Konya yöresindeki süt sığırcılığı işletmelerindeki Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) enfeksiyonunun serolojik ve virolojik durumunu araştırmak, persiste enfekte hayvanların tespit edilerek sürüden uzaklaştırılmasını sağlamak ve kan örneklerine göre alınması daha kolay olan süt örneklerinin BVDV enfeksiyonunun teşhisinde önemini belirlemek amacı ile planlanan bu çalışmada:
1) Kan serumu örneklerine uygulanan ELISA sonucunda, 500 hayvanın 449’u pozitif, 6’sı şüpheli, 45 adedi de negatif olarak belirlendi. İşletmeler bazında %80,68 ile %100 arasında, yöre genelinde ise %89,80 oranında seropozitiflik saptandı.
2) Süt serumu örneklerine uygulanan ELISA sonucunda ise, 500 hayvandan 442’si pozitif, 1’i şüpheli, 57’si de negatif olarak belirlendi. İşletmeler bazında %82,50 ile %95,24 arasında, yöre genelinde ise %88,40 oranında seropozitiflik saptandı.
3) Araştırmanın virolojik kısmının birinci basamağında, kan lökosit örneklerinde BVDV antijeninin tespit edilmesi amacıyla uygulanan direkt ELISA sonucunda, 500 hayvanın sadece 3’ünde (%0,60) antijen varlığı tespit edildi. Antijen pozitif–antikor negatif olarak belirlenen bu 3 hayvanın persiste enfekte olup olmadığını saptamak amacıyla yapılan ikinci örneklemede ise, lökosit örneklerinde antijen varlığı tespit edilemeyerek, bu 3 hayvan BVDV enfeksiyonu yönünden seronegatif/immun olarak değerlendirildi.
4) Bölgedeki sığırlarda persiste enfeksiyon varlığı tespit edilmemiş olmakla birlikte, BVDV enfeksiyonunun bölgede daha önce yapılan serolojik araştırma ile kıyaslandığında benzer oranda seyrettiği sonucuna varılmıştır. Ayrıca, kan ve süt serumlarına uygulanan ELISA’lar sonucunda birbirine yakın sonuçların elde edilmesi, serolojik testlerde süt serumu kullanımının, araştırıcı için örneklemenin kolay ve ucuz olmasından dolayı kan serumuna alternatif bir metot olarak tercih edilebileceğini ortaya koymuştur.
Elde edilen veriler değerlendirildiğinde, bölgede söz konusu enfeksiyonun kontrolüne hizmet edecek çalışmaların (hayvanların belirli aralıklarla serolojik kontrollere tabi tutulması, akut enfekte ve PI hayvanların sürülerden elimine edilmesi, aşı suşlarının belirlenerek aşı uygulamalarına geçilmesi,vb… ivedilikle planlanması gerektiği ortaya çıkmaktadır.
KAYNAKLAR
Ak, S., Fırat, İ., Bozkurt, H. H., Gülyaz, V., Ak, K., 2002, The prevalence of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infections in cattle and existence of persistently infected cattle in the Trakya Region, Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 26, 245-248.
Alkan, F., Özkul, A., Karaoğlu, M. T., Bilge, S., Akça, Y., Burgu, İ., Yeşilbağ, K., Oğuzoğlu, T. Ç., 1997, Sığırlarda viral nedenli solunum sistemi enfeksiyonlarının seroepidemiyolojisi, Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 44, 73-80. Anderson, E. C. and Rowe, L. W., 1998, The prevalence of antibody to the viruses of
bovine virus diarrhoea, bovine herpes virus 1, rift valley fever, ephemeral fever and bluetongue and to Leptospira sp in free-ranging wildlife in Zimbabwe, Epidemiology and Infection, 121, 441-449.
Baker, J. C., 1987, Bovine viral diarrhea virus: a review, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 190, 1449-1458.
Baker, J.C., 1995, The clinical manifestations of bovine viral diarrhea infection, Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice, 11, 425-445.
Barkema, H. W., Bartels, C. J., van Wuijckhuise, L., Hesselink, J. W., Holzhauer, M., Weber, M. F., Franken, P., Kock, P. A., Bruschke, C. J. and Zimmer, G. M., 2001, Outbreak of bovine virus diarrhea on Dutch dairy farms induced by a bovine herpesvirus 1 marker vaccine contaminated with bovine virus diarrhea virus type 2, Tijdschr Diergeneeskd, 126, 158-165.
Beaudeau, F., Belloc, C., Seegers, H., Assie, S., Sellal, E., Joly, A., 2001, Evaluation of a blocking ELISA for the detection of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) antibodies in serum and milk, Veterinary Microbiology, 80, 329-337.
Becher, P., Avalos Ramirez, R., Orlich, M., Cedillo Rosales, S., Konig, M., Schweizer, M., Stalder, H., Schirrmeier, H. and Thiel, H. J., 2003, Genetic and antigenic characterization of novel pestivirus genotypes: implications for classification, Virology, 311, 96-104.
Becher, P., Orlich, M. and Thiel, H. J., 1998, Ribosomal S27a coding sequences upstream of ubiquitin coding sequences in the genome of a pestivirus, Journal of Virology, 72, 8697-8704.
Becher, P., Orlich, M. and Thiel, H. J., 2001, RNA recombination between persisting pestivirus and a vaccine strain: generation of cytopathogenic virus and induction of lethal disease, Journal of Virology, 75, 6256-6264.
Bielefeldt, O. H., 1983, Pathogenesis of bovine viral diarhoea-mucosal disease: distiribution and significance of BVDV antigen in diseased calves, Research in Veterinary Science, 34, 5-10.
Binkhorst, G. J., Journee, D. L. H., Wouda, W., Straver, P. J., Vos, J. H., 1983, Neurological disorders, virus persistence and hypomyelination in calves due to
intra-uterine infections with bovine virus diarrhoea virus, Veterinary Quarterly, 5,145-155.
Björkman, C., Alenius, S., Emanuelsson, U., Uggla, A., 2000, Neospora caninum and bovine virus diarrhoea virus infections in Swedish dairy cows in relation to abortion, The Veterinary Journal, 159, 201–206.
Blowey, R. G., Weaver, D. A., 2003, Color Atlas of Diseases and Disorders of Cattle, Mosby Elsevier Health Sciences, 2nd ed., USA, p. 192.
Bolin, S. R., Matthews, P. J. and Ridpath, J. F., 1991, Methods for detection and frequency of contamination of fetal calf serum with bovine viral diarrhea virus and antibodies against bovine viral diarrhea virus, Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 3, 199-203.
Bolin, S.R. and Grooms, D. L., 2004, Origination and consequences of bovine viral diarrhea virus diversity, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 20, 51-68.
Brewoo, J. N., Haase, C. J., Sharp, P., Schultz, R. D., 2007, Leukocyte profile of cattle persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus, Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 115, 3-4, 369-374.
Brock, K. V., 2003, The persistence of bovine viral diarrhea virus, Biologicals, 31, 133- 135.
Brock, K. V., 2004, Strategies for the control and prevention of bovine viral diarrhea virus, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 20, 171-180. Brodersen, B. W., 2004, Immunohistochemistry used as a screening method for
persistent bovine viral diarrhea virus infection, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 20, 85-93.
Brown, G. B., Bolin, S. R., Frank, D. E., Roth, J. A., 1991, Defective function of leukocytes from cattle persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus, and the influence of recombinant cytokines, American Journal of Veterinary Research, 52, 3, 381-387.
Brown, T. T., De Lahunte, A., Scott, F. W., Kahrs, R. F., McEntee, K., Gillespie, J. H., 1973, Virus induced congenital anomalies of the bovine fetus. II. Histopathology of cerebellar degeneration (hypoplasia) induced by the virus of bovine viral diarrhea-mucosal disease, Cornell Veterinary Medicine, 63, 4, 561-578.
Brownlie, J., 1990, Pathogenesis of mucosal disease and molecular aspects of bovine virus diarrhoea virus, Veterinary Microbiology, 23, 371-82.
Brownlie, J., 1990, Pathogenesis of mucosal disease and molecular aspects of bovine virus diarrhoea virus, Veterinary Microbiology, 23, 1-4, 71-82.
Brownlie, J., Clarke, M. C. and Howard, C. J., 1984, Experimental production of fatal mucosal disease in cattle, Veterinary Record, 114, 535-536.
Brownlie, J., Clarke, M. C., Howard, C. J. and Pocock, D. H., 1987, Pathogenesis and epidemiology of bovine virus diarrhoea virus infection of cattle, Annales de Recherches Veterinaires, 18, 157-166.
Brownlie, J., Hooper, L. B., Thompson, I., Collins, M. E., 1998, Maternal recognition of foetal infection with bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV)-the bovine pestivirus, Clinical and Diagnostic Virology,10, 2-3, 141-150.
Bruschke, C. J., Haghparast, A., Hoek, A., Rutten, V. P., Wentink, G. H., van Rijn, P. A. and van Oirschot, J. T., 1998, The immune response of cattle, persistently infected with noncytopathic BVDV, after superinfection with antigenically semi- homologous cytopathic BVDV, Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 62, 37-50.
Bulut, O., Yavru, S., Yapkıç, O., Kale, M., Avcı, O., Hasırcıoğlu, S., 2006, Sütçü sığırların bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) ve bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) enfeksiyonları yönünden elisa ile araştırılması, Hayvancılık Araştırma Dergisi, 16, 2, 18-24.
Burgu, İ., Alkan, F., Özkul, A., Yeşilbağ, K., Karaoğlu, T., Güngör, B., 2003, Türkiye'de süt sığırcılığı işletmelerinde bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) enfeksiyonunun epidemiyolojisi ve kontrolü, Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 50, 127-133.
Canal, C. W., Strasser, M., Hertig, C., Masuda, A., Peterhans, E., 1998, Detection of antibodies to bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) and characterization of genomes of BVDV from Brazil, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 63, 85-97.
Childs, T., 1946, X disease of cattle in Saskatchewan, Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, 10, 316-319.
Corapi, W. V., Elliott, R. D., French, T. W., Arthur, D. G., Bezek, D. M. and Dubovi, E. J., 1990, Thrombocytopenia and hemorrhages in veal calves infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 196, 590-596.
Coria, M. F. and McClurkin, A. W., 1978, Duration of active and colostrum-deprived passive antibodies to bovine viral diarrhea virus in calves, Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, 42, 239-249.
Cortese, V. S., Grooms, D. L., Ellis, J., Bolin, S. R., Ridpath, J. F. and Brock, K. V., 1998, Protection of pregnant cattle and their fetuses against infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 by use of a modified-live virus vaccine, American Journal of Veterinary Research, 59, 1409-1413.
Çabalar, M., Karaoğlu, T., 1999, Sığırlarda bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus enfeksiyonuna karşı antikor varlığının araştırılmasında nötralizasyon, immunperoksidaz (NPLA) ve serum nötralizasyon (SN) testlerinin karşılaştırılması, Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 46, 249-55.
De Verdier Klingenberg, K., Vagsholm, I. and Alenius, S., 1999, Incidence of diarrhea among calves after strict closure and eradication of bovine viral diarrhea virus
infection in a dairy herd, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 214, 1824-1828.
Done, J. T., Terlecki, S., Richardson, C., Harkness, J. W., Sands, J. J., Patterson, D. S., Sweasey, D., Shaw, I. G., Winkler, C. E., Duffell, S. J., 1980, Bovine virus diarrhoea-mucosal disease virus: pathogenicity for the fetal calf following maternal infection, Veterinary Record, 106, 23, 473-479.
Dubovi, E. J., 1994, Bovine viral diarrhea virus and border disease virus. Encyclopedia of virology, Vol. 1, Webster R. G, Granoff A. (eds.), Academic Press, London, p. 175–181.
Duffell, S. J., Harkness, J. W., 1985, Bovine virus diarrhoea-mucosal disease infection in cattle, Veterinary Record, 117, 10, 240-245.
Duman, R., Yavru, S., Kale, M., Avcı, O., 2009, Seroprevalence of viral upper respiratory infections in dairy cattle, Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 15, 4, 539-542.
Duong, M . C . , Alenius, S., Huong, L. T. T., Bjorkman, C., 2008, Prevalence of
Neospora caninum and bovine viral diarrhoea virus in dairy cows in Southern Vietnam, The Veterinary Journal, 175, 390-394.
Evermann, J. F. and Barrington, G. M., 2005, Clinical features. Bovine viral diarrhea virus:diagnosis, management, and control, Goyal S.M. and Ridpath J. (eds.), Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa, USA. 105-119. pp.
Falcone, E., Tollis, M. and Conti, G., 1999, Bovine viral diarrhea disease associated with a contaminated vaccine, Vaccine, 18, 387-388.
Fernandez, A., Hewicker, M., Trautwein, G., Pohlenz, J., Liess, B., 1989, Viral antigen distribution in the central nervous system of cattle persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus, Veterinary Pathology, 26, 1, 26-32.
Flores, E. F., Ridpath, J. F., Weiblen, R., Vogel, F. S. and Gil, L. H., 2002, Phylogenetic analysis of Brazilian bovine viral diarrhea virus type 2 (BVDV-2) isolates: evidence for a subgenotype within BVDV-2, Virus Research, 87, 51-60.
Fredriksen, B., Sandvik, T., Loken, T. and Odegaard, S.A., 1999, Level and duration of serum antibodies in cattle infected experimentally and naturally with bovine virus diarrhoea virus, Veterinary Record, 144, 111-114.
Frey, H. R., Eicken, K., Grummer, B., Kenklies, S., Oguzoglu, T.C. and Moennig, V., 2002, Foetal protection against bovine virus diarrhoea virus after two-step vaccination, Journal of Veterinary Medicine. B, Infectious Diseases and Veterinary Public Health, 49, 489-493.
Fulton, R. W., 2005, Vaccines. Bovine viral diarrhea virus: diagnosis, management, and control, Goyal S. M. and Ridpath J. (eds.), Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa, USA, 209-222.
Fulton, R. W., Step, D. L., Ridpath, J. F., Saliki, J. T., Confer, A. W., Johnson, B. J., Briggs, R. E., Hawley, R. V., Burge, L. J. and Payton, M. E., 2003b, Response of calves persistently infected with noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) subtype 1b after vaccination with heterologous BVDV strains in modified live virus vaccines and Mannheimia haemolytica bacterin-toxoid, Vaccine, 21, 2980-2985.
Gaede, W., Gehrmann, B., Kenklies, S., Mewes, L., Pollandt, G., Krippner, S. and Ewert, B., 2004, Eradication program for BVDV in Saxony-Anhalt (Germany). Revista Portuguesa de Ciências Veterinárias Supl. 127, pp. 42-43.
Givens, M. D. and Waldrop, J. G., 2004, Bovine viral diarrhea virus in embryo and semen production systems, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 20, 21-38.
Graham, D. A., Calvert, V., Mooney, J., Crawford, J. and Clery, D., 2004, Birth of persistently infected calves in two herds using inactivated vaccines, Revista Portuguesa de Ciências Veterinárias Supl. 127, p. 38.
Graham, D. A., German, A., Mawhinney, K. and Goodall, E. A., 2003, Antibody responses of naive cattle to two inactivated bovine viral diarrhoea virus vaccines, measured by indirect and blocking ELISAS and virus neutralisation, Veterinary Record, 152, 795-800.
Graham, D. A., German, A., McLaren, I. E. and Fitzpatrick, D. A., 2001, Testing of bulk tank milk from Northern Ireland dairy herds for viral RNA and antibody to bovine viral diarrhoea virus, Veterinary Record, 149, 261-265.
Greiser-Wilke, I., Grummer, B. and Moennig, V., 2003, Bovine viral diarrhoea eradication and control programmes in Europe, Biologicals, 31, 113-118.
Grooms, D. L., 2004, Reproductive consequences of infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 20, 5- 19.
Guarino, H., Núñez, A., Repiso, M. V., Gil, A., Dargatz, D. A., 2008, Prevalence of serum antibodies to bovine herpesvirus-1 and bovine viral diarrhea virus in beef cattle in Uruguay, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 85, 34–40.
Hamers, C., Lecomte, C., Kulcsar, G., Lambot, M. and Pastoret, P. P., 1998, Persistently infected cattle stabilise bovine viral diarrhea virus leading to herd specific strains, Veterinary Microbiology, 61, 177-182.
Hamers, C., Dehan, P., Couvreur, B., Letellier, C., Kerkhofs, P. and Pastoret, P. P., 2001, Diversity among bovine pestiviruses, The Veterinary Journal, 161, 112-122. Hashemi Tabar, G. R., Haghparast, A. and Naseri, Z., 2010, Prevalence of bovine viral
diarrhea virus antibodies and antigen among the aborted dairy cows in industrial dairy cattle herds in Mashhad Area-Iran, World Applied Sciences Journal, 8, 5, 635-640.
Heinz, F. X., Collett, M. S., Purcell, R. H., Gould, E. A., Howard, C. R., Houghton, M., Moormann, R. J. M., Rice, C. M. and Thiel, H.-J., 2000, Family flaviviridae. Virus taxonomy: seventh report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses, van Regenmortel C.M.F.M.H.V., Bishop D.H.L., Carstens E.B., Estes M.K., Lemon S.M., Maniloff J., Mayo M.A., McGeoch D.J., Pringle C.R. and Wickner R.B. (eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Hirsh, D. C., Zee, C. Y., 1999, Veterinary microbiology. Blackwell Publishing, 9th edition, London, 479.
Houe, H. and Meyling, A., 1991, Prevalence of bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) in 19 Danish dairy herds and estimation of incidence in early pregnancy, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 11, 9–16.
Houe, H., 1992, Age distribution of animals persistently infected with bovine virus diarrhea virus in twenty-two Danish dairy herds, Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 56, 194-198.
Houe, H., 1999, Epidemiological features and economical importance of bovine virus diarrhea virus (BVDV) infections, Veterinary Microbiology, 64, 89–107.
Houe, H., 2005. Risk assessment. Bovine viral diarrhea virus: diagnosis, management, and control, Goyal S.M and Ridpath J (eds.), Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Howard, C. J., 1990, Immunological responses to bovine virus diarrhoea virus infections, Revue scientifique et technique, 9, 1, 95-103.
Hult, L. and Lindberg, A., 2005, Experiences from BVDV control in Sweden, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 143-148.
Joly, A., Fourichon, C., Beaudeau, F., 2005, Description and first results of a BVDV control scheme in Brittany (Western France), Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 209-213.
Kahrs, R. F., 2001, Viral Diseases of Cattle, Iowa State University Press, 2nd ed., Ames, 120-121.
Kale, M., Ata, A., Yavru, S., Yapkıc, O., Bulut, O., Gulay, M. S., 2006, The effect of infection with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus on the fertility of cows and heifers, Acta Veterinaria (Beograd), 56, 467-477.
Kale, M., Yavru, S., Ata, A., Kocamüftüoğlu, M., Yapıcı, O., Hasırcıoğlu, S., 2011, Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) Infection in Relation to Fertility in Heifers, The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 73,3.
Kampa, J., Ståhl, K., Moreno-Lopez, J., Chanlun, A., Aiumlamai, S. and Alenius, S., 2004, BVDV and BHV-1 infections in dairy herds in northern and northeastern Thailand, Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 45, 181-192.
Kayacan, G., 2008, Konya ve çevresinde bulunan süt sığırcılığı işletmelerindeki hayvanlara ait kan ve süt serumlarında bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV)’una
karşı oluşan antikorların elisa ile araştırılması, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Konya, 1-44.
Kelling, C.L., 2004, Evolution of bovine viral diarrhea virus vaccines, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 20, 115-129.
Kummerer, B. M., Tautz, N., Becher, P., Thiel, H. and Meyers, G., 2000, The genetic basis for cytopathogenicity of pestiviruses, Veterinary Microbiology, 77, 117-128. Laamanen, U. I., Neuvonen, E. P., Yliviuhkola, E. M., Veijalainen, P. M., 1997,
Comparison of RT-PCR assay and virus isolation in cell cultures for the detection of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) in field samples, Research in Veterinary Science, 63, 3, 199-203.
Letellier, C. and Kerkhofs, P., 2003, Real-time PCR for simultaneous detection and genotyping of bovine viral diarrhea virus, Journal of Virological Methods, 114, 21-27.
Liess, B., Frey, H. R, Orban, S., Trautwein, G., 1987, Impact of intrauterin bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) virus infection in cattle, Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 34, 3, 555-561.
Lindberg, A. and Houe, H., 2005, Characteristics in the epidemiology of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) of relevance to control, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 55-73.
Lindberg, A. L. and Alenius, S., 1999, Principles for eradication of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infections in cattle populations, Veterinary Microbiology, 64, 197-222.
Mainar-Jaime, R. C., Berzal-Herranz, B., Arias, P., Rojo-Vazquez, F. A., 2001, Epidemiological pattern and risk factors associated with bovine-viral diarhoea virus (BVDV) infection in a nonvaccinated dairy cattle population from the Asturias region of Spain, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 52, 63-73.
McClurkin, A. W., Coria, M. F. and Cutlip, R. C., 1979, Reproductive performance of apparently healthy cattle persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 174, 1116-9.
McClurkin, A. W., Littledike, E. T., Cutlip, R. C., Frank, G. H., Coria, M. F., Bolin, S. R., 1984, Production of cattle immunotolerant to bovine viral diarrhea virus, Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine, 48, 156-161.
McGoldrick, A., Bensaude, E., Ibata, G., Sharp, G. and Paton, D. J., 1999, Closed one- tube reverse transcription nested polymerase chain reaction for the detection of pestiviral RNA with fluorescent probes, Journal of Virological Methods, 79, 85- 95.
Meyers, G. and Thiel, H. J., 1996, Molecular characterization of pestiviruses, Advances in Virus Research, 47, 53-118.
Milli, Ü. H., Hazıroğlu, R., 2000, Veteriner Patoloji, Cilt 1, İkinci Baskı, Özkan Matbaacılık, Ankara, 15-18.
Mockeliūnienė, V., Šalomskas, A., Mockeliūnas, R., Petkevičius, S., 2004, Prevalence and epidemiological features of bovine viral diarrhoea virus infection in Lithuania, Veterinary Microbiology, 99, 51-57.
Moen, A., Sol, J. and Sampimon, O., 2005, Indication of transmission of BVDV in the absence of persistently infected (PI) animals, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 93-98.
Moennig, V. and Liess, B., 1995, Pathogenesis of intrauterine infections with bovine viral diarrhea virus, Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice, 11, 477-487.
Moennig, V., Eicken, K., Flebbe, U., Frey, H. R., Grummer, B., Haas, L., Greiser- Wilke, I. and Liess, B., 2005, Implementation of two-step vaccination in the control of bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD), Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 109-114.
Moerman, A., Straver, P. J., de Jong, M. C., Quak, J., Baanvinger, T. and van Oirschot, J. T., 1993, A long term epidemiological study of bovine viral diarrhoea infections in a large herd of dairy cattle, Veterinary Record, 132, 622-626.
Munoz-Zanzi, C. A., Hietala, S. K., Thurmond, M. C. and Johnson, W. O., 2003, Quantification, risk factors, and health impact of natural congenital infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus in dairy calves, American Journal of Veterinary Research, 64, 358-365.
Nagai, M., Hayashi, M., Sugita, S., Sakoda, Y., Mori, M., Murakami, T., Ozawa, T., Yamada, N. and Akashi, H., 2004, Phylogenetic analysis of bovine viral diarrhea viruses using five different genetic regions, Virus Research, 99, 103-113.
Nettleton, P. F., Entrican, G., 1995, Ruminant pestiviruses, British Veterinary Journal, 151, 615–642.
Niemi, S. M., Evermann, J. F., Huffman, E. M., Kirk, J. H., 1982, Border disease virus isolation from postpartum ewes, American Journal of Veterinary Research, 43, 1, 86-88.
Niskanen, R., Lindberg, A. and Traven, M., 2002, Failure to spread bovine virus diarrhoea virus infection from primarily infected calves despite concurrent infection with bovine coronavirus, The Veterinary Journal, 163, 251-259.
Nyberg, O., Østerås, O. and Plym-Forshell, K., 2004, Eradication of BVDV-infections in Norwegian cattle 1992-2003- a success story, Revista Portuguesa de Ciências Veterinárias Supl. 127, pp.14-15.
Obando, R. C., Hidalgo, M., Merza, M., Montoya, A., Klingeborn, B., Moreno-Lopez, J., 1999, Seroprevalence to bovine virus diarheoea virus and other viruses of the bovine respiratory complex in Venezuela (Apure State), Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 41, 271-278.
Odeón, A. C., Kelling, C. L., Marshall, D. J., Estela, E. S., Dubovi, E. J., Donis, R. O., 1999, Experimental infection of calves with bovine viral diarrhea virus genotype II (NY-93), Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 11, 3, 221-228.
Okur-Gümüşova, S, Yazıcı, Z., Albayrak, H., Cakiroglu, D., 2007, Seroprevalence of bovine respiratory diseases, Acta Veterinaria (Beograd), 57, 11-16.
Olafson, P., Maccallum, A. D. and Fox, F. H., 1946, An apparently new transmissible disease of cattle, Cornell Veterinarian, 36, 205-213.
O'Rourke, K., 2002, BVDV: 40 years of effort and the disease still has a firm hold, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 220, 1770-1773.
Patel, J. R., Shilleto, R. W., Williams, J. and Alexander, D. C., 2002, Prevention of transplacental infection of bovine foetus by bovine viral diarrhoea virus through vaccination, Archives of Virology, 147, 2453-2463.
Paton, D. J., Carlsson, U., Lowings, J. P., Sands, J. J., Vilcek, S. and Alenius, S., 1995a, Identification of herd-specific bovine viral diarrhoea virus isolates from infected cattle and sheep,Veterinary Microbiology, 43, 283-294.
Paton, D. J., Sands, J. J., Lowings, J. P., Smith, J. E., Ibata, G. and Edwards, S., 1995b, A proposed division of the pestivirus genus using monoclonal antibodies, supported by cross-neutralisation assays and genetic sequencing, Veterinary Research, 26, 92-109.
Paton, D.J., Christiansen, K. H., Alenius, S., Cranwell, M. P., Pritchard, G. C. and Drew, T. W., 1998, Prevalence of antibodies to bovine virus diarrhoea virus and other viruses in bulk tank milk in England and Wales, Veterinary Record, 142, 385-391.
Pellerin, C., van den Hurk, J., Lecomte, J. and Tussen, P., 1994, Identification of a new group of bovine viral diarrhea virus strains associated with severe outbreaks and high mortalities, Virology, 203, 260-268.
Perler, L., Schweizer, M., Jungi, T. W. and Peterhans, E., 2000., Bovine viral diarrhoea virus and bovine herpesvirus-1 prime uninfected macrophages for lipopolysaccharide-triggered apoptosis by interferon-dependent and -independent pathways. Journal of General Virology, 81, 881-887.
Pizarro-Lucero, J., Celedon, M. O., Navarro, C., Ortega, R. and Gonzalez, D., 2005, Identification of a pestivirus isolated from a free-ranging pudu (Pudu puda) in Chile, Veterinary Record, 157, 292-294.
Ribeiro-Niza, J., Pereira, A., Souza, J., Maderia, H., Barbosa, A., Afonso, C., 2005, Estimated BVDV prevalence, -contact and- vaccine use in dairy herds in Northern Portugal, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 81-85.
Ridpath, J. F., 2005b, Practical significance of heterogeneity among BVDV strains: impact of biotype and genotype on U.S. control programs, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 17-30.
Ridpath, J. F., Bolin, S. R. and Dubovi, E. J., 1994, Segregation of bovine viral diarrhea virus into genotypes, Virology, 205, 66-74.
Ridpath, J. F., Neill, J. D., Frey, M. and Landgraf, J. G., 2000, Phylogenetic, antigenic and clinical characterization of type 2 BVDV from North America, Veterinary Microbiology, 77, 145-155.
Ridpath, J., 2005a., Classification and molecular biology. Bovine viral diarrhea virus: diagnosis, management, and control, Goyal S.M. and Ridpath J. (eds.), Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Rikula, U., Nuotio, L., Aaltonen, T. and Ruoho, O., 2005, Bovine viral diarrhoea virus control in Finland 1998-2004, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 139-142. Roeder, P. L., Harkness, J. W., 1986, BVD virus infection: Prospects of control,
Veterinary Record, 118, 44-48.
Sandvik, T., 1999, Laboratory diagnostic investigations for bovine viral diarrhoea virus infections in cattle, Veterinary Microbiology, 64, 2-3, 123-134.
Sandvik, T., 2004, Progress of control and prevention programs for bovine viral diarrhea virus in Europe, Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 20, 151-169.
Sandvik, T., 2005, Selection and use of laboratory diagnostic assays in BVD control programmes, Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 72, 3-16.
Schirrmeier, H., Strebelow, G., Depner, K., Hoffmann, B. and Beer, M., 2004, Genetic and antigenic characterization of an atypical pestivirus isolate, a putative member of a novel pestivirus species, Journal of General Virology, 85, 3647-3652.
Schweizer, M. and Peterhans, E., 1999, Oxidative stress in cells infected with bovine viral diarrhoea virus: a crucial step in the induction of apoptosis, Journal of General Virology, 80, 5, 1147-1155.
Schweizer, M. and Peterhans, E., 2001, Noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus inhibits double-stranded RNA-induced apoptosis and interferon synthesis, Journal of Virology, 75, 4692-4698.
Smith, B., 1996, Bovine Virus Diarrhea-Mucosal Disease: Large Animal Internal Medicine, Mosby Publications, 806-814.
Ståhl, K., 2006, Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus and Other Reproductive Pathogens- Epidemiological Studies in Peruvian Cattle, Doctoral thesis, Swedish University