and out-of-office work. Our findings suggest that technology-readiness is related to the preference towards internal information transparency. A straightforward managerial implication of this finding may be that fostering technology readiness of employees’ (e.g., via training) could contribute to the efficacy and efficiency of workrelated surveillance. Future studies should also consider other personal and organizational variables related to preference regarding internal information transparency and how this relationship is influenced by ICT use. Non-traditional work arrangements have already become a reality of the digital era, but our findings show that employees have yet to fully embrace the new work settings enabled by ICT. Employees’ acceptance of ICT itself does not necessarily mean that they will favor the direction of change occurring in their work conditions driven by ICT. It is important that future research in this domain should aim to discover the reasons for these negative perceptions. Another potential implication is that management strategies should be influenced accordingly, as perceptions are likely to manifest as behavioral outcomes.. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014. 43.
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(22) 48. n:. ire. Mode of Communication Internal Transparency. Workplace. il. ge. APPENDIX A. se ih:. ar. ,T. 25. /02. /20. 21. 13. :02 :00. l. +0 30 0. Levels of Conjoint Attributes Bi Description lgi 1) DespiteÜthe opportunities provided by ICT, I prefer to work within regular and strict work hours. niv of ICT use, I prefer to work with flexible hours. 2) As a product er sit 1) Despite the opportunities provided by ICT, I prefer to work in the office. esuse, generally I prefer to work out of the office. 2) As a product of ICT i], 1) Despite the opportunities IPprovided by ICT, I prefer to conduct work-related communication face-to-face. : [ to conduct work-related communication through online media. 2) As a product of ICT, I prefer 19 1) I would prefer IS technology not 4to.2be employed in the organization; hence my actions, accomplishments and 7.in failures are largely unknown to others 14the organization. 2) I would prefer IS technology to be employed 9.3 in the organization; hence my actions, accomplishments and failures are largely known to others in the organization. 0]. bu l. tan. [İs. Work Condition Work Hours. İnd. B. İndiren: [İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi], IP: [194.27.149.30], Tarih: 25/02/2021 13:02:00 +0300. İktisat İşletme ve Finans 29 (339) Haziran / June 2014.
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