DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
SUGGESTED GUIDED VISUALIZATION ACTIVITIES TO
FOSTER CREATIVITY IN SPEAKING IN ELT
M.A. THESIS
Prepared by
Abay NURMAKHAMAT
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
SUGGESTED GUIDED VISUALIZATION ACTIVITIES TO
FOSTER CREATIVITY IN SPEAKING IN ELT
M.A. THESIS
Abay NURMAKHAMAT
Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Nurgun AKAR
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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to my thesis advisor, Asst. Professor Nurgun Akar for her continuous support, invaluable feedback and patience throughout the study. She provided me with constant guidance and encouragement which turned the demanding thesis writing into a smooth and a fruitful process. I would also like to thank to my Turkish mums Nezihe Yurder and Guler Ulku, who never hesitated to help me and share their experience, to offer their kindness, help and encouragement at difficult times.
I am also grateful to Tamara Danilova, the Head of the Methodology Department at Kazakh State University of International Relations and World Languages named after Abilay Khan. I would also like to extend my thanks to Gazi Preparatory School students of the academic year of 2009-2010.
Finally, I am deeply grateful to my family especially for my brother Arman Nurmakhamatuly, wife Aynash Nurmakhamat and son Arystan Nurmakhamat for being so motivating and patient throughout the study.
ABSTRACT
SUGGESTED GUIDED VISUALIZATION ACTIVITIES TO FOSTER CREATIVITY in SPEAKING in ELT
NURMAKHAMAT, Abay
M.A. Department of Teaching English as a Foreign Language Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Nurgun AKAR
October-2010
This thesis explores the effectiveness of Guided Visualization Activities in improving students’ creativity in oral production skills.
This study also argues that Guided Visualization Activities foster the speaking skills of learners by providing a stress-free and positive environment where learners feel more comfortable, relaxed and more confident, which provides a high participation in learning.The thesis writer hopes to answer the following question in this study:
How effective is the employment of Guided Visualization Activities in speaking classes at Gazi University Preparatory School in terms of improving students’ creativity in speaking?
To this end, research was held with the help of one teacher and 25 learners at the above mentioned school. The learners underwent eight guided visualization activities prepared by the thesis writer. After the activities were covered, they were asked to fill in a Likert-type opinionnaire, and after each activity the teacher was asked to fill in an evaluation checklist.
The findings of this study show that guided visualization activities offer a unique opportunity for developing creativity in the speaking skill. There is a built-in motivation for a learner who wishes to be heard and clearly understood. Volume, tempo and pitch, as well as diction, are involved in a natural way; no other form of speech exercise captures the learner to the same degree or offers so good a reason for working on speech (McCaslin, 1990). This very advantage of guided visualization activities was observed in this study which enhanced the learners’ creativity in the speaking skills and habits.
As a result of this study, guided visualization activities are recommended to be used as one of the techniques of teaching English to learners, to materialize this goal, certain recommendations have been made as to the implementation of guided visualization activities as well as to the training of language teachers to facilitate their employment of such activities.
CONTENTS
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS i ABSTRACT ii CONTENTS iii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction ……….. 11.1 Background of the Study ……….. 2
1.2 Statement of the Problem ………. 4
1.3 Aim of the Study ……….. 5
1.4 Significance of the Problem ………. 6
1.5 Research Questions………. ………. 6
1.6 Scope of the Study ……… 7
1.7 Definitions of the Terms and Abbreviations ……… 7
1.7.1 Terms ……… 7
1.7.2 Abbreviations ………... 9
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction ……….. 10
2.1 What is speaking? ………. 10
2.1.1 Nature of Speaking ………... 10
2.1.2 Reasons for Speaking ………... 11
2.1.3 Components of Speaking ………. 12
2.1.4 Teaching Speaking Skills ………. 13
2.1.5 A Historical Perspective...………. 14
2.1.6 Difference between knowledge and skill………. 15
2.2 Creativity ……….. 17
2.2.1 Features of Creativity ………... 17
2.2.2 Components of Creative Performance ……….. 20
2.2.2.1 Creativity-Relevant Skills ……… 21
2.2.2.2 Domain-Relevant Skills ………... 22
2.2.2.3 Task Motivation ………... 22
2.2.4 Characteristics of Creative Thinker……… 27
2.4 Alternative Approaches in Language Teaching ………... 28
2.5 Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)………. 29
2.5.1 Definitions of NLP ………... 30
2.5.2 Brief History of NLP ……… 31
2.5.3 NLP Techniques and Principles………... 32
2.5.4 Four Main Pillars of NLP ………. 37
2.5.5 Core Concepts of NLP ………. 38
2.5.5.1 Representational Systems (VAKOG) and Guided Visualization Activities………... 39
2.5.5.2 Submodalities………. 42
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 43
3.1 Methodology 43
3.1.1 Participants 43
3.1.2 Instruments 44
3.2.3 Procedures 45
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 46
4.1 Introduction 46
4.1.1 Learners’ Emotions and Responses to Suggested Guided Visualization Activities
46
4.1.2 Teacher’s Observation 48
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 51
5.1 Summary 51
5.2 Recommendations 52
REFERENCES 53
APPENDICES 56
A INFORMED CONSENT FORM 56
B LIKER – TYPE OPINIONNAIRE 57
C EVALUATION CHECKLIST 60
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1 Introduction
This study investigates the effectiveness of Suggested Guided Visualization Activities in developing students‟ creativity within speaking skills. The creative thinking abilities contribute importantly to the acquisition of information and various educational skills (Getzels and Jackson, 1958; Torrance, 1960:). Of course, we have long known that it is natural for man to learn creatively, but we have always thought that it is more economical to teach by authority. Recent experiments (Moore, 1961 Ornstein, 1961) have shown that many things can be learned creatively and more economically by authority than they can be individually, and that certain things are better learnt creatively. When children are taught by authority, these creative abilities are uncovered. Recent and ongoing studies, however, show that even traditional subject matter and educational skills can be taught in a way where creative thinking abilities can be attributed important roles for their acquisition.
Nevertheless, today‟s primary focus on communication in teaching speaking in a second language has introduced a new communicative, authentic and interactive perspective to language education. This perspective is emerging with a shift from a highly structured, teacher-controlled environment to a student-centred and interactive environment. However, for many language teachers, it is still difficult to provide authentic, interactive opportunities for their students to improve their speaking ability, especially in an EFL classroom environment. Yet as Jane Revell and Susan Norman point out, NLP validates what we are already doing well – albeit non-consciously. Greater knowledge of NLP will give us more options in our choice of approach.
If NLP techniques are to be used in teaching languages, it is advisable for both teachers and students to feel comfortable with the tool and its capacities that will be used in classroom activities. The techniques need to become a natural partner of teaching to be successful in curricular integration of language teaching. In particular, the use of Suggested Guided Visualization Activities in ELT classes can enhance the
speaking abilities of young learners. In this chapter, a brief explanation of the topic is given. In addition, background information on the problem, research question, the aim, the limitations and the assumptions of this study are discussed.
1.1 Background to the Study
Language learners in a foreign language environment have difficulties, especially in the acquisition of speaking and listening, and in finding opportunities to practice these two skills in a meaningful way. NLP has recently emerged in the foreign language field as one of the more promising approaches to facilitate the acquisition and practice of language skills. “NLP is a collection of techniques, patterns, and strategies for assisting effective communication, personal growth and change, and learning. It is based on a series of underlying assumptions about how the mind works and how people act and interact” (Revell and Norman, 1997: 14).
Highly creative individuals usually have very strong creative needs. They are attracted to the mysterious and to the unknown. They have a strong need to question, to explain, to test ideas and to communicate the results of their testing. Creative individuals, however, need outside encouragement to keep up their efforts. Society, in general, does not supply this support (Kneller, 1967: 13). It should be recognized, however, that the goal of guidance is not to promote just individuality and creativity but to encourage healthy kinds of individuality and creativity. Many creative individuals, however, need guidance in achieving the balance between creativity and conformity, and with the help of NLP techniques, we may enhance both of them. This is the guidance of NLP techniques for teachers in ELT classrooms at all levels because the creative personality does not emerge suddenly and dramatically. It must be nurtured through NLP techniques. McPherson (1960; 23) Maslow (1954: 42,) and others refer to this as primary creativeness and say that it comes from those who can play, imagine, laugh, loaf, be spontaneous, and accept their softness and gender.
The goal of giving EFL learners‟ communicative competence involving international and inter-personal intelligibility has been documented widely. Nonetheless, Cheon (2003: 5) claims that the lack of interpersonal interaction in language classes means that such communicative competence often fails to develop. He adds that instructional interaction should require learners to negotiate meaning, with
either native speakers or non-native speakers of the target language. Lee and Van Patten (1995: 52) explain the negotiation of meaning as “the act of people working together to understand each other”. “Techniques used are clarification checks, confirmation checks, and comprehension checks. Furthermore, for language interaction, students need to get comprehensible input by negotiating meaning” (Krashen, 1985: 23), and “they have to produce comprehensible output” (Swain, 1985: 235-253). “Negotiation of meaning, as a particular way of interaction, enables learners to make input meaningful and improve their own output” (Cheon, 2003: 4).
In traditional classrooms, the students may be afraid to speak lest they need to be corrected, and graded, and may be too shy to speak individually in class with other speakers, or may not like participating in a particular speaking activity. Hence, they may feel demotivated and their attitudes towards speaking courses may become negative. NLP techniques can give learners the opportunity to speak creatively and freely. NLP contains a battery of techniques to help you realize your full potential as a human being (Molden, 2001).
Reliable definitions of creativity seem to fall into four categories. Initially, creativity may be considered from the standpoint of the person who creates, that is, in terms of psychology and temperament - including personal attitudes, habits, and values. It may also be explained in terms of the mental processes – motivation, perception, learning, thinking, and communicating that the act of creating calls into play. A third definition focuses on environmental and cultural influences. Finally, creativity may be understood in terms of its products such as theories, inventions, paintings, carvings, and poems.
For the most part, it is this last conception that has traditionally guided the study of creativity. Indeed, this is the most obvious approach to the subject since products, being public and readily available, are more easily assessed than personalities. More recently, however, research has tended to concentrate on creativity as a mental and emotional process – an approach that is all the more demanding and subtle because much of its subject matter lies in the inner states of the creative person.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Of the four language skills, teaching speaking poses different issues than do teaching writing, listening, and reading. Getting learners in an EFL environment to speak meaningfully in a foreign language is notoriously difficult. Speaking while being observed and evaluated is threatening too many, even in native language situations. L1 speaking shyness may add to L2 speaking anxiety. Self-consciousness about pronunciation, grammatical correctness, uncertainties as to appropriate styles and lexical insufficiencies all inhibit fluent L2 speakers, and weaken their performance. Moreover, students may have specific needs and interests in terms of speaking in the target language. For example, students may need to talk socially to native speakers, they may need to discuss their studies in institutions where the target language is the medium of instruction, or they may need to use the target language for business or professional purposes; for instance, as doctors in towns or cities visited by foreign tourists, as engineers working with foreign colleagues, or as receptionists welcoming international tourists. They may require only a simple or casual use of the second language, for example as short-time tourists.
These uncertainties add to the instructional challenges that speaking teachers face in determining the approach and activities essential to the development of oral skills in their students. Innovations in language teaching enable teachers and students to facilitate their teaching and learning speaking skills. What do NLP language teachers do that make them different from other language teachers? They seek to apply the NLP principles in their teaching, and this leads to different responses to many class-room events and processes. NLP principles can be applied to the teaching of all aspects of language (Revell and Norman, 1999: 3).
The above-mentioned uncertainties are also valid for the students in the Preparatory School at Gazi University, where speaking is considered as one of the most important skills. The learners, in Ankara, are expected to speak English well while working in summer training jobs. Hence, they have general English knowledge to enable them to use English. However, they are often unwilling to participate in in-class speaking activities, even though students, in particular, are increasingly in need of oral English skills. The reason for their unwillingness may be the result of the fear of speaking in front of friends, negative attitudes towards activities used for developing
oral skills, or perhaps their perceptions about their teachers‟ approach and instruction in the class environment.
Therefore, investigating the effects of the use of Guided Visualization Activities which are based on NLP techniques in developing learner‟s creativity in speaking skills may be seen as useful and effective ways of decreasing their anxiety and increasing their fluency in speaking English.
It is EFL teachers who have the central role in introducing these new teaching tools. Activities play essential roles in classroom learning processes. As learners in EFL contexts have fewer opportunities to practise language outside school, classroom activities become more important (Nunan, 1989: 53).
1.3 Aim of the Study
This study aims to examine the effectiveness of NLP based Guided Visualization Activities on the development of learners‟ creativity and communicative skills in speaking classes at Gazi University Preparatory School. This study also argues that Guided Visualization Activities foster the speaking skills of learners by providing a stress free and positive environment where learners feel more comfortable, relaxed and more confident, which provides a high participation in learning. After completing the intensive English programme in preparatory programs, many of the learners complain about their lack of communicative competence as required in their departmental courses. This may result in part from the fact that students do not attempt to practise adequately in speaking classes, or may not find appropriate environments to practise using the language. No real standard of speech expectation has been established for preparatory school graduates. Although the existing instruction in speaking classrooms seems to have some effect on students‟ ability to communicate, students and departmental instructors generally that speaking instruction could be more effective and result in a higher student standard in spoken communication. This study might be regarded as a pilot study of a new approach in speaking classes which may increase learner interaction in speaking classrooms and beyond.
1.4 Significance of the Problem
At Gazi Preparatory School, English is taught as a foreign language. In connection with this, the syllabus design used by course book writers. Although there are some speaking exercises given in the course-book, they are simple, not natural, thus not appealing to the learners. Learners need to develop their speaking skills, in order to be able to speak not only in English classes, but also to express themselves in science, social studies and in their profession as well.
The study addresses the paucity of research on the employment of Guided Visualization Activities in EFL speaking classrooms. Thus, it may provide general information for program planners at the university level by providing an additional tool for the improvement of students‟ creativity and speaking abilities. At the local level, the study may contribute to the re-thinking and re-designing of speaking courses in the curriculum renewal process at Gazi Preparatory School University.
With the purpose of solving the above mentioned problems to some extent, it is suggested (Richards and Rogers, 2001) to use different communicative activities that may foster students speaking skills. This study claims that using Guided Visualization Activities in English lessons will develop learner‟s speaking abilities and will enable the learners to use the target language in a functional and communicative way. It also claims that when Guided Visualization Activities are implemented, the participation of the students in the lessons will be high; the students will gain self confidence and will be able to produce unscripted and creative talk.
1.5 Purpose and Research Questions
This study investigates the effectiveness of Guided Visualization Activities which are based on NLP techniques in developing learners‟ creativity in speaking skills. The study hopes to answer the following question in this research:
1. How effective is the employment of Guided Visualization Activities in speaking classes at Gazi Preparatory School University in terms of improving students‟ creativity in speaking?
1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study has certain limitations in examining the effects of Guided Visualization Activities on the improvement of students‟ creativity in speaking skills. The limitations of this study have resulted from the duration of the study, the selection of the group, the design of the activities, the inability of the researcher to observe the implementation of the treatments, and the limited amount of data.
There are several points to consider as regards this study. First of all, the duration of the application was limited to 3 weeks; thus, it would be somehow misleading to suggest that learners have developed all or any creative problem skills or in real life as developing creative skills is a lifelong process, and always needs to be constantly practiced. Second, the time of each lesson was limited to 10 minutes. However, 10 minutes may or may not be enough for learners to solve their problems as not every individual has the same thinking style. This study was conducted among preparatory students at Gazi University. Therefore, it would be inappropriate to consider that all students of English will be able to learn, and apply Guided Visualization Activities in 3 weeks and respond favorably to all materials. Thus, certain issues ought to be considered in further studies.
1.7 Definitions of the Terms and Abbreviations 1.7.1 Terms
Creativity: Creativity is the discovery and expression of something that
is both new to the creator and an achievement in its own right. Creativity is a wholesome, highly developed form of intuition. The creator, although no longer abnormal or unhealthy, is still a rare and different breed of person. In the act of creation he intuits directly and immediately what other people can ascertain only discursively and at length (Kneller 1967).
NLP: The name „Neuro-Linguistic Programming‟ might lead one to
expect that it is based on the science of neuro-linguistics and that it also draws on behaviourist theories of learning. However, in NLP „neuro‟ refers to beliefs about the brain and how it functions. The literature on NLP does not refer to theory or research in neuro-linguistics. In fact, research plays virtually no role in NLP. „Linguistics‟ has
nothing to do with the field of linguistics but refers to a theory of communication, one that tries to explain both verbal and nonverbal information processing. „Programming‟ refers to observable patterns (referred to as “programmes”) of thought and behaviour (Richard and Rodgers, 2001).
Outcomes: In NLP it means something very similar to goals or
objectives rather than the everyday English meaning of „results‟. NLP is very much an „achievement-oriented technology‟ and is based on the belief that knowing precisely what you want helps you to get it (Revell and Norman, 1997).
Rapport: It is the heart of successful communication with other people. It
is a way of maximizing similarities and minimizing differences between people at a non-conscious level. Without it, communication can fail and conflict can arise, and with it, everyone is more likely to be happy and to achieve their outcomes (Revell and Norman, 1997: 16).
Sensory Acuity: It is to do with really noticing what another person is
communicating – often non-consciously and often non-verbally. It is to do with observing carefully and not making quick assumptions or judgments so that we can respond appropriately and with maximum rapport (Revell and Norman, 1997).
Flexibility: It means doing something different if what you are doing is
not working, and is not getting you what you want. It is having the range of skills and techniques to do something else different if one does not work. And something else, and something else – until you get there (Revell and Norman, 1997).
Presuppositions: At the heart of NLP are the presuppositions, which
guide the whole approach and which underlie the thoughts. They do not need to be accepted as the absolute truth, but acting as if they were true can make a world of difference in our life and in our teaching. Some of the presuppositions are not unique to NLP. Some of them are identical to or very similar to our own long-standing beliefs. Others were not already part of our (conscious) belief system, and we have become aware of them through NLP (Revell and Norman, 1997).
VAKOG: We experience the world through our five senses or
„representational systems‟. In NLP the five systems called „VAKOG‟ for short: Visual we look and see
Auditory we hear and listen
Kinaesthetic we feel externally and internally Olfactory we smell things
Gustatory we taste
1.7.2 Abbreviations
NLP : Neuro-Linguistic Programming
ELT : English Language Teaching ESL : English Second Language EFL : English Foreign Language
L1 : First Language
2 Introduction
This study examines the effectiveness of Guided Visualization Activities based on NLP techniques on the improvement of learners‟ ability of creativity within speaking skills. To this end, it presents background information both on students‟ creativity and ability in speaking (oral production), and also a historical perspective to its current place in NLP. This is followed by some discussion of NLP techniques, its goals, NLP-based activities and features of NLP techniques, and the instructional components of NLP. The activities used for the purpose of this study are examined in the context of activity descriptions in the literature.
2.1 What is Speaking?
Speaking is the natural state of language, as all human beings are born to speak. It is thus the most distinguishing feature of human beings. This verbal communication involves not only producing meaningful utterances but also receiving others‟ oral productions. In this section, three important features of speaking are discussed: its nature, reasons and components.
2.1.1 Nature of Speaking
Speaking is as important as other language skills. It should be attached equal importance in both learning and testing processes as the other skills. There are four main skills in language as reading, listening, writing and speaking. Although these skills are often considered and taught as separate skills in language teaching, in everyday life they are interconnected and inseparable.
Valette (1977: 119) notes that speaking is a social skill. One can read and write in private or listen to the radio or watch television alone; however, it is rare for a
person to speak without an audience of some sort. In brief, oral communication is the goal of speaking and it requires a speaker, a listener and interaction.
According to Byrne (1989:) oral communication is a two-way process between a speaker and listener (More than one listener is also possible). It consists of the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of listening with understanding. The table below demonstrates how all four skills are connected. One should bear in mind that the „receptive‟ does not mean passive. In other words, language users are actively involved in the process of interpreting and negotiating meaning both in listening and reading. In table-2.1, they are seemingly passive yet mentally active.
Table-2.1: The main four skills (From Byrne, 1989: 8; Widdowson, 1985: 57)
Analyzing the process simply and shortly, the speaker has to encode the message to be conveyed in appropriate language and the listener has to decode (interpret) it (Byrne, 1989 :). It seems simple at first; nonetheless, it is a complex process because learning to speak a language involves developing a number of complex skills and different types of knowledge about how and when to communicate (Burns and Joyce, 1999 :).
2.1.2 Reasons for Speaking
McDonough and Shaw (1993) define speaking as “a skill which enables us to produce utterances. It is communicative and purpose-driven. To put it in another way, it enables us to communicate something so as to achieve a particular end. In everyday
productive / active receptive / passive
aural medium Speaking Listening/Understanding spoken language
language, we speak to achieve particular ends, that is, for many kinds of reasons. These may involve exchanging information, seeking a particular outcome, expressing ideas or feelings, a wish or desire to do something and so on. Consequently, one has to be communicatively competent to fulfil all these functions”.
As Brown and Yule (1988) state
in each function, language is used for a somewhat different purpose, and hence, takes on a somewhat different form. There are appropriate „styles‟ for different functions, different „registers‟ – different typical selection of vocabulary and type of structure, different conventions of organization of information, etc.
Brown and Yule (1988) express that if the aim of the communication is to convey information, this is called the „transactional‟ function of the language as in the examples of making an appointment for an optician, discussion about promotion and asking for directions. On the contrary, if one aims to maintain social relationships, this is the „interactional‟ function of the language. A chit-chat with a neighbour and a discussion about yesterday‟s football match with colleagues are examples for this kind of interaction.
2.1.3. Components of Speaking
As Harris (1969) and Harmer (1992) state, “Speaking is a complex skill requiring the simultaneous use of a number of different abilities which often develop at different rates”. They have identified six components in the analysis of a speech process as follows: a. Pronunciation b. Grammar c. Vocabulary d. Fluency e. Discourse f. Language skill g. Comprehension
2.1.4 Teaching Speaking Skills
Speaking is regarded as a critical skill in learning a second or foreign language by most language learners, and in addition, their success in learning a language is measured in terms of their accomplishment in oral communication (Nunan, 1987: Nunan, 1993).
Speaking is, in many ways, an undervalued skill. Perhaps this is so because almost all of us can speak, and so take the skill too much for granted (Bygate, 2001). Speaking is often thought of as a „popular‟ form of expression which uses the unprestigious „colloquial‟ register: Literary skills are on the whole more prized. Speaking is, however, a skill which deserves attention to every bit as much as literary skills, in both first and second languages. Our learners often need to be able to speak with confidence in order to carry out many of their most basic transactions. It is the skill by which they are most frequently judged, and through which they make or lose friends. It is the vehicle par excellence of social solidarity, of social ranking, of professional advancement and of business. It is also a medium through which a great deal of language is learnt, and which, for many, is particularly conductive for learning. Perhaps, then, the teaching of speaking merits more thought. The relative neglect may, perhaps, also be due to the fact that speaking is transient and improvised, and can, therefore, be viewed as facile, superficial or glib. Also, it could be that the negative aspects of behaviourist teaching techniques, which focused largely on the teaching of oral language, have become associated with the skill itself.
Development in language teaching must depend partly on the teachers‟ ability to understand the effects of their methodology. Usually, responsibility for evaluating language-learning tasks is left to the specialist researchers, material writers, and methodologists. However, an alternative view could be that – given difficulties in obtaining, generalizing, and communicating research results, as well as the fact that in any case sophisticated teaching depends very largely on teachers‟ self-critical awareness–the results of specialist research can have only limited relevance: the most important single
factor is the teachers‟ own understanding of the effects of their decisions. It is, therefore, worth focusing on the classroom effects of language-learning tasks.
2.1.5. A Historical Perspective
Even though acquiring oral skills is considered to be important, speaking did not have primacy in language learning and teaching in the past. Historically, learning structural language, rote memorization of sentence patterns and vocabulary, and using literary language were considered superior to practicing spoken language. Such pedagogical activities were supported by the Grammar Translation Method. However, in the mid-nineteenth century, the importance of teaching grammar for the sake of grammar decreased as a result of the existence of opportunities for achieving conversational skills in learning a foreign language. Europeans were travelling more, and sought to build businesses and personal connections through learning and using the languages of Europe. In addition, some language specialists, especially Gouin (1831-1896), developed new language teaching methods, which had an important impact on the field of language pedagogy. Gouin supported the idea that language learning requires using spoken language related to a sequence of natural physical actions: walking across a room, opening a door, and the like. Other innovations in language teaching encouraged ways of language learning using a speech-based approach to language instruction. These innovations supported by the Direct Method of language teaching dominated the field of language teaching into the 20th century (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
Towards the end of the 1950s, the Audio Lingual Method (ALM) in the United States and Situational Language Teaching in the U.K. dominated the field of language pedagogy. These methods both emphasized speaking and listening skills in language teaching. In ALM, lessons were built on pattern practice, minimal pair drills and pronunciation practice designed to develop speech habits equivalent to those of a native speaker‟s (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Even though this approach favoured the spoken language, the emphasis was mostly on the use of accurate pronunciation and structures
while speaking in the target language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Little attention was paid to the natural and spontaneous use of this new language in conversation.
Other succeeding methods – Silent Way, Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia – also emphasized oral language proficiency in their aims. In all of these methods, basic language mastery was considered as the ability to speak the target language with a native-like pronunciation. Even though these new methods encouraged more communicative language use, having structural knowledge of the language was still central. As a remedy for the perceived inadequacies of these methods, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged in the 1960s. CLT regards language as a tool for effective and meaningful communication, so in this approach, for example, comprehensible pronunciation rather than “native-like” pronunciation was the goal. CLT gave equal importance to the functional as well as the structural nature of language (Littlewood, 1983: Nunan, 1987). In CLT, meaningful and communicative activities are used to provide learners with the ability to use authentic language. „Using language to learn it‟ rather than „Learning language to use it‟ became the slogan of CLT (Widdowson, 1978). Fluency and accuracy were both given emphasis as the important language goals employed in meaningful contexts in the approach as well. CLT had many methodological offspring which attempted to shape the principles of CLT into more specific teaching practices. Thus, Content-Based Instruction (CBI), Project Work, and Task-Based Instruction all are founded on the premise that language is learned through using it communicatively, where processing language is of equal importance to producing it.
2.1.6 Difference between Knowledge and Skill
What is the difference between knowledge and skill? A fundamental difference is that while both can be understood and memorized, only a skill can be imitated and practiced (Bygate, 2001). One of the main reasons for attempting to clarify the distinction between knowledge and skill is that problems in each area may require different pedagogical actions.
One of the basic problems in foreign-language teaching is to prepare learners to be able to use the language. How this preparation is done, and how successful it is depends very much on how we as teachers understand our aims. For instance, it is obvious that in order to be able to speak a foreign language, it is necessary to know a certain amount of grammar and vocabulary. Part of a language course is, therefore, generally devoted to this objective. However, there are other factors involved in speaking, and it is important to know what these might be so that they too can be included in our teaching. For instance, to test whether learners can speak, it is necessary to get them to actually say something. To do this they must act on knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. By giving learners „speaking practice‟ and „oral exams‟, we recognize that there is a difference between knowledge about a language and skill in using it. This distinction between knowledge and skill is crucial in the teaching of speaking (Bygate, 2001).
An analogy with the driver of a car may be helpful. What knowledge does a driver need? Clearly he or she needs to know the names of the controls, where they are, what they do, and how they are operated (you move the pedals with your feet, not with your hands). However, the driver also needs the skill to be able to use the controls to guide the car along a road without hitting the various objects that tend to get in the way; you have to be able to do this at a normal speed (you can fail your driving test in Britain for driving too slowly or hesitantly); you have to drive smoothly and without getting too close to any dangerous obstacles. In addition, it is not enough to drive on a straight line: the driver also has to be able to manage the variations in road conditions safely.
In a way, the job we do when we speak is similar. We do not merely know how to assemble sentences in the abstract: We have to produce them and adapt them to the circumstances. This means making decisions rapidly, implementing them smoothly, and adjusting our conversation as unexpected problems appear in our path. Knowledge itself is not enough: Knowledge has to be used in action. This is true not only of using language but of any other activity as well. If we think about how we use our first language, then it is obvious that we spend most of our time using sentences, and very little of our time reviewing our knowledge or trying to compose perfect sentences. We would find it most
difficult to describe and explain all the decisions we take when we speak, so knowledge is only a part of the affair: We also need skill.
2.2. Creativity
Creativity is too flexible and too capricious a phenomenon to be easily defined. To label its parts at the start of our survey would be arbitrary and inappropriate. For this reason, certain features of creativity are handled below before its components are discussed.
2.2.1 Features of Creativity
According to one writer, creativity is „the process of change, of development, of evolution, in the organization of subjective life‟. Another declares that “during the creative act, man manipulates external symbols or objects to produce an unusual event uncommon to himself and/or his environment.” According to Kaufman (2002), still another advocates that creative thinking is uninhibited, subjective, and fluid, whereas reflective thinking is structured, impersonal, and formalized.
“Creativity”, says Barzun (1989) “becomes a device by which we give ourselves easy satisfactions while avoiding necessary judgements.” For many people, being creative seems to imply nothing more than releasing impulses or relaxing tensions. They take one part of this extraordinarily complex phenomenon, and identify it with the whole. Yet neither an uninhibited swivelling at the hips is hardly creative dancing, nor is hurling colours at a canvas creative painting. Moreover, too many people confuse creativity with such attributes as verbal skills, quickness of mind and a sense of order, which are pointers to creativity rather than the thing itself. Others mistakenly equate the creative with the unconventional. They seem to forget that there is no one more unconventional than the lunatic. All too often a child in the first grade is called creative simply because he has produced a finger painting that is a little different from those of his classmates. Such misuse of language can do the child more harm than good, for it deludes him into believing that creativity can be achieved without hard work.
Reliable definitions of creativity seem to fall into four categories. Initially, creativity may be considered from the standpoint of the person who creates, that is, in terms of psychology and temperament, including personal attitudes, habits and values. It may also be explained in terms of the mental processes – motivation, perception, learning, thinking, and communicating – that the act of creating calls into play. A third definition focuses on environmental and cultural influences. Finally, creativity may be understood in terms of its products such as theories, inventions, paintings, carvings and poems (Kneller, 1967).
In order to comprehend the social psychology of creativity goal, however, it is necessary to consider a second goal of equal importance: to integrate the social-psychological approach within a more general theoretical framework for a comprehensive psychology of creativity. In the past, the psychological study of creativity has been hampered by the tendency of individual investigators to narrow their theoretical focus to a single concern – the distinctive personality characteristics of outstandingly creative persons, or the special cognitive abilities of creative artists and scientists, or (less frequently) the social environments that hinder or foster creativity.
The componential conceptualization of creativity is grounded in a set of formal and informal observations about creative production, as well as a set of assumptions about the nature of creativity. It is assumed that there is a continuum from the low levels of creativity observed in everyday life to historically significant advances in science, literature and arts. In contrast to popular views of creativity as a discrete entity, this assumption implies that it is possible for anyone with normal cognitive abilities to produce work that is creative to some degree in some domain of endeavour. A closely related assumption is that there can be degrees of creativity within a particular individual‟s work. At least for high levels of creativity, there often seems to be a special „match‟ between individuals and domains (Fidelman, 1996). There appears to be a particularly good fit, for example, between one individual and chess-playing, or between another individual and musical composition.
There exist other assumptions put forth; for instance, the ages, at which peak creativity is achieved in different domains vary widely (Dennis, 1966; Lehman, 1953; Simonton, 1975a). Another assumption supports that talents, education, and cognitive skills do not by themselves appear to be sufficient for high levels of creativity.
“Although different individuals may differ widely in their potential for creative performance in any given domain, it appears to be possible to increase creativity to some extent” (Stein, 1974; 1975 :). “Specifically, although innate abilities (talents) in any given domain appear to be important for high levels of creativity, formal education seems essential in most outstanding creative achievements” (Fidelman, 1996).
Particular clusters of personality traits are found fairly consistently among individuals exhibiting high levels of creativity, but, again, they are not sufficient in and of themselves. Certainly, any given individual – even one exhibiting a particular „creative‟ personality (trait constellation) is not creative at all times or in all domains. A great many outstandingly creative individuals have described the phenomenon of „incubation‟: After ceasing to consciously work on a difficult problem, they sometimes experience an apparent flash of illumination, during which the solution appears to them unexpectedly.
Although an eagerness to work diligently appears to be an essential component of high levels of creativity, and although a number of introspective accounts describe creativity as marked by deep involvement in the activity at hand, these accounts also stress the importance of intellectual playfulness and freedom from external constraints. Although it appears that extrinsic constraints can be detrimental to creativity, there are individuals who appear to produce consistently creative work under clear and salient extrinsic constraints.
These assumptions and observations have guided the development of the componential framework. They will be considered at greater length after the framework is presented in detail.
2.2.2 Components of Creative Performance
The componential framework of creativity contains three major components as: Creativity-Relevant Skills, Domain-Relevant Skills and Task Motivation. These three components, then, are presented as factors essential for the production of creative responses and work. Domain-Relevant Skills can be considered as the basis for any performance in a given domain. This component includes factual knowledge, technical skills, and special talents in the domain in question. Creativity-Relevant Skills include cognitive style, application of heuristic skills for the exploration of new cognitive pathways, and working style. Task Motivation includes motivational variables that determine an individual‟s approach to a given task.
As conceptualized here, the three components operate at different levels of specificity. Creativity-Relevant skills operate at the most general level; they maintain fluency responses in any content domain. Thus, some highly creative individuals may indeed appear to be creative „types‟, behaving atypically in many domains of behaviour. Domain-relevant skills, on the other hand, operate at an intermediate level of specificity. This component includes all skills relevant to a general domain (e.g., verbal production), rather than skills relevant to only a specific task within a domain (e.g., writing a Haiku poem on autumn). It is assumed that, within a particular domain, skills used in any specific task will have a great deal of overlap with skills used in any other task. Finally, task motivation operates at the most specific level; motivation may be very specific to a particular task within domains, and may even vary over time for a particular task. Thus, for example, a student may have a high level of motivation for writing computer programs, but may have a low level of motivation for working out problems in formal logic.
Table-2.2: The Components of Creative Performance
2.2.2.1 Creativity-Relevant Skills
Here lies „something extra‟ of creative performance. Most simply, an individual‟s use of creativity-relevant skills determines the extent to which his product or response will surpass previous products or responses in the domain. Assuming an appropriate level of motivation, performance will be „good‟ or „adequate‟ or „acceptable‟ if the requisite domain-relevant skills exist. However, even with these skills at an extraordinary high level, an individual will be incapable of producing work that will be considered creative if creativity-relevant skills are lacking.
This component includes several features of cognitive style: perceiving in new ways, exploring new cognitive pathways, understanding complexities, keeping open to various alternatives, suspending judgement of which alternative to select, seeing
CREATIVITY–RELEVANT SKILLS DOMAIN–RELEVANT SKILLS TASK MOTIVATION INCLUDE : Appropriate cognitive style Implicit or explicit knowledge of heuristics for generating novel ideas
Conductive work style
INCLUDE :
Knowledge about the domain Technical skills required Special domain-relevant “talent” INCLUDES :
Attitudes toward the task
Perceptions of own motivation for undertaking the task
DEPEND ON : Training Experience in idea generation Personality characteristics DEPEND ON : Innate cognitive abilities Innate perceptional and motor skills Formal and informal education
DEPENDS ON :
Initial level of intrinsic motivation toward the task Presence or absence of salient extrinsic constraints in social environment Individual ability to cognitively minimize extrinsic constraints
relationships between diverse bits of information from a wide angle, remembering accurately large amounts of detailed information breaking out of set sequences of stops for performing tasks and solving problems in a given domain, and finally perceiving creatively, that is, differently from the way most people see them.
2.2.2.2 Domain-Relevant Skills
Domain-relevant skills comprise the individual‟s complete set of response possibilities from which the new response is to be synthesized, and information against which the new response is to be judged. This component can be seen as the set of cognitive pathways for solving a given problem or doing a given task. Some of the pathways are more common, well-practiced, or obvious than others, and the set of pathways may be large or small. The larger the set, the more numerous are the alternatives available for producing something new for developing a new combination of ideas. As Newell and Simon (1972) have described it, this set can be considered the problem-solvers‟ „network of possible wanderings‟.
This component includes familiarity with the factual knowledge of the domain in question: facts, principles, opinions about various issues in the domain, knowledge of paradigms, performance „scripts‟ for solving problems in the domain and aesthetic criteria (Schank and Abelson, 1977). The component of domain-relevant skills also includes technical skills that may be required by a given domain, such as laboratory techniques or studio art techniques, and special domain-relevant „talents‟ that may contribute to creative productivity.
2.2.2.3 Task Motivation
Few theorists have given extensive attention to the role of motivational variables in creativity. There are some, however, who have suggested that creativity is most likely to appear under intrinsic motivation – a motivational state generated by the individual‟s reaction to intrinsic properties of the task, and not generated by extrinsic
factors. (Koestler 1964), for example, speculated that the highest forms of creativity are generated under conditions of freedom from control since it is under these conditions that a person may most easily reach back into the „intuitive regions‟ of the mind. Koestler saw this regression to unconscious, playful levels of thought as essential for creative production.
(Rogers 1969) also speculated on the importance of reliance upon self and freedom from external control in creativity. One of three „inner conditions‟ that he deemed necessary for creativity is an internal locus of evaluation. With an internal locus, an individual is primarily concerned with self-evaluation of his work; the evaluation of others is only a secondary concern. In addition, Rogers proposed the absence of external evaluation as an environmental condition essential to fostering creativity.
Other psychologists have suggested that self-perceptions of personal freedom are necessary for creative thought and expression. Crutchfield (1962: 121) postulated a basic antipathy between conformity and creative thinking, asserting that “conformity pressures tend to elicit kinds of motivation in the individual that are incompatible with the creative process”. According to Crutchfield, such conformity pressures can lead to extrinsic, „ego-involved‟ motivation, in which the creative solution is a means to an ulterior end. This contrasts sharply with intrinsic, „task-involved‟ motivation, in which the creative act is an end itself in describing the mechanism by which conformity pressure might be injurious to creative thinking.
These three theorists, working within philosophy, humanistic psychology, and social psychology, have each suggested that a freedom from extrinsic constraint will enhance creative thinking. Individuals may have relatively enduring levels of interest in particular activities, but levels of interest may also be importantly influenced by social and environmental variables as well.
Thus, within the componential formulation, task motivation includes two elements: the individual‟s baseline attitude toward the task (the „trait‟), and the individual‟s perceptions of his reasons for undertaking the task in a given instance (the „state‟). A
baseline attitude toward the task is formed, quite simply, when the individual performs a cognitive assessment of the task and of the degree to which it matches his existing preferences and interests. Perceptions of one‟s motivation for undertaking the task in a given instance, on the other hand, depend largely upon external social and environmental factors – specifically, the presence or absence of salient extrinsic constraints in the social environment. Extrinsic constraints are defined as factors that are intended to control, or could be perceived as controlling, the individual‟s performance on the task at a particular instance.
The inclusion of task motivation as an important component in this framework, along with propositions on the detrimental effects of extrinsic constraints, should not be taken to suggest that creative production is effortless, that it will (as some humanists suggest) flow spontaneously when the mind and body are most relaxed and unbothered. On the contrary, it is proposed that, while freedom from external pressure is most conductive to creativity, freedom from internal discipline can be detrimental. Relevant skills of disciplined effort are no less essential than an intrinsic orientation to the task. Task motivation can be seen in this context as the most important determiner of the difference between what a people can do and what he will do. The former is determined by the level of domain-relevant and creativity-relevant skill; the latter is determined by these two in conjunction with an intrinsically motivated state.
2.2.3 Some Implications of the Model
The perennial questions have been “Are creativity and intelligence basically the same thing, or are they not?” The componential conceptualization suggests, simply, that intelligence, as typically conceived, is a component of creative ability. It is a necessary, but not a sufficient contributing factor. Some minimum level of intelligence is required for creative performance because intelligence is, presumably, directly related to the acquisition of domain-relevant skills and the application of creativity heuristics. However, there are factors necessary for creativity that would not be assessed by the traditional intelligence
test; intrinsic motivation toward the task, for example, and personality dispositions conductive to deep levels of concentration or uninhibited intellectual risk-taking.
Age and creativity: The componential framework can be useful in
suggesting an explanation for the vastly different average ages at which peak creativity is achieved in different domains of endeavour. The key to this explanation is that certain domain-relevant skills may be relatively less crucial for creative work in some domains than in others. For example, in philosophy and the natural sciences, an enormous amount of formal education is necessary for an individual to even begin to produce significantly creative work. By contrast, a relatively low level of exposure to formal training in music might be sufficient to allow an individual to compose creative work if his other skills and task motivation were high.
Thus, it is not surprising that the average age of outstanding creativity in the arts is reached in the 30‟s and 40‟s while the average age of outstanding creativity in philosophy is reached in the 60‟s (Dennis, 1966; Lehman, 1953). Similarly, writers of creative poetry tend to be younger than writers of creative prose. Simonton (1975c) explains this finding by suggesting that literary „maturity‟, marked by lexical and syntactical sophistication, is required for writing outstanding prose.
Mozart was capable, at the age of six, of composing music that is still considered creative because his innate domain-relevant skills and creativity-relevant skills were so outstanding that, coupled with a high level of interest in music, they provided him with all he really required to do creative work in his domain. When his experience grew, his creativity increased, as would be predicted by the multiplicative nature of the componential model. Indeed, although creative achievement might be seen at a relatively young age among composers of music, Simonton (1980) has found that musicians‟ peak creativity appears later in life.
Incubation and illumination: A number of creative individuals have stated
of illumination. During incubation, they cease consciously working on the problem; during illumination, the solution appears to them unexpectedly, with surprising suddenness. Simon (1966: 89) has proposed an information-processing account of these phenomena, suggesting that they are the result of process selective forgetting. According to this explanation, solution efforts are guided by a hierarchy or „tree‟ of goals and sub goals. If a sub goal is reached, it can be forgotten, but the tree of unattained goals is preserved. According to Simon, this goal-tree is retained in relatively short-term memory, but the information that is gained during attempts to solve the problem is retained in long-term memory. If the problems are set aside for a while, parts of the original goal-tree will fade. When the individual returns to the problem, he can retrieve from long-term memory the store of information gained on previous attempts, and use it to construct a new and more directly useful goal-tree. Since this new set of goals is based on better information, the time for solution is expected to be faster.
Playfulness and involvement: A number of introspective accounts describe
the phenomenon of creativity as marked by deep involvement in the activity at hand, coupled with a kind of intellectual playfulness. For example, Einstein (1949) described creativity as „combinatorial play‟. The propositions on task motivation within the componential model offer a reasonable account of these phenomena. The intrinsically motivated state is essential for high levels of creativity because, under extrinsic motivation, some attention is directed toward the attainment of the extrinsic goal and away from the exploration of new pathways. Moreover, if intrinsic motivation is sufficiently undermined by extrinsic constraints, task engagement will be avoided altogether. In contrast, under high intrinsic motivation, most of the individual‟s attention will be directed toward the task environment. The higher the level of intrinsic motivation is, the deeper this concentration on the task is. Finally, if we can define task engagement for extrinsic reasons as „work‟ and task engagement for intrinsic reasons as „play‟, it will be expected that phenomenological states of highly creative activity will seem like play.
2.2.4 Characteristics of a Creative Thinker
According to Sternberg (1988:143) creativity overlaps with other psychological phenomena such as intelligence, cognitive style, and personality, but it is not identical with any of them. Some of the personality traits associated with creativity can be summarized as follows:
1. Tolerance of ambiguity: The majority of creative people must learn to tolerate ambiguity and incompleteness in the development of their creative products. Scientists trying to solve a problem rarely solve it immediately, or with their first attempt.
2. Willingness to surmount obstacles: Creative people inevitably encounter obstacles. The question is not that an individual will encounter obstacles but rather how one will handle them. A creative individual perseveres.
3. Willingness to grow: Those individuals whose systems are static or show only minor evolution never achieve the true heights possible for creative performance.
4. Intrinsic motivation: Creative people decide of their own internal desire to be creative. They motivate themselves. Amabile (1985) also stressed the significance of intrinsic motivation and stated that creative people do not seem to be motivated by external pressures, meeting deadlines or making money (cited in Kumar, Kemmler, Holman, 1997;52).
5. Moderate risk taking: Creative people have a sense of acceptable levels of risk. In order to be creative, they need to take some risk. 6. Desire for recognition: Creative individuals often balance high levels of
intrinsic motivation with a desire for recognition. Creativity does not exist in a vacuum; it is in part an ascription by others.
7. Willingness to work for recognition: Some people wish to achieve recognition but are not willing to do what they need to do in order to attain it (Sternberg, 1988:143).
According to Weisberg, the creative thinker finds connections where ordinary individuals do not. The genius view assumes that creative thinking involves some kind of thought processes and related personality characteristics that allow one to break away from one‟s past experience, and thereby produce something truly novel, in a leap of insight (Sternberg, 1988:150).
To summarize, certain personality attributes tend to be associated with creative performance. The list is not exhaustive. A creative person does not need to exhibit all these attributes. But at least some of them are likely to be present in individuals recognized as creative.
2.4 Alternative Approaches in Language Teaching
The period from the 1970‟s through the 1980‟s witnesses a major paradigm shift in language teaching. The quest for an alternative to grammar-based approaches and methods led in several different directions. Mainstream language teaching embraced the growing interest in communicative approaches to language teaching. The communicative movement sought to move the focus away from grammar as the core component of language, to a different view of language, of language learning, of teachers and of learners to one that focused on language as communication. However, other directions for language teaching also appeared during this period.
These new directions are represented by such innovative methods of the 1970‟s as the Total Physical Response, Silent Way, Counselling Learning, Suggestopedia, and more recently Neuro-Linguistic Programming and Multiple Intelligences. Rather than starting from a theory of language and drawing on research and theory in applied linguistics, these methods are developed around particular theories of learners and learning, sometimes the theories of a single theorizer or educator. These methods are consequently relatively
underdeveloped in the domain of language theory, and the learning principles they reflect are generally different from theories found in second language acquisition textbooks. One exception is the Lexical Approach, which is based on an alternative syllabus model to that found in grammar-based methodologies, one that gives priority to vocabulary and lexical phrases as the building blocks of communicative competence. A different case is represented by Whole Language and Competency-Based Instruction. These are movements that emerged within mainstream education and have later been applied and extended to second and foreign language teaching.
Alternative approaches and methods of the 1970‟s and 1980‟s have had a somewhat varied history. Although Total Physical Response, Silent Way, Counselling-Learning, and Suggestopedia did not succeed in attracting the support of mainstream language teaching, each can be seen as stressing important dimensions of the teaching-learning process. They can be seen as offering particular insights that have attracted the attention or allegiance of some teachers and educators, but they have each seen their popularity rise and wane since the 1970‟s. Today, in most places, they are of little more than historical interest. The fate of others, such as the Lexical Approach, Whole Language, Neuro-Linguistic Programming, and Multiple Intelligences, has yet to be fully determined.
2.5. Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)
To achieve creative thinker abilities, we must develop our mental system as we do not have a certain mental system in creativity, so we can drew upon Neuro-Linguistic Programming. NLP is a system that uses the language of the mind to achieve our specific and desired outcomes consistently. Our nervous systems experience the world around us through our five senses: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, olfactory and gustatory. These experiences are coded, ordered and stored as specific representations that can be replayed through language and other non-verbal forms of communication(for example, pictures, sounds, feelings, tastes and smells). Therefore, NLP is simply a tool to help us understand these programs, and use them to meet our desired goals (Walter and Bayat 2003: 163).
2.5.1 Definitions of NLP
The name „Neuro-Linguistic Programming‟ might lead one to expecting that it is based on the science of neuro-linguistics and that it also draws on behaviourist theories of learning. However, in NLP „neuro‟ refers to beliefs about the brain and how it functions. The literature on NLP does not refer to theory or research in neuro-linguistics. In fact, research plays virtually no role in NLP. „Linguistic‟ has nothing to do with the field of linguistics but refers to a theory of communication, one that tries to explain both verbal and nonverbal information processing. „Programming‟ refers to observable patterns (referred to as “programs”) of thought and behaviour (Richard and Rodgers, 2001: 45).
Neuro-Linguistic Programming is a communication technology that is easily learned and used; it is based solely on observable data rather than theory. One important premise underlying NLP is that every individual possesses all the resources he or she needs to communicate effectively. This is an important point. NLP does not supply new data, but attempts to unleash an underused potential already available in the individual (Marcus, 1986: 972).
NLP offers state-of-the-art skills in interpersonal communication and practical ways to change the way you think and behave. Millions of people have used its simple principles and techniques to build better relationships, establish a new level of confidence and achieve success in every aspect of their lives (Alder and Heather, 1999: 12). Thinking, feeling and behaving are all organized through your brain. NLP gives you the tools to understand, at a practical level, how you create your experience, and communicate with yourself and others. NLP is the study of human excellence, and it makes available a body of knowledge about how human beings go about making sense of their experience(s) and interacting with others (McDermott and Jago, 2001).
