T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ
İNGİLİZ DİLİ VE EDEBİYATI ANABİLİM DALI
SOURCES & LEVELS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY IN
TURKISH UNIVERSITY STUDENTS RELATIVE TO; LANGUAGE
PROFICIENCY, INTENTIONS FOR USE AND PERCEIVED BARRIER
EMRE ÜN
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
Danışman
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ
T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
BİLİMSEL ETİK SAYFASI
Bu tezin proje safhasından sonuçlanmasına kadarki bütün süreçlerde bilimsel etiğe ve akademik kurallara özenle riayet edildiğini, tez içindeki bütün bilgilerin etik davranış ve akademik kurallar çerçevesinde elde edilerek sunulduğunu, ayrıca tez yazım kurallarına uygun olarak hazırlanan bu çalışmada başkalarının eserlerinden yararlanılması durumunda bilimsel kurallara uygun olarak atıf yapıldığını bildiririm.
T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ KABUL FORMU
Emre Ün tarafından hazırlanan “Sources & Levels of Foreign Language Anxiety in Turkish University Students Relative To; Language Proficiency, Intentions for Use and Perceived Barrier”
başlıklı çalışma 17 / 09 / 2012 tarihinde yapılan savunma sınavı sonucunda oybirliği ile başarılı bulunarak, jürimiz tarafından yüksek lisans tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.
Ünvanı, Adı Soyadı Danışman ve Üyeler İmza
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ Danışman
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Ayşe Gülbün ONUR Üye
Ö
ğr
enc
ini
n
Adı Soyadı Emre ÜN Numarası: 104208001005
Ana Bilim / Bilim Dalı
İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı / Dilbilim
Danışmanı Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ
Tezin Adı Türk Üniversite Öğrencilerinde; Yabancı Dilde Yeterlilik, Yabancı Dilin Kullanım Amaçları ve Yabancı Dilin Engel Olarak Algılanması Sonucu Yabancı Dil Endişesine Sebep Olan Kaynaklar ve Seviye Farklılıkları.
ÖZET
Çalışmada “Türk Üniversite Öğrencilerinde; Yabancı Dilde Yeterlilik, Yabancı Dilin Kullanım Amaçları ve Yabancı Dilin Engel Olarak Algılanması SonucuYabancı Dil Kaygısına Sebep Olan Kaynaklar ve Seviye Farklılığı” konusu incelenmektedir; bunula birlikte yabancı dil öğrenen bireylerin öğrenim amaçları yabancı dil kullanma kaygısında seviye farklılığına sebep olduğu görüşü savunulmaktadır. Yabancı dili, dil öğretim amacıyla öğrenen bireyler, yeterlilikleri diğer bireylere göre daha iyi olmasından dolayı yabancı dil kullanma kaygısını daha düşük seviyede taşımakta olabilirler. Ancak hazırlık sınıfı ve bölüm öğrencileri, yabancı dilde başarılı olma zorundalığını hissettiği için yabancı dil kaygısını daha yüksek seviyede tecrübe ediyor olabilirler. Hazırlık öğrencileri, hazırlık sınıfı öğretim süresince yabancı dile maruz kalmakta ve sene sonunda uygulanacak sınavda başarılı olabilmek için yabancı dil öğrenmektedirler. Bölüm öğrencileri ise yabancı dili eğitimlerinin bir parçası olarak bölümleri tarafından önceden belirlenen program dahilinde öğrenmektedirler. Bu sebeplerden dolayı hazırlık ve bölüm öğrencileri, yabancı dili geçmeleri gereken bir engel olarak algıladıkları için istemeyerek ve farkında olmadan yabancı dil kaygı seviyesini yükseltebilirler. Bunun yanında, gönüllü olarak dil eğitimi alan ve herhangi bir sınava tabi tutulmayacak olan lise öğrencilerinde ise yabancı dil kaygısı düşük olabileceği görüşü çalışmada yer almaktadır. Yabancı dil öğreniminde motivasyon en önemli araçlardan biridir. Yabancı dil kaygısı ise bu motivasyonu ciddi bir biçimde olumsuz etkilemektedir. Yabancı dil kaygısı taşıyan öğrenciler, yabancıl dile gereğince yoğunlaşamamakta ve belirli bir seviyede kaygı yaşamaktadırlar. Çalışmada İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı öğrencileri, Hukuk Fakültesi öğrencileri ve İngilice Hazırlık Bölümü öğrencilerinde yabancı dil kaygısı seviye ve kaynak farklıklarını bulunup, bunlara çözüm önerileri sunulmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler: yabancı dil kullanma kaygısı, engel algısı, yabancı dilde yeterlilik T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
Ö
ğr
enc
ini
n
Adı Soyadı Emre ÜN Numarası: 104208001005
Ana Bilim / Bilim Dalı
İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı / Dilbilim
Danışmanı Yrd. Doç. Dr. Yağmur KÜÇÜKBEZİRCİ
Tezin İngilizce Adı Sources & Levels of Foreign Language Anxiety in Turkish University Students Relative To; Language Proficiency, Intentions for Use and Perceived Barrier
SUMMARY
Foreign language anxiety is defined as disaffiliative behaviour in which the learner avoids language learning process because of various sources. Learners’ purpose of learning foreign language makes the difference for foreign language anxiety. Students’ foreign language proficiency, students’ intention to use the language, and students’ perception of language as a perceived barrier are some of the sources which is highly related to foreign language anxiety. Previous research which has been conducted in KTU Department of English Language and Literature in 2009, students revealed that their FLA levels were bound to their proficiency. This study aimed to find out the difference between DELL & ELT students and KTO Karatay University students some of whom perceives foreign language as a barrier, and some of whose intentions to use of foreign language differentiate. DELL & ELT students intend to use and teach language to earn their lives. This interaction with the foreign language enables the students of DELL & ELT to reduce their FLA levels – if they have-. However prep class students are immersed into foreign language learning process which will end up with a final exam to determine their proficiency. This process might cause FLA. For academic language learners Foreign Language – which is mandatory to take-, might be perceived as a barrier. A Five Point Likert Scale administered and results of the survey are compared and analyzed in accordance with the information that presented in Literature Review part. In addition to this, possible ways to overcome FLA is presented in the study.
Key Words: foreign language anxiety, perceived barrier, foreign language proficiency T.C.
SELÇUK ÜNİVERSİTESİ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü
PREFACE
The present study, aims to investigate causes and consequences of foreign language anxiety, proposes diagnosis and reducing strategies for foreign language anxiety in foreign language learning & teaching environment.
A survey was administered to two hundred and thirty students; in Karadeniz Technical University – Department of English Language and Literature, in KTO Karatay University (English Preparation Department, Faculty of Law; Faculty of International Trade) and to high school students who were within the Project of Mevlana Voluntary Culture and Tourism Envoys. The findings of the survey was compared and contrasted with the purpose of finding out the different foreign language levels and sources among Turkish university and high school students.
I am grateful to my supervisor Asst. Prof. Dr. Yağmur Küçükbezirci for his supports and his never-ending patience throughout the process. I am also grateful to Asst. Prof. Dr. Ayşe Gülbün Onur for paving the way for observing language in detail in her precious lectures. I would like to express my gratitude; to my B.A. supervisor Asst. Prof. A. Kasım Varlı who encouraged me for academic studies, and to Susan Spencer for her invaluable help before submitting the current study.
I would also like to thank my beloved parents, my sister Ece Ün, my colleague Gülberk Taytak, and to all my students and colleague for their contributions.
Table of Contents
Bilimsel Etik Sayfası...i
Tez Kabul Formu...ii
Özet...iii
Summary...iv
Preface...v
Table of Contents ...vi
List of Abbreviations……….………….…..ix
List of Tables & Figures………..………..………...x
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 1.1. Introduction...1
1. 2. Rationale for the Study...1
1.3. Foreign Language Anxiety………...…………....2
1.4. Background of the Study………...…..………...5
1.5. Statement of the Study...………...………...6
1.6. Purpose of the Study………...……...7
1.7. Significance of the Study………...…...8
1.8 Organization of the Chapters...9
1. 9. Research Questions...9
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction………...…...10
2.2 Foreign Language Anxiety...11
2.2.1 FLA; is it a Cause or a Consequence?...15
2.2.2. Is FLA, Identity Based or Competence Based?...16
2.2.3 Three Performances of Anxiety...19
2.3.1. Personal and interpersonal anxieties...26
2.3.2 Learner Beliefs...27
2.3.3 Instructor Beliefs about Language Teaching...29
2.3.4 Instructor Learner Interaction...29
2.3.5 Classroom Procedures...30
2.3.6 Language Testing...31
2.3.7. Self-esteem, Competitiveness, Procedural Factors, Culture Background………...31
2.4. Foreign Language as a perceived barrier, Foreign Language Proficiency and Intentions for the Use of Foreign Language: Relation with FLA...33
2.5. Diagnosis of FLA ...35
2.4.1 Indicators of FLA Manifested by Learners...40
2.5 Strategies to Reduce FLA...47
2.5.1 Foss & Reitzel’s Suggestions...48
2.5.2 Crookall and Oxford’s Suggestions...49
2.5.3. Brandl and Price’s Suggestions...51
2.5.4 Horwitz’s Suggestions for the Sources of Language Anxiety...53
2.5.5. Huang’ Suggestions...55
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 1. Introduction……….…...58
2. Nature of the Study………...…..58
3. Research Design and Methodology………...59
3..3.1 The Research Problem……….………...59
3.3.2 Research Settings and Participants………...59
3. 4. Research Instruments………..…...60
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Introduction………...62
4.2. Findings of the Questionnaire………...…...…68
4.2.1 Findings of Factor 1 Items………...68
4.2.2 Findings of Factor 2 Items………...78
4.2.3 Findings of Factor 3 Items………....…...86
4.2.4 Findings of Factor 4 Items………...……...…...89
4.2.5 Findings of Factor 5 Items………...92
4.2.6 Findings of Factor 6 Items………...………...98
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 5.1.Introduction………...….105
5.2 Overview of the Study………...……...105
5.3 Conclusions………...…...106
5.4 Implications………...…...…...108
5.5 Limitations……….………...………...…...109
5.6 Prospects for Further Study………...………...…...109
REFERENCES………...….…...…...110
APPENDICES………..………...120
Appendix 1 – FLACS………..….…...…120
Appendix 2 – FLACS (Turkish Version)...123
List of Abbreviations
FLA: Foreign Language Anxiety
FL: Foreign Language
TL: Target Language
FLACS: Foreign Language Anxiety Classroom Scale
GPA: Grade Point Average
KEPT: Karatay English Proficiency Test
KTU DELL: Karadeniz Technical University Department of English Language and Literature
KTO KU: Konya Chamber of Business Karatay University
KTO KU DIT: Konya Chamber of Business Karatay University Department of International Trade
List of Tables
Table 1 – Factor 1: Learning a Particular Language……...65
Table 2 – Factor 2: Worry about FL Performance………...…………...65
Table 3 – Factor 3: Making Mistakes………...65
Table 4 – Factor 4: Being Compared to Fellow Students……….………...…….65
Table 5 – Factor 5: Fear of Failure: ………..…...66
Table 6 – Being Called on in Language Class by the Teacher………...…66
Table 7 - Overall Findings of FLACS……….…..103
List of Figures
Figure Item Page
Figure 1 Item 5 68 Figure 2 Item 6 69 Figure 3 Item 11 70 Figure 4 Item 16 71 Figure 5 Item 17 73 Figure 6 Item 22 74 Figure 7 Item 26 75 Figure 8 Item 28 76 Figure 9 Item 1 77 Figure 10 Item 9 78 Figure 11 Item 14 79 Figure 12 Item 18 80 Figure 13 Item 24 81 Figure 14 Item 27 82 Figure 15 Item 30 83 Figure 16 Item 31 84 Figure 17 Item 32 85 Figure 18 Item 2 86 Figure 19 Item 13 87 Figure 20 Item 15 88 Figure 21 Item 19 89 Figure 22 Item 7 90 Figure 23 Item 23 90 Figure 24 Item 14 92 Figure 25 Item 18 93 Figure 26 Item 10 94 Figure 27 Item 21 95 Figure 28 Item 25 96 Figure 29 Item 29 97 Figure 30 Item 3 99 Figure 31 Item 12 100 Figure 32 Item 20 101 Figure 33 Item 33 102
To my beloved sister and my best friend Ece Ün, who teaches English as a third language in a remote part of my beautiful country.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1. Introduction
This study examines Turkish university and high school students’ foreign language anxiety levels relative to their language proficiency, their intentions for the use of the target language and the target language as a perceived barrier.
This chapter gives brief information about the topic, gives rationale for the study and explains the problem, displays foreign language anxiety in short, and presents; background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose and the significance of the study, and the research questions.
1. 2. Rationale for the Study
Foreign language anxiety is a sort of learned and conditioned mental state which diminishes learners’ potential language performance while surpassing his/her language competence, and which results with pause or stop of the language learning process because of its detrimental and debilitating effects. Language anxiety is a serious problem for foreign language education. Foreign language anxiety is one of the barriers which may cause various difficulties for language learners. This problem limits learners and learners’ linguistic improvement all along the learning process, and also limits learner’s abilities and diminishes potential performance of the learner. Considering the purpose of education, learner’s anxiety of foreign language, is a disorder which may slow down the learning process or pause substantial period of learning. Anxiety generally stems from psychological background. However this study will focus on foreign language anxiety as a problem within foreign language learning process, and it compares the FLA level differences among Turkish
university and high school students, relative to language proficiencies of the learners / subjects, their intentions for the use and language course as a perceived barrier.
Since foreign language anxiety is a barrier in education, it requires to be discovered by the teacher or the learner, and possible methods to overcome language anxiety should be developed. This study presents sources and solutions of foreign language anxiety under the light of previous studies done by linguists. This study also aims to reveal foreign language anxiety level of one hundred twenty students of KTO Karatay University (forty English Preparation Department students, forty Faculty of Law students, and forty students of International Trade students), along with forty students from various high schools of Konya.
The data gathered from those subjects is compared with the data received from Karadeniz Technical University Department of English Language and Literature (seventy students from all grades). In order to collect the data “Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Scale” which was developed by Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986) was used
both in Turkish and previously in English as five point likert scale.
Upon learning the reasons for foreign language anxiety, empirical data from the questionnaire results are compared in order to observe what kind of foreign language anxiety is experienced by the subject groups, and reasonable ways to overcome foreign language anxiety disorder will be provided. The following part of this chapter gives brief information about foreign language anxiety, which is elaborated in Review of Literature chapter.
1.3. Foreign Language Anxiety
Anxiety is a disorder which is observed as a subject of psychology. Generally, there are people who suffer from social anxiety as well as social speaking anxiety. Briefly; anxiety is an extreme feeling of nervousness which occurs in certain cases. Spielberger (1983) defines
anxiety as “the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system,” (p. 1).
Foreign language anxiety is an acquired emotional state which develops during learning process. For education, teachers may face with some tough problems which might sound like reluctance, ignorance or lack of ability towards language learning, which are uttered by students. Those kinds of problems are probably the indicators of foreign language anxiety creating a barrier between the student and the teacher. Foreign language anxiety may reveal itself as learners’ bias about the target language which stems from prior negative experiences. Horwitz et al. (1986) gives examples from her own students, which might explain how important and important language anxiety problem is (see p. 1 Horwitz et al. 1986).
According to Horwitz et al. (1986) it is possible to hear that language learners may claim that they have mental block against learning a foreign language. The learners / students may seem reluctant when they take the language class and they may feel uneasy about their image in their friends’ minds and agitate in their own. Furthermore, Crookall and Oxford (1991) reported that serious language anxiety may cause other related problems with self-esteem, self-confidence, and risk-taking ability, and ultimately hampers proficiency in the second language. Students, who experience foreign language anxiety may perform worse than their potential linguistic competence, may lack fulfilling what they have learned. Thus experiencing failure because of language anxiety increases FLA levels and the problem turns into an unending vicious cycle.
Considering the hardships and limitations which stem from foreign language anxiety; it is a problem that should be put an end. Gardner & MacIntyre (1991, a) indicate that language anxiety is common a problem and poses potential problems for foreign language
learners and second language learners. The reason is defined by them as ‘it can interfere with the acquisition, retention and production of the new language’ (p. 251). Horwitz et al. (1986) clearly explain why it should be considered as a problem for foreign language learning by arguing that; these learners may be good learners in other situations, and have a sincere liking for speakers of the target language. The question arouses at this very point; ‘what prevents them from achieving their goal?’ According to Horwitz (1986) in many cases, they may have an anxiety reaction which impedes their ability to perform successfully in a foreign language class (p. 126). As stated above language anxiety limits learner’s process of learning and hinders possible success. For Krashen (1985) anxiety inhibits the learner's ability to process incoming language and short-circuits the process of acquisition. The possible drawbacks of foreign language anxiety is an interaction which is taken over by language anxiety often found among anxiety, task difficulty, and ability, which interferes at the input, processing, retrieval, and at the output level. In addition to this, Krashen (1985) argues that if anxiety impairs cognitive functions, students who are anxious may learn less and also may not be able to demonstrate what they have learned. Therefore, they may experience even more failure, which in turn escalates their anxiety.
To sum up, anxiety is not just a problem for language learning; it is also a disorder which prevents learners from performing successfully in target area and makes teaching period harder for teachers as well. Wörde (2003) indicates that anxiety makes people to find foreign language learning stressful, especially in classroom situations. As it can be understood, anxiety prevents learners from performing their actual capacity of learning and language performance and worst of all it may alienate learners to the target language. In order to make learner’s potential capacity visible, anxiety problems of learners must be detected and cured first.
1.4. Background of the Study
When an individual starts foreign language learning process the target language probably seems as a vast ocean of rules and details. If this idea discourages the learner he / she may perceive himself as someone lacking some certain learning skills, unable to reach target proficiency level and unable to recover from this state of misbelief which develops in the learning environment. No learner starts language learning with language anxiety. If language learning takes place in a formal teaching – learning setting, which includes assessment attached to the linguistic performance, foreign language is likely lo to flourish (Horwitz et al . 1986).
For an individual who took part in foreign language learning for a long time, foreign language anxiety may hinder one’s linguistic abilities, and probably it may diminish several abilities of language. As a foreign language teacher, it is desired to enable as many skills as possible for my students, in order to do this; a teacher should have sufficient information about his / her students before stepping into the class for the first time to teach something. Prior knowledge of student personalities lets the teacher to take precautions against possible issues which may endanger teaching – learning process. Language anxiety limits student to be active in the class and creates a thick concrete block in front of the teacher which does not let him to observe the student completely. This misunderstanding or ‘not understanding’ process ends up with negatively may be with lower grades than possible or alienation between student and the teacher. Since language anxiety is also psychological student should not be blamed, as it is irrational to blame a disabled person for not chasing an escapee criminal, or a blind person not to identifying the criminal.
This study examines foreign language anxiety levels of forty high school students from Konya who attended English Speaking Courses in KTO Karatay University voluntarily
in order to be a “Mevlana Envoy” (The students took courses voluntarily within the scope of
Project of Mevlana Voluntary Culture & Tourism Envoys” carried out by incorporation of
Konya Directorate for National Education, KTO Karatay University, Konya Metropolitan Municipality). Those high school students had no assessment related to their performances. Since their performance of language was not assessed their foreign language anxiety level is lower than the other students who participated in this study.
On the other hand as Mac Intyre and Gardner (1989) indicate drawbacks of foreign language anxiety tends to melt away as competence in language increases and positive language learning environment posited. In this study a comparison of foreign language anxiety levels of KTU DELL students, whose proficiency levels are higher than the other respondents of this study, and KTO Karatay University students’ foreign language anxiety levels is presented. The students in KTU DELL (the research was conducted in 2009) were getting ready to teach English as they graduate so their anxiety level –compared to those in KTO Karatay University- assumed to be lower. However students of International Trade Department, Faculty of Law and English prep program perceived foreign language as a barrier to reach their basic aim and professional courses.
Foreign language anxiety may cause various difficulties for adult learners who tend to protect their self –image. If they experience negative learning environment they start questioning and suspecting their own language learning abilities which may be both result and cause of foreign language anxiety. The subjects from KTO Karatay University can be put forward as an example of this issue.
1.5. Statement of the Study
As it was stated before foreign language anxiety is a serious problem for learners; it exactly presents itself as an obstacle - either to be overcome or to be yielded - for learners’
aim and for their improvement. Language Anxiety is a research topic for psychology as well as education. Spielberger (1983) claims that language anxiety is not only a problem for many people, also negatively influences language learning, because anxiety has been found to interfere with many types of learning and has been one of the most examined variables in psychology and education (p. 42). KTU DELL is a school of foreign language teaching and learning, the students’ proficiency level is better than the other subjects of this study. Students from high schools (Mevlana Envoys) were not assessed, while students of KTO Karatay University were assessed according to their performances.
Psychologists distinguish several categories of anxiety. Spielberger (1983) argues that typically, anxiety as a personality “trait” is differentiated from a transient anxiety “state.” In other words, trait anxiety is conceptualized as a relatively stable personality characteristic while state anxiety is seen as a response to a particular anxiety-provoking stimulus such as an important test. From this point of view the results of the present study might be shaped by characteristics of some student groups. English preparation program students of KTO Karatay University have to pass a proficiency test to start their education in their professional departments. This stimulus might scale up foreign language levels of the prep students.
According to recent research, one of which was done by MacIntyre and Gardener (1991a), the term; ‘situation specific anxiety’ has been used to emphasize the persistent and multi-faceted nature of some anxieties (p. 86). Foreign language anxiety and foreign language speaking anxiety can be included in to this category as samples of language anxiety in general.
1.6. Purpose of the Study
The present study aims to find out reasons of foreign language anxiety and its negative effects on students’ language achievement and possible ways to deal with this problem.
Comparing three main and three subgroups (from KTO Karatay University) is a good opportunity to reveal concrete sources of foreign language anxiety.
This study also aims to find out the sources of foreign language anxiety in Turkish University students, and to give a comparison of foreign language anxiety levels of non-assessed high school students with the other subject of the study.
Sources of foreign language anxiety are tried to be defined as; FLA and language proficiency; FLA’s relation with students’ intentions to use the target language; and if FLA presents itself for some certain student groups as perceived barrier.
1.7. Significance of the Study
This study aims; to find out ‘what can be done for students’, who do not participate in activities not on purpose, or; not because of incompetence, but because of some problem which is traditionally defined as shyness. Language anxiety is such a problem that may pause learning process at all, since students cannot overcome the problem by themselves, student disabilities should be diagnosed by teachers. It is supposed to find out different sources of FLA which are derived from the results of five point liker scale that administered in KTU DELL and KTO Karatay University. Relation of FLA with English course as a perceived barrier, intention to use the language, and proficiency level, are investigated.
Furthermore students from different high schools of Konya are significant for this study to stress the relation of FLA with assessment. As it is stated in part 1.3 and part 1.4, foreign language anxiety do not let probable achievers of language learners to achieve their goal. Thus high school students are very close to language learning without FLA thanks to non-assessed and student – centered environment.
1.8 Organization of the Chapters
This study includes five chapters. The first chapter of the study is for the introduction of the study. First the chapter is introduced, and then rationale for the study is given which explains the reason of the study. Next related literature with the topic is presented in the second chapter under the title of literature review. The following chapter explained the method and the frame of the study. Chapter five includes results of the study and discussion on the findings of the survey that was administered. The final chapter is conclusion chapter which contains; overview of the study, conclusions, implications, limitations and prospects for further studies.
1. 9. Research Questions
Based on what have been said so far this study will seek answers to the following questions.
1. Does FLA limit language performance?
2. Which factors may help to reduce anxiety?
3. Do the causes of FLA differentiate among the research groups?
4. Does assessment of language learning contribute to FLA?
5. Are there any relations between FLA and; language proficiency, intentions for use, and language courses as perceived barrier?
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction
Motivation, which activates language learning process, is a key factor for foreign language learning and teaching. However those key elements of language learning and teaching are endangered by a significant problem: ‘Foreign Language Anxiety’, which alienates student from target language. High levels of motivation help to reduce FLA, and high levels of anxiety diminish motivation, which closely affects foreign language learning (Dewaele, 2007). The important point is deciding the cause of anxiety if it is general anxiety or situation specific anxiety. Horwitz et al. (1986)’s study points out that factor analysis of the scales, which was named as FLACS, and correlational analysis between the anxiety scales and achievement measures indicated that foreign language anxiety is separable from general anxiety. (Trang, 2011)
This chapter evaluates effect of language anxiety on foreign language learning and teaching, by evaluating former research of linguists. Firstly it will try to define ‘what language anxiety is’ then examine “if language anxiety is cause or consequence”, following that part FLA will be divided into two categories as “identity based anxiety and competence based anxiety”. Then, the sources of FLA will be inspected before the explanation of “FLA as a perceived barrier, Intentions for Use and Language Proficiency”. After those parts diagnosis of FLA will be explained’, and this part will be followed by ‘Indicators of FLA manifested by learners’. Last parts will focus on ways to reduce language anxiety.
2.2. Foreign Language Anxiety
Language anxiety has been the research subject of linguists and psychologists so far as a result of the research. B.B. Wolman (1989) defines anxiety as “a feeling of one’s own weakness and inability to cope with real or imaginary threats”.
In education Tobias (1986) found that anxiety might debilitate the competence to take in information, processing, and retrieving when necessary. Language anxiety is defined as a problem which impedes language learning period. The studies of linguists reveal that no matter language anxiety impedes language learning as a single problem; it may depend on various causes.
The concept that distinguishes foreign language anxiety form anxiety is the peculiarity of foreign language anxiety that differentiates from other academic anxieties is a unique metacognitive element, which manifests itself in learners’ self-perception that detaches them from normal means of communication, like it is in their L1, they are to communicate via a language in which they are not fully competent. This is supposed to making out feelings of deficiency not only in terms of academic achievement but because of the intimate relationship between language and self-expression, in terms of self-presentation as well (Schlenker & Leary, 1985). Gregersen (2006) points out that the learners recognize that the ability of articulation, accuracy, and fluency of their mother tongue are replaced in the target language by “ums, imprecise circumlocutions, and unappreciated interlanguage creativity” (p.8). Thus this consciousness of the difference between what the individual desires to utter and is actually capable of send in the foreign language provokes anxiety. This worry about communication, triggers fear of making mistakes, discomfort with correction, inhibitions about communicating, and overall self-consciousness, particularly in the production and comprehension of spoken language. Being conscious of their linguistic limitations, language learners may experience a feeling of disparity between their “true” self and a more limited self
they can present in the L2 (Horwitz et al., 1986). This is because “language and self/identity are so closely bound, if indeed they are not one and the same thing, that a perceived attack on one is an attack on the other” (Cohen & Norst, 1989, p.76).
According to Gardner “a construct of anxiety which is not general but instead is specific to the language acquisition context is related to second language achievement” (1984, p.34) In this sense, anxiety experienced in L2 environment is seen as a situation specific anxiety which is aroused by the experience of learning and using a second language.
Anxiety contributes to an affective filter that blocks individual’s language input reception skills, thus the individual becomes disabled to receive the target language messages and language acquisition process fails to initiate. Horwitz et al. (1986) define language anxiety, as an affective filter that negatively influences achievement in a second language, is a complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of language learning process. Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope defined language anxiety in 1986, by explaining FLA as a situation-specific anxiety construct which they named Foreign Language Anxiety, was responsible for students’ negative emotional reactions to language learning. According to Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope, this anxiety stems from the inherent inauthenticity associated with immature second language communicative abilities:
‘Adults typically perceive themselves as reasonably intelligent, socially-adept individuals, sensitive to different socio-cultural mores. These assumptions are rarely challenged when communicating in a native language as it is not usually difficult to understand others or to make oneself understood. However, the situation when learning a foreign language stands in marked contrast. As an individual’s communication attempts will be evaluated according to uncertain or even unknown linguistic and socio-cultural standards, second language communication entails risk-taking and is necessarily problematic. Because complex and nonspontaneous [sic] mental operations are required in order to communicate at all, any performance in the L2 is likely to challenge an individual’s self-concept as a competent communicator and lead to reticence, self-consciousness, fear, or even panic (p. 114).’
Horwitz et al. try to categorize three different performances of anxiety as; communication apprehension, test anxiety and evaluation related anxiety, these three performances of anxiety will be told later on in this part of the chapter at part 2.2.3.
As it has been written before language anxiety is a multidimensional phenomenon. Gardner and MacIntyre regard language anxiety as situation specific issue. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) relates language anxiety as situation specific phenomenon defining it as the apprehension experienced when a situation requires the use of second language in which the individual is not completely proficient. In addition to this, Spielberger (1983) defined language anxiety on psychological ground, as a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness and worry. He also added that anxiety was associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, apprehension or worry. It can be concluded that anxiety is described as a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, worry, uneasiness, frustration, and self-doubt Spielberger (1983).
The learner who suffers from FLA avoids future experiences by judging his/her position in past experiences in the language learning process. According to MacIntyre (2007) “at the state level, “the concern is for experiences rooted in a specific moment in time without much concern for how frequently those experiences occurred in the past or whether they might occur again in the future” (p.565).
For Thwaties (2005) language anxiety is a ‘safety seeking behavior’ (p. 177). Thwaties (2005) argues that cognitive models of anxiety disorders emphasize the role of behaviors as “safety behaviors” or “safety-seeking behaviors” in reducing short-term anxiety, but more importantly in preventing longer-term cognitive change. It can be understood from here that learner tries to feel safe when he faces unexpected situation that requires target
language use. Salkovskis, Clark and Gelder (1996, cited in Clark 1999) identified three main types of safety behavior in panic: “direct avoidance” of situations; “escape” from situations; and, “subtle avoidance” within the anxiety-provoking situation (p. 5). As it can be concluded from three main types of safety behaviors, safety behaviors seek to “prevent or minimize a feared catastrophe” whereas adaptive coping strategies seek to reduce anxiety but do not seek to prevent an “imagined” catastrophe and therefore do not prevent disconfirmation of unhelpful beliefs.
Eysenck (1979) emphasizes the difference between anxious and non-anxious individual by indicating that worry and other cognitive activities which are task-irrelevant debilitates the quality of performance. According to Eysenck (1979); “the major reason for this issue is the task-irrelevant information which involves in worry and cognitive self-concern competes with task-relevant information for space in the processing system. As a result, highly anxious subjects are effectively in a dual-task or divided attention situation, in contrast to the non-anxious subjects who primarily process task-relevant information.” (p. 364).
The consequences of FLA exceeds beyond the classroom environment. As in Turkey, a person who has studied second language (L2) till graduation –from primary school to undergraduate degree- but suffers from high levels of FLA may actually never speak the L2 after leaving school. According to Mettewie et al. (2006), as cited by Dewaele (2007) “That is a shame for the individual and for the whole education system that has empowered its finance, time, and energy in the teaching of a skill that will ultimately not be used. It would also have economic consequences for the individual in many countries, where active multilingualism is a prerequisite for well-paid jobs, and it could ultimately affect the economy as a whole” (p.392).
2.2.1. FLA; is it a Cause or a Consequence?
As it can be understood FLA impairs language learning, but is this phenomenon, which is examined and researched by many linguists and psychologist, is a cause or consequence of language learning experience debility? At the first glance FLA may shape its form in our minds as a consequence, since it is told that negative experiences of the learner might trigger FLA. However linguists are not clear on the answer of the question. Reasonably it is important to know that FLA is a situation specific anxiety. The situations in which FLA emerges may draw the line between FLA as a cause or consequence. One should try to see the outcome of FLA in language environment in order to decide if it is a consequence or a cause.
Some linguists argue that FLA is a consequence. While Horwitz et al. claimed the harmful effects of FLA on language learning; some other researchers considered it a consequence rather than a cause (Argaman & Abu-Rabia, 2002; Ganschow et al., 1994; Sparks & Ganschow, 1991, 1995 – as cited in Trang 2012). According to Sparks and Ganschow (1995) it is not discussable when someone states anxiety without relating it with a cause, which makes FLA a consequence. In spite of consensus on could hinder learning and students might experience anxiety in learning a foreign language, the linguists segregate when they tend to decide that anxiety is more likely to be a consequence rather than a cause of poor achievement in foreign language learning.
As it is stated at the initial paragraph of this part the answer to the question whether language difficulty causes anxiety or anxiety causes language difficulty may differ between language learning situations which consist of FLA. Some linguists like Sparks and Ganschow may be right to point out that anxiety is likely to result from certain learning situations with a possible reason being language difficulty in the case of language learning; however, the fact is that even good students experience FLA regardless of its frequency. Thus, it is possible to call
anxiety as a cause or effect of language learning difficulty. Horwitz (2001) makes a logical point about the question, “it is easy to conceptualise FLA as a result of poor language learning ability … the challenge is to determine the extent to which anxiety is a cause rather than a result of poor language learning” (p. 118).
Horwitz, (2000, 2001) indicates that anxiety is a multifaceted variable that can be both a cause and a consequence of poor language learning and remind us (As cited in Trang 2012) that "the potential of anxiety to interfere with learning and performance is one of the most accepted phenomena in psychology and education" (p.71).
On the other hand, foreign language anxiety has been also considered by Ganschow et al. (1991, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 2000) as an effect or result, rather than a cause of poor achievement in language learning. In order to decide if FLA is a cause or consequence further research is required and as it can be seen the question has a variety of answers depending on the point of view by which FLA is examined.
2.2.2. Is FLA, Identity Based or Competence Based?
FLA might be a cause or a consequence however since it is a multi-dimensional phenomenon which may stem from race, gender, sociocultural background etc. At this very point second question arises: “Is FLA identity based or competence based?” Since every individual has different skills and deficits FLA may manifest itself either because of identity or competence.
Wee and Stroud put forward a paper in 2006 which investigates identity and anxiety relation in the language classroom. Before citing their observations the scope must be broadened with the help of other linguists. Wee and Stroud defines identity based anxiety as a point where an individual is more concerned with keeping his/her relation with particular groups than their own language abilities. Those kinds of relationships are identity-based
because 'identity references desire— the desire for recognition, the desire for affiliation and the desire for security and safety' (Norton 2000: 8). Spolsky (1989) suggests that FLA is a peculiar kind of concept which impedes “some” [italics added] learners from language learning to some extent. The quantifier “some” used by Spolsky is very important since it tells us not every learner is hampered by FLA. If Krashen's affective filter hypothesis (1981, 1982) is observed the lack of self-confidence and anxiety contributes to poor language learning.
In a research carried out by Wee and Stroud (2006) study of literacy practices among Singaporean teenagers, they noticed a strong tendency towards how the teenagers are perceived by their peers, and while this peer orientation influences their choice of leisure activities, it also affects how they perceive themselves in the English language classroom. When classroom activities are categorized as teacher initiated and student initiated; teacher’s choice of a student to read a text out loud can be considered as teacher initiated activity, which aims to let students to recognize and pronounce particular words (Wee and Stroud, 2006).
Wee and Stroud nicknamed a student as Edwin. He described reading out loud activity in terms of competence based anxiety. Edwin noted that he was not use to speaking out loud and he told that he felt shy and embarrassed which caused him to make mistakes during the activity. Wee and Stroud (2006) indicate that since Edwin concerned about making mistakes the situation can be described as competence based anxiety. Wee and Stroud recommend teachers to find ways of making Edwin sure that “mistakes are part of the learning process” (p. 301)
However Wee and Stroud (2006) emphasizes that Edwin represented some traits of anxiety which stems from identity based anxiety:
‘In contrast to Edwin's competence-based anxiety, his reluctance to initiate an exchange with his teacher can be understood in terms of identity based anxiety. Even when Edwin has problems understanding what is being said, he does not want to 'stand up and ask the teacher' because he might be accused by his classmates of being an 'attention-seeker'. In such a case, it does not matter how friendly, understanding or approachable the teacher might be; it is not the teacher, but Edwin's peers that provide the source of the anxiety.’ (p.301)
Wee and Stroud (2006) highlight Shamim’s (1996) observation of students who were back-seated, were under great pressure from their peers not to appear too hardworking. Shamim (1996) states that a few students are brave enough to move front row of the class. Those who achieve to move front gain access to positive outcomes one of which is being paid more attention by the teacher than before.
Wee and Stroud (2006) summarizes Shamim’s study which suggests two things; ‘One, it is possible for the desire for peer acceptance to detrimentally affect language learning. Two, because such peer groupings or cliques are relatively stable, most students find it difficult to break away and so identity-based anxiety can continue to affect a student not just occasionally, but it can in fact become a significantly pervasive aspect of their experience of classroom culture.’ (p. 301).
Allwright and Bailey (1991) note that even capable students may consciously make mistakes. By doing so they believe that they won’t be alienated from their peers. FLA among those kinds of students may originate from two basic concepts. The first one as a consequence: worry over the teacher’s evolution of their language abilities (which is competence based) and the second one as a cause: being overridden by worries over how their peers might perceive them (which is identity-based).
In order to overcome anxiety Hilleson (1996) suggests a skills study workshop where teachers can help the students to confront their irrational anxieties. He also advices integrating role-play and drama, suggesting that 'performing the works of others, thoroughly rehearsed in
terms of both verbal and nonverbal language' will allow students to experience less 'communication anxiety' (p. 272,). These strategies may help both the teacher and the students to diminish the anxiety level in the language classroom. Thus, if the teacher is the source of anxiety, then it helps having the teacher assure students that their anxieties are irrational. Amd if students are given chance to rehearse their language use it may help them to face their anxiety and also overcome it.
Competence based anxiety, which can be reduced by the teacher’s decision, is related to teacher’s evaluation. However, identity-based anxiety is different. If the teacher is no longer the source of anxiety it can be called as identity based anxiety, which becomes much more difficult to find ways for reducing the anxiety level.
Since the ideas of thee peers of anxious student is the matter it is very difficult for the teacher to reduce FLA level. While even competent students insist on making conscious mistakes it won’t help them to give chance of rehearsal or confrontation. The important point is finding ways of teaching that won’t threaten students’ relationships with their peers. When students feel that a good language learner gains acceptance of his/her peers they will not have any obstacle as anxiety to learn the language. On the other hand, as Wee and Stroud (2006) state if students feel that being a good language learner threaten their acceptance amongst their peers, then they may act in order to preserve that acceptance, even if this means jeopardizing their ability to learn the language.
2.2.3. Three Performances of Anxiety
Linguists have defined language anxiety from various different scopes; however Horwitz et al. try to define language anxiety clearly by dividing it into three categories. They made a clear definition that language anxiety was a problem interfering foreign language learning process depending on many different causes. Horwitz et al. (1986) argues that
language anxiety is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon, which manifests itself in students quite differently depending on ethnic background, prior language experience, learner personality and classroom circumstances. To them impact of language anxiety is not easily measured since it is multidimensional. Again Horwitz et al. (1986) state that their interviews, questionnaires , and diaries in language anxiety research, the language learner had provided insight into language anxiety from students’ perspective, and interviews with language specialists had offered significant insight into the impact it had on language teaching, learning and performance. AS it is stated above linguists defined language anxiety in various scopes, however Horwitz et al. try to categorize three different performances of anxiety as; communication apprehension, test anxiety and evaluation related anxiety. These performances are:
a) Communication Apprehension: According to Horwitz et al. (1986) language
anxiety is related to interpersonal interactions for this reason they argue that the construct of communication apprehension is quite relevant to the conceptualization of foreign language anxiety . Horwitz et al. (1986) define communication apprehension as a type of shyness characterized by fear or anxiety about communicating with people. They also divide communication apprehension into three categories as:
‘Difficulty in speaking in pairs or groups (oral communication anxiety) or in public ("stage fright"), or in listening to or learning a spoken message (receiver anxiety) are all manifestations of communication apprehension’ (p.128).
From Horwitz et al.’s argument on communication apprehension it can be concluded that communication apprehension plays a big role in foreign language anxiety however both student and the teacher may not be aware of it. As stated before, anxiety is psychological phenomenon which disables people even speaking in their mother tongue. Horwitz et al. (1986) clarify that people who typically have trouble
speaking in groups are likely to experience even greater difficulty speaking in a foreign language class where they have little control of the communicative situation and their performance is constantly monitored. As it is known speaking courses or courses which require communication have limited opportunities both for materials used and the length of the courses. A student who suffers from FLA, and struggles to get rid of it may not have enough time to concentrate on the course. This problem may make talkative students suffer from speaking anxiety as well. In order not to let that happen, teachers should diagnose all probable problems which may hinder the flow of the course. Horwitz et al. (1986) emphasis this point that in addition to all the usual concerns about oral communication, the foreign language class requires the student to communicate via a medium in which only limited facility is possessed. Communication apprehension phenomenon also related to one’s own competence on the target language, for example; communication apprehension may emerge if a student cannot understand what is being spoken in the course, Horwitz et al (1986) explains this situation as the permeating foreign language learning derives from the personal knowledge that one will almost certainly have difficulty understanding others and making oneself understood. Possibly because of this knowledge, many otherwise talkative people are silent in a foreign language class. However Horwitz et al (1986) argues that ordinarily self-conscious and inhibited speakers may find that communicating in a foreign language makes them feel as if someone else is speaking and they therefore feel less anxious. Furthermore, Horwitz et al (1986) touch an interesting point -which is not also very clear – the feeling of as if someone else is talking may be similar to stutterers who are sometimes able to enunciate normally when singing or acting.
b) Test Anxiety: As it is known, testing or performance evaluation is one of the most
important features of foreign language teaching and learning, Horwitz et al (1986) argues that testing or performance evaluation is also relevant to a discussion of foreign language anxiety. Test-anxiety refers to a type of performance anxiety stemming from a fear of failure. Actually Horwitz et al (1986) make a clear diagnosis at this point that the test-anxious students often put unrealistic demands on themselves and feel that anything less than a perfect test performance is a failure. This thought or anxiety may be familiar to anyone who experienced any kind of learning. Since this phenomenon is ‘anxiety’, it causes failure even for well-prepared students for the tests. Horwitz et al (1986) attract our attention at this point ‘how anxiety possess serious negative effects on learners’:
Students who are test-anxious in foreign language class probably experience considerable difficulty since tests and quizzes are frequent and even the brightest and most pre-pared students often make errors. Oral tests have the potential of provoking both test- and oral communication anxiety simultaneously in susceptible students. (p. 130)
Perhaps the traditional student reply to failure which is commonly uttered as “I do work hard but I can’t achieve” stems from test anxiety.
c) Fear of negative evaluation: Fear of negative evaluation is defined as
"apprehension about others' evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively" by Horwitz et al (1986, p. 130). Fear of negative evaluation is a third anxiety related to foreign language learning. Although it might be considered similar to test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation is broader in scope. According to Horwitz et al. (1986) it is not limited to test-taking situations; rather, it may occur in any social, evaluative situation such as interviewing for a job or speaking in foreign language class. That’s for sure that language teaching requires evaluation reveal the outcome of the process and
performance. Taking this into account Horwitz et al (1986) state that foreign languages require continual evaluation by the only fluent speaker in the class, the teacher. That means the student faces being corrected for most of their trial to use the target language. However their point is that so called ‘peer - correction’ may make students acutely sensitive to the evaluations - real or imagined - of their peers. Socio-cultural elements; intimacy and relations with the other students, may vary at this point.
The performance of communication apprehension was defined as a type of shyness or fear associated with communicating with people (McCroskey, 1970). In the second language communication apprehension manifests itself in anxiety about speaking the target language (oral communication anxiety), especially speaking it in public (“stage fright”), and in apprehension about not understanding or misinterpreting L2 messages (receiver anxiety) (Wheeless, 1975).
Sarason (1978) defined text anxiety as “the tendency to view with alarm the consequences of inadequate performance in an evaluative situation” (p.214). For language learning environment it refers to anxiety over frequent testing, which frustrates learners. The third performance of FLA is fear of negative evaluation which is defined as “apprehension about others’ evaluations, the avoidance of evaluative situations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively” by Watson & Friend (1969, p.449).
According to Trang (2012) while communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation are closely related to FLA, test anxiety is likely to be a general anxiety problem rather than being specific to foreign language learning. Trang (2012) states that test anxiety has been justified in some studies as a general anxiety. MacIntyre (1988) examined the relationship between test anxiety, general anxiety and communicative anxiety; he found that
test anxiety amplified general anxiety factor but not the communicative anxiety factor. Therefore he suggests test anxiety as a general problem for learning environment and not only specific for foreign language classroom.
After these three phenomena, as a conclusion of their research Horwitz et al (1986) argued that although communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation provide useful conceptual building blocks for a description of foreign language anxiety, they put forward that foreign language anxiety was not simply the combination of these fears transferred to foreign language learning. Discovering the fact that language anxiety cannot be simply defined with three performances of anxiety they conceived foreign language anxiety as a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process. No matter FLA is performed in some way or another the sources of FLA should be examined well in order to overcome the problem.
2.3. The Sources of Foreign Language Anxiety
If reducing the negative effects of foreign language anxiety is desired, it is beneficial for us to observe and even discover the sources of foreign language anxiety, which can help us to deal with the problem better, to explain the effects of anxiety on foreign language learning and also to help English teachers find practical, effective, and FLA eliminating teaching programs and strategies.
Since FLA is a multidimensional phenomenon it is more than merely a combination of communication apprehension, social evaluative anxiety and test anxiety in the target language, learning’s uniqueness as a metacognitive element, which reveals itself in learners’ awareness that ‘deprived’ of their mother tongue they are to communicate via a language in which they do not have full competence. This may inherently entail feelings of inadequacy
not only in terms of academic achievement but, because of the intimate relationship between language and self-expression, in terms of self-presentation as well (Schlenker & Leary, 1985).
Onwuegbuzie et al. (1999) investigated the effect of 26 factors on FLA. They defined seven elements that significantly cause FLA (i.e., age, academic achievement, prior history of visiting foreign countries, prior high school, experience with foreign languages, expected overall average for current language course, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived self-worth). These variables account for 40% variance in FLA (Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999, p.232).
Highly anxious students’ perceptions of the learning situation appear to be a key factor in the anxiety they experience in their advanced-level language classes. Specifically, the following major sources of anxiety have been identified by Tóth (2011): (1) perceived differences between using the TL in vs. outside the classroom, (2) pressure to do well in classes for language majors, (3) aiming at avoiding mistakes, (4) focus on accuracy and appropriacy, (4) potential negative evaluation by the teacher (poor marks, being corrected, critical remarks), (5) potential negative evaluation by peers, (6) fear of appearing less competent than others, (7) classmates’ L2 proficiency, and (8) classmates’ experience in TL countries (p.66).
The sources of language anxiety will be identified here can be viewed as interrelated in light of MacIntyre and Gardner’s (1991) study, regarding foreign language anxiety. Gardner and MacIntyre (1991) state that learners do not begin the language learning experience with language anxiety. If they experience anxiety, it is most likely state anxiety. According to them, language anxiety occurs only after attitudes and emotions regarding the language learning experience have been formed. Young argues that if MacIntyre and Gardner's theory is correct, this suggests that the problem is not so much in the student but in
the language learning experience. Helping the teachers to recognize the signs of anxiety in language learners is an important step in responding to anxiety in the classroom.
The next section of the study will focus on six sources of language anxiety; ‘personal and interpersonal anxieties, learner beliefs about language learning, instructor beliefs about language teaching, instructor – learner interactions, classroom procedures and language testing, all of which were put forward by Young (1991) - and Tóth (2011)’s findings are
integrated - as the sources of language anxiety. 2.3.1. Personal and interpersonal anxieties
Young (1991) argues that self-esteem and competitiveness are the two significant sources of learner anxiety in personal and interpersonal relations. Bailey (cited in Young 1991, p. 426) contended that competitiveness could lead to anxiety when language learners compared themselves to others or to an idealized self-image. Young (1991) cites that according to Krashen; an individual's degree of self-esteem is highly related to language anxiety:
". . . the more I think about self-esteem, the more impressed I am with its impact. This is what causes anxiety in a lot of people. People with low self-esteem worry about what their peers think; they are concerned with pleasing others. And that I think has to do a great degree with anxiety" (Price; 1991 p.426).
Price (1991) reports that the majority of her subjects believed their language skills to be weaker than those of the others in class;
"They weren't doing a good job and that everyone else looked down on them; that they should have done much better than they did; that if they had only worked a little harder they could have been successful at this task" (Price; 1991, p. 106).
Tóth points out another source of FLA which is related to interpersonal anxieties. According to Tóth (2011) Classmates play a crucial role which contributes to FLA. If the
excerpts below are read carefully it will be possible to understand that students with high FLA levels are much more worried and concerning about their peers’ negative opinions, more than they do about their teachers.
“I'm more afraid of my classmates than the teacher; I think teachers are more tolerant than students. (Edit, p.6)” (Tóth; 2011, p.48)
“What are they [i.e., other learners] going to think when I speak up, whether they will look down on me; this is what I worry about. (Klári, p.3)” (Tóth; 2011, p.48)
Tóth (2011) argues that as the anxious students evaluate themselves by comparing their peers’ performance, they perceive the other students’ performances ‘better’ than their own, which makes them feel apprehensive about speaking in front of them and being afraid of their negative evaluations. . Tóth (2011) supports her idea with concrete evidence from Zsófi;
“I feel inhibited if somebody speaks very well, 'cos then I go "Oh, my God, I don't dare to say a word". (Zsófi, p.5)” (Tóth; 2011, p.49)
2.3.2. Learner Beliefs about Language Learning
Learner beliefs about language learning are major contributors for language anxiety. Language and self – identity are closely related with each other and learning a language is different from learning another skill since it has a close impact on self-identity. Tóth (2011) supports this idea by citing Cohen & Norst (1989) “language and self/identity are so closely bound, if indeed they are not one and the same thing, that a perceived attack on one is an attack on the other” (Tóth, 2011 p.40). Guiora (1979) put forward the theory of “language ego” which means the strong link between self – expression and self – image effects so densely an individual that sh/e may feel like a different person while speaking the language. According to Guiora (1972) learning a second language; “demands that the individual, to a certain extent, incorporate a new identity” (p.145).
