ADLİ ANTROPOLOJİ'NİN KURUCUSU
WILTON MARION KROGMAN'IN BİLİMSEL KiŞiLİGİ
Dr. Willon Marion KrogmLln (1903-1987), Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki adli antropoloji bilim
dalının kurucusudur. Bu bilim dalı, fizik antropoloji prensiplerinin adli tıp sistemine uyarlanabilecek şekilde genişletilmesiyle ortaya çıkmıştır. Adli uygulamalarla ilgili kuruluşlardaki antropolojik çalışma girişim
lerinin, bu bilim dalı kurulana kadar, insan anatomisi bilgisine dayanarak yapılmış olduğu görülmektedir. Adli antropoloji bilim dalı, Krogman'ın "The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine (1962, 1986'da M.Y'ışcan ile
birlikte yeniden düzenlenmiştir)" başlıklı kitabıyla özgün bir kurum olarak somutlaşmıştır. Dr. Krogman, iskelet biyolojisi üzerinde çalışanlar arasında adli antropoloji bilim dalına önemli katkılan olanlann başında
gelmektedir. Araştırmalannın çoğu fizik antropoloji ve bu bilim dalının adli antropolojideki rolü üzerinedir. Böyle bir çalışma sırasında anatomi, fizik antropoloji ve adli bilimlerin koordine çalışması en önemli ilkesi
olmuştur. Kranyum iskeleti üzerinde yüz modeli oluşturulmasında geliştirdiği yöntem bu tür çalışmaların
öncüsüdür; çalışmalarını daima bir heykeltraş ile birlikte yürütmüştür. Adli antropoloji çalışmalan sırasında,
önce uzun kemiklerin epifiZıerini inceler, daha SOnra sırasıyla pubis simfizi, kafatası eklemleri ile dişleri
araştırırd!. En önemli iki niteliğinden birisi karmaşık bir bilim dalı olan adli antropolojiyi kendine özgü sisı.e
miyle kolaylıkla öğretebilmesi, ikincisi ise, derin bilgisininin yardunıyla kimlik tesbitinde ve ölüm nedeninin
saptanmasındaki olağanüstü başanlı çalışmalandır.
Bu yazının amacı, olağanüstü bir insan olan Dr. Krogman'ın görüşlerini, seçilmiş olgu ömekleriyle yakından inceleyerek onun prensipleri konusunda bilgi edinmek ve bu usta ile aynı yolu paylaşmaktır. Makale
-nin yazan tarafından Dr. Krogman ile ilgili olarak verilen bilgiler, onun ölümünden SOnra incelenmiş olan belgelere dayanmaktadır. Bu yazıda sunulan kavramlar çalışmalarını adli amaçlara yönlendiren tüm araştıncılar açısından çok büyük değer taşunaktadır.
SUMMARY
Dr. Wilton Marion KrogmLln (1903-1987) was the founder of forensic anthropology in the United States. This discipline is an extension of the principles of physical anthropology to the medicolegal system. Since the earliest studies of human skeletal anatomy, attempts have be en made to use this knowledge to assist law enforcement organizations. However, Krogman's book The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine (1962,
updated with the author in ı 986) (1,2) solidified establishment of forensic anthropology as a discipline in its own right. The purpose of this paper is to share the way in which this extraordinary man approached his cases. it is based on personal documents given to the author af ter Dr. Krogman's death. The insights presented in this paper should be of value to all forensic pracıitioncrs.
Kcy words: Forensic anthropology - Wilton Marion Krogman -llistorical background
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W/LTON MAR/ON KROGMAN
(1903-1987)forensic anthropology and its role in forensic medicine (1-7), and the presentation of casc studies (8-13). While the human skeleton has been studied by anatomists (14), Krogman must be considered the first to formally make the connection between anatomy, physieal anthropology, and forensics (15).
This claim arises from the fact that unlike Dwight, for example, who was trained as an anatomist (14), Krogman's received his doctorate in and taught physical anthropology at Westem Reserve University (1931-1938), the University of Chicago (1938-1947) and the University ofPennsylvania Dental School (1947-1983).
Dr. Wilton Marion Krogman bom was in 1903 and died in 1987 (15). He had a long and illustrious career that spanned almost six decades. Many considered him to be a peer of Earnest Hooton of Harvard. Dr. Krogman's students from both the Universities of Chicago and Pennsylvania number among the most prominent physical and forensic anthropologists of today. Among his wide ranging areas of expertise, he was alsa a pionecr İn dental anthropology and human growth studies (16, 17, 18).
Af ter his death, the author was given Dr. Krogman's personal files by his widow, Mary Krogman. These documents include letters, case reports, newspaper elippings,
radiographs, pictures, and reconstructed faces from more than 100 of his cases. The purpose of the present paper is to introduce Dr. Krogman 's approach to forensic anthropology in his own words through excerpts of his personal documents.
FORENSIC STUDIES
Dr. Krogman began his work in forensic anthropology in the 1930s and continued until his death. His last publication was an updated and revised edition of his 1962 book The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine with lşcan in 1986 (2). His writings in forensic anthropology were mostly general and synthetic in nature. Yet, in his publications of skeletal cases he always introduced the application of a meıhod to forensic anthropology. These included facial reconstruction and burned remains (8- ıo, 12). All his writings included examples from his own cases to iIlustrate a particular point. Among these works, his method on facial reconstruction has remained the model for many osteologists and forensic pathologists as well as sculptors and artists (2, 8, 19).
110 M.Y.!ŞCAN
Dr. Krogman approached a forensic investigation in two ways. The first was to provide the general identification of the skcletal characteristics and then apply them to facial reconstruction, and elucidate specific features like trauma or buming. His actual facial reconstruction was always assisted by an artisı. While he was one of the most sought af ter forensic anthropologists throughout his life, it was obvious he practiced this field not for money but for professional challenge.
To begin a routine case, he outlined so me simple principles to follow. He surveyed the skeleton to provide a description of the remains under what he called the "Big F our" demographic factors. This is summarized in the following paragraphs. Of course, more detailed descriptions can be found in his many publications (1, 2).
For the determination of age, the skeleton was broken down into two parts, bones and teeth. From bones, he checked the epiphyses, examining their appearance and whether union had occurred. He next checked the pubic symphysis, then the cranial vault sutures and then felt the bones for density. The teeth were examined for ca1cification, eruption, wear of the molars and antemortem and postmortem losses.
The sex of a skeleton was determined from the skull including the mandible, the pelvis and the long bones by their morphology and dimensions. He used tooth sizcas corroboratİve evidence of sex, rarely as diagnostic.
Dr. Krogman used three broad classifications for race, white (Caucasoid), black (Negroid) and Indian (Mongoloid). There is no record of any Hispanics among his cases. He determined race from the skull, the pelvis, the long bones (radius-humerus and tibia-femur indices) and the anterior curvature of the femur. He used the teeth and jaws, checking the shape of the incisors, the appearance of the molars, and the shape of the palate.
Dr. Krogman used the Trotter-Gleser (20) regression formulae based on long bone length for determining stature, most commonly those from the femur including:
For white males For white females For black males For black females
2.38(F)+61.41 ±3.27 2.47(F)+S4.ıo ±3.72
2. II (F)+ 70.35 ±3.94 2.28(F)+S9.76 ±3.46
He added the humeral and tibial formulae if the femur based results were questionable or the femur was missing. Details of the technique, measurements and indices involved can be found in our book (2).
KRQGMAN'S APPROACH TO FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
Dr. [::rogman's whole philosophy toward forensic anıhropology is best expressed in a personal communication (undated) he had with Officer George !loma, apolice artist in
Answer 1:
(1) Age at time of death:
From long bones (fetal and up to 28 years).
From the pelvis (20-25 years). From the skull (22-47 years).
From X-Rays ofbones espeeially vertebrae, for changes in mineral eontent and arrangement of details of bony strueture.
From dentition
Calcification (fetal and up to ca. 5 years.)
Eruption, Milk teeth (complete by 3:0 years.); permanent teeth (eomplete by 20:0)
Wear (progressive)
Loss (later years)
(2) Sex:
From the pelvis From the skull From the long bones
(3) Raee: White (Caucasoid), Black (Negroid), Yellow (Mongoloid) From the skull
From the teeth From the limb bones
(4) Stature in life based on regression formulae, estimating the % of a
long bone related to stature:
thigh bone (fernur), shin bone (tibia), upper arm bone (humerus), lower arm bone (radius) in order of reliability.
(5) Body build :
Estimate of museularity based on muscle attaehment to skull and long bones. If the pelvis is present, evidence of build (sIender to stocky) can be based on the pel vi c breadth to estimated stature ratio.
112
(6) Cause of death if registered on bonees): Blow
Knife thrust Gunshot
(7) Duration of interment (time since death): Evidence of "wear" (erosion) on bones
Loss of soft tissue - sites of muscle attachment Soil chemistry
if in water, factors of speed of flow, temperature etc. (8) Individuality:
M.Y.!ŞCA:\f
if soft tissue is not too decomposed, evidence of scars, tattoos, fingerprints and sole prints.
Bone fractures (healed or recent) (9) Physiognomic reconstruction :
Skull to head restoration based on dimensions, age, sex, race.
Question 2: Briefly and in layman's terms, how do you conduct your examination? Answer 2: i follow the order given in the answer to Question 1.
i have available tables, charts, diagrams, and so on. Where possible, i consult actual bony specimens for comparison. i rely, of course, upon experience.
Question 3: If a law enforcement agency discovers a decomposed body, what mustthcy do to prepare the victim for your examination? They cannot transport the body to your office, can they? Does the flesh have to be removed?
Answer 3: Af ter the Coroner and the M.E. have performed the autopsy and they wish me as a foHow-up, the bones should be cleaned (stripped) of all soft parts. i am a "bone man", not a pathologist. Author's Note: Many forensic anthropologists now have the facilities to decompose human remains in their laboratory.
Question 4: i have reconstructed numerous facial features in thc form of a composite sketch. Some rcconstructions wcıc made as a result of viewing a photograph of the body, while others were madc by vicwing the body dircctly at the morgue.
things as family resemblances. A skuU is the starting point. i have tables of tissue thickness for every part of the skull. Theyare averages for a healthy adult male or female. Af ter i have decided on age, sex, race, i use appropriate tables of hair color and form, eye color, eyelid, eyebrows, skin color etc.
Reconstruction of the nose is based on the bony nasa1 skeIcton and aperture. Lips
are related to the teeth, and of course, thinner İn whites, thicker in blacks. As for the "awful lot of bodies being found", i have no answer save for the bone man to
do them one by one as they come.
Questİon 5: How many reconstructions have you been responsible for? How many
resulted in the identification of the victim?
Answer (5): I've done 15-20 in the last 5 years or so. i cannot teU how many identifications they Icad to for often i hear no more after I've turned in my report.
i have heard of six "makes." Author's Note: This is generally a problem for most anthropologists. Therefore, it is recommended that both a law enforcement
officer or medical examiner and anthropologist discuss the case. Such a
discussion af ter it identification has bcen made can be of considerable bendit to both the anthropologist and medicolegal personne!. Furlhermore, dissemination of knowledge through publication is enhanced.
Question 6: What role does the composite artist play in preparing a sketch from skclctal
or decomposed remains with your assistance?
Answer 6: The composite artist must work closely with the bone man in making up a
composite. He can teli what kind of features are to be combined in a specific
skull already reported on as to sex, race, ethnic origin etc.
Questİon 7: As an anthropologist, have you ever prepared a reconstructed sketch with a
114 M.Y.1ŞCAN
Answer 7: An Identi-Kit is not applicable to a skull-head restoration. In my opinion, such a kit is useful only in describing the appearanee of a living person v ia an eyewitness.
Question 8: What can a composite artist do to develop knowledge of reconstruction from decomposed remains?
Answer 8: This is hard to answer. i suggest studying an anatomy atlas especially for bone-musele relationships. Further, consult an anthropology text on the descriptive characteristics of the head and face of the major races and their peoples.
Question 9: An infant malc child was found in a trash can in north Jersey. You described to the wrİter what the dead infant would have looked like at ı
o
years of age. How can you perform this task? Have you ever done this before and, if so, was it successful?Answer 9: Here i used my knowledge as published in books by mc: Growth of Man, Vol XX of Tabulae Biologicae, 1941 (17); Child Growth, University of Michigan Press, 1972 (18).
Question LO: Can skeletal remains of an elderly person age 75 years be reconstructed in the form of a sketch of what the person looked like at the age of 50 years? Answer 10: Our age data and age-change traits cover birth to death. Patterns of hair
loss, changes in facial form due to tooth loss, "thinning" or "sharpness" of features due to loss of subcutaneous tissue (fat), eyebrows develop "wiıd hairs", earlobes are larger, more pendanL.
Question 11: When a body is recovered from water, it is usually swoIlen out of proportion. How long should i wait to view the body for the purpose of sketching facial features? Will the facial features return to their normal size and shape?
Answer 11: George, i am not much help here. i have had little experience with "floaters". If I were to givc an educated gucss, I'd say dehydration in the facial tissue should approximate "normal" size and shape in a week to ten days.
Answer 12: Here are some suggestions of how a bone man can be of full use to law enforcement units:
1. If bones are found in the earth, have the anthropologist called to the site as soo n as possible. He can teıı if (it is) a primary or secondary burial or reburial. He can suggest all the photos he wants at the site.
2. if he is not at the site, have the officers recover every piece of bone there is - sift the soil if necessary. Each bone or fragment tells its story to the specialist.
3. If the bones are sent to a bone man, let him teU what x-ray films he wants. This is very important for it gives added depth as it were, to the study of the bones lhemselves
(21).
4. Impress upon the law endorsement agencies that dead men do teU tales. Each bone has its own voice and the more the bones the louder the chorus. i once said to a Police Academy class (jokingly), "Why gentIemen, i can teU you if he voted a straight or a split Democratic ticket, and whether he likes Scotch or Bourbon". Well, this one cannot do - BDT the bones do tell ofINDlVIDUALITY.
CONCLUSION
From this one correspondence with the police officer, Dr. Krogman clearly illustrated two things. One is his ability to teach such complex anthropological matters in a manner that can be understood both by the layman and the professional. Second, he show s how the application of his enormous depth of knowledge can be used to solve problem s regarding identification and cause of death. He managed to analyze and synthesize difficult matters like burned remains, estimation of time since death, facial physiognomy, and physiognomic change from infancy to childhood or from young age to old. As many practi tioners would agree, af ter finishing a case, forensic anthropologists are rarely notified whether the missing person is identified and how well
116 M.Y'ıŞCAN
the forensic anı.hropological data and report or facial recons!rııclİon facİliıaıed the identification process and how close!y the. deseription matehed the vİctim. As was indicatcd in the author's earlier papcr (22), accuracy can be only tcsted by comparing a given report with the characteristics of the missing person later identifıed.
From this historical analysis it is elear that the modern, formal foundation of forensic amhropology can be traeed to the involvement of Dr. Krogman. As the author
indieated in his recent review of forensie anlhropology (22), he insisted that in order for the field to be a viable one, it must move in the direction set out by Krogman and
others hke 1. Lawrence Angel (23). This direction must include forensically based anthropologically sound scientific techniques. Thcse must be in the areas of the determination of characteristics that are ıınique to the indivinual skeleton and information obtained should provide the necessary background that would deseribe the personal biology of the skeleton a:;; it mighl. have becn when the individııa! was alive. In other words, forensic aniliropology must be heading in a directian that would devdop rcsearch suategies which can be Ilsed in Lhe reconstruction of life from the skelctol1 (24t Thererore, we b0t11 felt it was vital to redefine forensie anthropology in terıns of new advanccs, teehniques and clevclopments from aLL over the world. Al the same time, carlier concepts were reassessed so that I.heir inhcrent principles would npt be lost [2,
22J.
Acknowlcdgements
The aıııhor is grateful to Mary Krogman for giving me the forensic case reports that the Jaıe Dr. Krogman
meıiculously savcd. He appreciares the editorial assistanee of Sman R. Loth and thanks WıUiam M. Sheehan for heiping to organize and wordprocess the Krogman docnments.
REFERENCES
Krogman, W.M. (1962) The Human Ske/eıon in Forensic A4edicine, Charles C Thomas, Springfıeld,
IL.
2 Krogman, W.M., tşcan, M.Y. (1986) The Human Sk.eleıon in Forensic Medıcine. Second Ediıion,
Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL
3 Kf0gman. W.M. (1970) in Anlhropology and ıhe Belıavioral and Healıh Sciences, O. (von Mering, O.,
Kasdan, 1..,. ed.s) pp. 206·220, IJnive.rsity of Piı.tshurgh Press, Pmsbıırgh.
4 Krogman, W.M. (1943) F.B.J.LLıw Fnforce. Bul/., 12(4),17-40
5 Krogman, W.M. (1943) F.B.f. Law f:nforce. Bul/ .. 12('), 12-28.
6 Krogman, W.M, (1955) Post·Graduate Medicm~, 17(2), A34-A46.
7 Krogman, W.M. (1955) Post-Graduate Medicine, 17(3), A48-A62.
8 Krcgman, W.M., MeCne, MJ. (1946) F.BI Law Enforce. Bul/, 15C!), 1.1-18.
