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Lisans Tezi

TRANSLATION PROJECT ON THE ECONOMICS OF TRANSLATION

NECİP FAZIL KESKİN

ÇEVİRİBİLİM BÖLÜMÜ

İstanbul 29 Mayıs Üniversitesi, İstanbul

Haziran 2020

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TRANSLATION PROJECT ON THE ECONOMICS OF TRANSLATION

NECİP FAZIL KESKİN

Danışman: Öğr. Gör. Kadir İlbey ÇAKIROĞLU

İstanbul 29 Mayıs Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi

Lisans Bitirme Tezi Yönetmeliği Uyarınca Bölüm

LİSANS BİTİRME TEZİ Olarak Hazırlanmıştır

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BEYAN

Bu tezin yazılmasında bilimsel ahlak kurallarına uyulduğunu, başkalarının eserlerinden yararlanılması durumunda bilimsel normlara uygun olarak atıfta bulunulduğunu, kullanılan verilerde herhangi bir tahrifat yapılmadığını, tezin herhangi bir kısmının bu üniversite veya başka bir üniversitedeki başka bir tez çalışması olarak sunulmadığını beyan ederim.

NECİP FAZIL KESKİN HAZİRAN 2020

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my adviser Inst. Kadir İlbey ÇAKIROĞLU for helping me choose my thesis topic and his guidance throughout the whole process. It would be impossible for me to finish this paper successfully without his help and instructions.

I would like to thank Prof. Işın ÖNER for her dedication to this Translation and Interpreting department. Her dedication and expertness light the way of being a translator for me.

I would like to thank Inst. Bekir DİRİ for his support throughout my education life, he has always helped me and my friends in many occasions without a doubt. Without his guidance I would not be a freelance translator at the moment.

Lastly, I would like to thank all my lecturers who have shared their insights and knowledges and helped me to successfully finish translation and interpreting program.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

BEYAN ... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... IV

1. INTRODUCTION ... 1

2. REFLECTION ... 3

3. PRE-TRANSLATION PROCESS ... 6

3.2SOURCE TEXT SELECTION ... 6

3.3SOURCE TEXT ANALYSIS ... 7

3.4TERMINOLOGY ... 8

4. TRANSLATION PROCESS ... 9

5. POST-TRANSLATION PROCESS ... 10

6. COMMENTARY ... 11

7. CONCLUSION ... 14

8. REFERENCES ... 15

9. APPENDICES ... 16

9.2APPENDIX ISOURCE TEXT ... 16

9.3APPENDIX IITARGET TEXT ... 36

9.4APPENDIX IIITERM LIST... 55

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1. INTRODUCTION

This thesis is prepared for the requirement of the course TRE 402 Thesis as a part of translation thesis project. It is about translating a paper which is related to the economic side of translation.

The paper that I translated is named “The translation of economics and the economics of translation” written by Łucja Biel and Vilelmini Sosoni (Biel and Sosoni 2017, 351-361). This paper was published in 2017 in a special issue of the Perspectives journal. Papers in the special issue consists of economic translation, technological changes in the translation sector, crowdsourcing, and sociological approaches to translation mentioning to the habitus of translators, changes in the translation profession and sector. In this paper, the writers firstly touch upon the economics of translation by mapping the field of economic translation, explaining the specificity of business discourse, and showing research trends in economic translation by sharing some recent researches on the field. Secondly, they touch upon the economics of translation by remarking the origins of change as continuing globalization, increased migration, the 2008 crisis and the development of digital world; remarking the implications of change as the technologization in the translation with computer-assisted translation tools and crowdsourcing. Lastly, the writers give information about the special issue and what the writers of the papers in the issue explain in their papers.

This thesis paper consists of a reflection text on the source text, pre-translation, translation and post-translation processes, commentary and conclusion. In the reflection section, I will share my thoughts about the paper that I translated and specific points that

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I agree or disagree. In the pre-translation section, I will mention what I had done prior to the translation process including how I decided on the project topic and chose the paper explaining the driving force behind my decisions. I will also analyze the source text and explain how I prepared the terminology list properly. Then I will summarize the translation process. In the post-translation section, I will explain how I edited the target text before finishing the translation task and which program I used in order to check the text’s quality. In the commentary section I will share my decisions on translation and terminology and mention the challenges that I overcame and what I learned from them.

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2. REFLECTION

In this section, I will mention my thoughts about the paper that I translated, its relation with what I have learned in university in the past four years and how my background knowledge from university affected the way that I carry out this whole process.

The very first sentence of the paper is about how globalization has shrunken the world. I agree with the approach that globalization has brought people closer together as economically and politically the world is more open than it used to be. I think, this development has importance especially for translators as “Translators mediate between cultures (including ideologies, moral systems and socio-political structures), seeking to overcome those incompatibilities which stand in the way of transfer of meaning.” (Hatim and Mason 1990). In the first two semesters of university, we have taken Intercultural Communication Skills I and II courses from Inst. Mehtap GÜVEN ÇOBAN and we mainly focused skills such as how to remove barriers of language or culture when speaking to a foreigner, how to adapt and act accordingly in an intercultural environment.

In Intercultural Communication Skills lectures we learned techniques for analyzing speeches and cultures and acting accordingly. Those lectures had a significant effect on me in the upcoming years in that as a translator, one must be able to feel comfortable in an intercultural environment and should carry out his or her role as a mediator.

I also agree that increase in the translation needs inevitably resulted in the advancement of translation technologies. Many major LSP’s have adapted their workflows according to the “new era” after the occurrence of machine translation. In the second year of university, we have taken courses named Translation Technologies I and

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II by Inst. Bekir DİRİ. In those lectures, we have started from the very beginning (tips on MS Office use, how to properly use Google Search) and progressed all the way up to the most current innovations and initiatives in the sector such as the use of rule-based, static and neural machine translation, post-editing, crowdsourcing; the use computer aided translation tools, quality assurance tools and project management tools. We have experienced the advancement of technology and its helps to us translators at first hand.

By the aid of machine translation, I can translate up to 4000 words a day while with traditional methods I can only translate approximately 2000 words a day. Computer-aided translation tools ease the way of coordinated working for translator and the use of machine translation fastens the translation process if used properly. With my first-hand experience and information that I have acquired from the Translation Technologies courses, I can state that the advancement of translation technologies and developments in the digital world fastened the translation processes drastically. In addition, in the fourth year we have taken a course named Translation and Interpreting Service Providing Business from Prof. Işın ÖNER, in that course we have learned how the translation businesses founded and developed into huge worldwide companies while gaining insight on how the businesses work. We have seen that major LSP’s kept pace with developments and quickly adapted themselves to the changes in the sector.

“There are roughly five parameters of translational competence, viz. (1) language competence, (2) textual competence, (3) subject competence, (4) cultural competence, and, last but not least, (5) transfer competence.” (Neubert 2000, 6) In the future, we might see drastic changes in the description of the translation profession. In addition to the aforementioned ones, different competences might be needed with the advancement of

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the technology. Day by day, translators are adapting themselves to those advancements and I think that the description of the translation profession will be changed accordingly.

Those who cannot keep pace with innovations will left behind and those who improve themselves with acquiring new competences will move the translation sector forward.

Consequently, translators will most likely be post-editors and proofreaders in time as the machine translation and artificial intelligence are advancing without slowing down.

I also want to mention to the Research Techniques course by Inst. Kadir İlbey ÇAKIROĞLU that we took in the fourth year of university. In that lecture, we worked on how to make researches properly for the purpose of both thesis related works and translation related investigation. Without the knowledge that I acquired from that lesson, the process of thesis writing and translation of the paper would be much harder in terms of finding the needed information from the internet or various electronic databases.

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3. PRE-TRANSLATION PROCESS

In the pre-translation section, I will explain how I decided on the topic and the source text; analyze the source text. In addition, I will mention how I extracted the terminology and made it ready for the translation process.

3.2 Source text selection

As economy has been drawing my attention especially in the last two years, I have decided to work on a text that is both related with economics and translation. Firstly, I thought of working on a text that made a terminology study for the economics field.

However, my adviser suggested me not to work on such a text in that I would have to do a lot of literature search and it would be difficult in a limited period of time. After some consultations with my adviser and doing some research, I have found a paper named “The translation of economics and the economics of translation” (Biel and Sosoni 2017, 351- 361). As a translation department student, I have always been interested in the changes of the economy, translation sector and the technological developments regarding translation. The reason why I chose to work on this paper is that, I think it is inclusive in terms of my fields of interest. I started working on this article because I thought it would be beneficial to translate in this field since, as it is also stated in the paper, studies on the relationship between economy and translation are few in number.

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7 3.3 Source text analysis

As I have learned in the Translation Oriented Text Analysis I and II lectures from Asst.

Prof. Nilüfer ALİMEN and Translation Quality and Standards lecture from Inst. Kadir İlbey ÇAKIROĞLU, an analysis of source text prior to translation is a must. In order to carry out a successful analysis, under mentioned extratextual factors (Nord 2005, 81) are to be investigated:

• Who is the sender of this text?

• What is the intention of the sender?

• Who is the audience?

• What is the medium?

• When was the paper written?

This paper was written by Łucja Biel and Vilelmini Sosoni in 2017. purpose of this paper is to investigate the field of economic translation while remarking the new research trends. In addition, provide an insight to the economics of the translation as a profession and sociological situation of translators. The receivers are translation scholars and translators. The medium of the text is the Perspectives journal.

The source text consists of 20,244 characters. The paper contains 12 pages with references.

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8 3.4 Terminology

In order to accelerate the process of term extraction, I have used a term extraction tool named TermoStat by the suggestion of my adviser. I have uploaded the source text to the application and eliminated some words that cannot be categorized as terms such as

“translation”. After that, with the help of my adviser, I have created a term list (see appendix III) in a Microsoft Excel file and wrote down the suitable equivalences of terms by doing field research. However, even though the term list was ready, it was dynamic and been through some changes all the way through the translation process. I will share some of those changes and examples of terminology decisions in commentary part.

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4. TRANSLATION PROCESS

Before getting into the translation process, by the suggestion of my adviser, I have prepared a schedule that contains every part of the whole thesis project and has adjusted timelines for each step such as term extraction, translation, editing. The schedule helped me to work punctually in an organized way even though we encountered the Coronavirus pandemic. According to the schedule, I was going to finish the translation in five weeks before the midterm exams begin. Therefore, I divided the source text into five parts which means I had to translate 4048 characters each week. After the technical preparation such as adapting the source text for the computer-aided translation tool and eliminating the unnecessary parts, my adviser uploaded the source text to Smartcat and I was ready to start translating. In order to manage the process better, my adviser scheduled weekly meetings and in each of those meetings we have talked about my translation and corrected translation errors according to his suggestions. Later on, as a result of the Coronavirus pandemic, we have started to do e-meetings via Zoom application till the end of the project.

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5. POST-TRANSLATION PROCESS

After the completion of the translation I did a final check and edit. I downloaded the xliff file from Smartcat to make a quality assurance check from Xbench application. From the quality assurance report, I saw some mechanic errors such as double blanks or spaces before punctuation marks. I edited the text according to the report and marked false positives in the report such as numeric mismatches or CamelCase mismatches. Finally, I adjusted the text format to make it suitable for thesis.

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6. COMMENTARY

In this section, I will share my decisions for specific examples from the translation and terminology. In addition, I will explain some challenges that I encountered throughout the whole process.

6.2 Translation decisions

As the paper that I worked on is an academical article, I have paid utmost attention to the style. I have always had problems with academical translation as the formal language has a specific style that I am not that competent in. However, with the guidance of my adviser, I have set standards for tenses and conformed to them while translating. For most of the sentences I have tried to use “-miştir/-mıştır” when the sentence is in past tense, “-ar/-er” when the sentence is in present tense, and “-mekte/- makta” when the sentence is in continuous form. With this approach I have managed to provide consistency.

For the sake of better readability, I have split the sentences wherever possible as there were many sentences that were challenging to read and understand due to their lengths.

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12 6.3 Terminology decisions

Even though I have prepared the term list prior to the translation process, the list kept changing. Some terms were added while some were removed and some were given a different equivalent. All of these changes were result of researches and findings from different articles.

I have translated the term “competence” as “yetkinlik” however I made a research and found Assoc. Prof. Esra Birkan BAYDAN’s article about translation competence (Baydan 2013, 103-123) in which she uses the term as “edinç”. Therefore, I revised the term and used “edinç”.

I have translated the term “hybridity” as “hibritlik” with reference to

Çeviribilimin Paradigmaları IV-Çeviri Seçkisi book. (Üründü and Öncü 2018, 73-75).

At the beginning, I could not find an equivalence for the “framing” term. After some research, I have found doctoral dissertation of Tuba Ayık AKÇA and in that article the term was used as “çerçeveleme” (Akça 2012, 22-75). Therefore, I decided on using the term as “çerçeveleme”.

6.4 Challenges

Thanks to tools such as TermoStat, Smartcat, Xbench the overall process was

considerably smooth and problem-free. I have had minor problems with computer-aided translation tools after the conversion of pdf file to word; some words were slipped, corrupted and punctuation was not accurate and consistent, there were even unreadable words. At the end, I used ABBYY FineReader and received a relatively problem-free word file and made the necessary adjustments.

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The single biggest challenge for me and probably every other student was the outbreak of Coronavirus pandemic. We had set schedules and planned regular meetings to check the process with our adviser and receive his feedback. After the Coronavirus pandemic, the whole education system entirely changed and so did our plans. Despite the fact that we have had minor lack of communication from time to time, thanks to our pre-set schedules and punctual work we managed the process smoothly.

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7. CONCLUSION

This thesis is based on a translation of an article named “The translation of economics and the economics of translation” written by Łucja Biel and Vilelmini Sosoni (Biel and Sosoni 2017, 351-361).

In the introduction part, I gave information about the article that I translated, made a brief summary of it and explained what I will examine on this dissertation project. In the reflection part, I explained my thoughts about the article and commented on specific points. I have also shared my experience of educational life from the past four years and made links between the lectures that I have taken and the article. Then I explained the whole process including pre-translation, translation and post-translation periods. In the commentary part, I commented on the whole process and showed examples of my specific translation and terminology decisions. I have also touched upon some challenges that I have encountered.

To conclude, effects of globalization and economy on translation are undeniable.

With the advancement of economies and the rise of globalization, technological developments gain momentum. Therefore, every profession and business are to undergo changes. These changes are even reaching out to translators’ habitus by forcing them to adapt to innovations such as machine translation or artificial intelligence by acquiring new competences. I believe that, translators who adapt themselves to innovations and advancements will lead the translation sector while improving the quality of the works that are carried out.

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8. REFERENCES

Akça, Tuba Ayık. "Türkiye’nin AB Politikalarına Uyum Sürecinde." İstanbul, Ocak 2012.

Biel, Łucja, and Vilelmini Sosoni. "The translation of economics and the economics of translation." Perspectives, no. 3 (May 2017): 351-361.

Birkan-Baydan, Esra. "Çeviri Eğitiminde Çeviri / Çevirmenlik Edinci: Problem Çözme ve Karar Verme Konusunda Bir Farkindalik Uygulamasi." İstanbul Üniversitesi Çeviribilim Dergisi 4, no. 7 (2013): 103-125.

Hatim, Basil, and Ian Mason. Discourse and the Translator. London: Longman, 1990.

"Köprü Üzerinde Hareket Çeeviride Dilsel Hibritlik." In Çeviribilimin Paradigmaları IV- Çeviri Seçkisi, edited by Mehmet Öncü and Halit Üründü, 73-74-75. n.d.

Neubert, Albrecht. "Competence in Language, in Languages, and in Translation." In Developing Translation Competence, edited by Christina Schäffner and Beverly Adab, 6. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2000.

Nord, Christiane. Text analysis in translation: theory, methodology and didactic application of a model for translation-oriented text analysis. Amsterdam: Ropodi, 2005.

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9.APPENDICES

9.2 Appendix I Source Text

The translation of economics and the economics of translation

Łucja Biela and Vilelmini Sosoni

Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; Department of Foreign Languages, Translation and Interpreting, Ionian University, Corfu, Greece

ARTICLE HISTORY Received 24 March 2017 Accepted 27 March 2017

KEYWORDS

Economic translation; business translation; translation technology; machine translation;

crowdsourcing

1. Introduction

Since the mid-1990s, globalisation has shrunk the world by removing barriers and allowing access to information from anywhere in the world (Cronin, 2003, p. 43), while market deregulation has led to an explosion of financial transactions and increasing business activity. In that climate, economic translation has been central in translation practice and increasing in volume as well as impact, although it has been little researched over the years. The aim of this special issue is thus twofold: it intends to explore the

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specificities of economic translation and to investigate new research trends that appear in the field, while at the same time it wishes to cast some light on the economics of the profession and the changing habitus of the translator.

2. The translation of economics

2.1. Mapping the field of economic translation

Economic translation is an interdisciplinary area of research and professional practice that draws chiefly on translation studies (TS), economics, linguistics and communication studies. Firstly, it is one of the subfields within specialised translation, alongside legal, technical and medical translation, to name a few. Secondly, with respect to its knowledge base and domain, economic translation is related to economics and underlying overlapping concepts – business, economy, trade and commerce – that lend their name to it. Thirdly, economic translation draws on business communication, an academic discipline that grew in the early 1990s to research formal and informal communication within business organisations and with the outside world, with the practical goal of improving its effectiveness and efficiency (Nickerson, 2014, p. 50).

Within TS, the name for economic translation has not yet stabilised – it is referred to, often interchangeably, as economic translation, business translation or commercial translation. Although the first two terms are often regarded as synonyms, economic translation is more often found in academic contexts, while business translation tends to be used more frequently in the context of professional practice. Commercial translation is also used in the training context as a convenient generic name for translation courses that encompass a broad variety of texts translated in the world of business (cf. Olohan, 2010, p. 41); in addition, it appears as a generic name for specialised translation.

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Economic translation is subsumed in some curricula under the name ‘institutional translation’. This lack of stability attests to the emerging status of the field of economic translation.

While academia lags behind, business translation has always been one of translators’ core areas of specialisation, which has intensified since the early 1990s as a result of globalisation and the growth of multinational corporations. Dam and Koskinen (2016, p.

3) observed that business translators have dethroned literary translators as prototypical translators and have moved into the very centre of the translator profession.

2.2. Specificity of business discourse

Business discourse covers a broad variety of genres, from highly controlled and regulated genres, such as annual reports, investor prospectuses, financial statements and articles of association, to ritualised and relatively fixed genres, such as application letters, earnings forecasts, corporate social responsibility reporting, performance appraisals, mission statements and press releases, and, finally, to dynamic, much less predictable and creative genres, such as CEOs’ speeches, advertisements and corporate homepages. Very often these are hybrid, multimodal and multifunctional genres, the communicative purpose of which is not only informative but also operative with the persuasive content – for example, to promote a positive image of the company, to affect consumers’ behaviour and to drive sales.

As a type of specialised professional communication, one of the dominant features of business discourse is terminology that facilitates communication within the discourse community. Since terms are a means of representing and communicating specialised knowledge, economic terms are units of economic knowledge and points of access to

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knowledge structures of the domain, which are internalised and intersubjectively shared by the discourse community (cf. Biel, 2014, p. 41). Economic terminology is to some extent culture-specific due to historical and ideological differences between economic systems. It is also legal-system-bound, which applies particularly to business practices subject to regulation by law, e.g. company law, contract law and banking or finance law, which defines the concept systems of the domain and artificially fixes the meaning of concepts. On the other hand, due to the globalisation and internationalisation of business practices, business terminology is subject to a certain degree of harmonisation and unification and shows a higher degree of universality than does legal terminology.

Business terminology easily ‘travels’ across borders, usually transplanting concepts in a single direction, as a result of asymmetrical cultural encounters, from developed capitalist economies to developing, transitioning and emerging ones. Owing to the dominant position of English-speaking economies and the status of English as a lingua franca, business terminology is marked by a large number of borrowings and loans from English, which have been assimilated throughout the world. Economic terminology is also marked by high metaphorisation, a high incidence of neologisms, as well as increased variation across registers and genres.

2.3. Research trends in economic translation

Unlike other types of specialised translation, economic translation has been a relatively rare topic of monographs, edited volumes or special issues of journals. Although the last two decades have brought a visibly growing number of publications in this area, the field of economic translation remains fragmented and largely underresearched, with publications scattered across a number of sources.

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Research into economic translation applies mainly qualitative methods, e.g. discourse analysis (Chueca Moncayo, 2005), sociolinguistics (Le Poder, 2012), case studies (Vandal-Sirois, 2016) and game theory (Zhong, 2006); however, increasingly more publications have recently shifted towards quantitative methods of corpus linguistics (Chueca Moncayo, 2005; Valdeón, 2016).

Publications on economic translation, quite naturally, focus on terminology. Economic terms are approached within terminography and lexicography with practice-oriented goals to ensure adjustment to the translators’ needs (Bergenholtz, 2012; Fraile Vicente, 2008; Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2011). Several publications have studied central aspects of business terminology, such as terminological neologisms (Kelandrias, 2007; Mateo, 2014; Resche, 1999), an influx of borrowings and loans from English (Le Poder, 2012), euphemisms (Resche, 1999), vagueness and ambiguity (cf. Stolze, 2003), as well as their role in building texture through lexical cohesion (Chueca Moncayo, 2005).

Another frequently explored aspect is the increased metaphorisation of business discourse, which has been a very productive process within term formation, especially in finance (Kermas, 2006, p. 110). Business discourse is considered to be marked by hybridity, with a frequent use of general language metaphors that may be associated with ideologies and emotive meanings (Fraile Vicente, 2008, pp. 133–134). Metaphors are not only used to form terms, but also to talk about the behaviour of the economy, mainly by evoking natural phenomena (Fraile Vicente, 2008; Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2011;

Kermas, 2006, p. 120).

Other areas of research into economic translation are connected with translating selected genres. These include business correspondence (Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2008), economics textbooks (Buzelin, Dufault, & Foglia, 2015), corporate websites (Rike,

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2013), advertisements (Smith, 2006; Torresi, 2010; Vandal-Sirois, 2016), press releases (Kaniklidou & House, 2013) and other journalistic genres, e.g. opinion columns (Valdeón, 2016) and financial statements. One of the recurrent themes is the need for adaptation, rewriting, transcreation and cultural mediation in more creative genres, such as advertising (Vandal-Sirois, 2016), but also in relation to corporate websites (Rike, 2013). Some studies have focused on selected discursive aspects, including framing (Kaniklidou & House, 2013), rhetorical figures (Smith, 2006), politeness patterns (Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2008), redefinition of intraorganizational power through translation (Logemann & Piekkari, 2015) and the translators’ agency (Buzelin et al., 2015).

3. The economics of translation 3.1. The origins of change

The economics of translation, on the other hand, appears to be moving to the centre of TS as it is becoming more relevant due to four predominant factors: (a) unprecedented globalisation, (b) increased migration, (c) the global economic crisis of 2007–2008, which led to pressure on costs and increased productivity and (d) the advances of information communication technologies (ICTs).

Globalisation has been defined as ‘the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life’ (Held, McGrew, Goldblatt, & Perraton, 1999, p. 2). Although it is not a new phenomenon, given that it was already present in world religions and empires of antiquity, we have witnessed its most intense phase since the 1960s. As Bielsa (2005, p. 131) observed, globalisation results in the increased mobility of people and objects and very close contact between

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different linguistic communities, mainly through translation (Schäffner & Dimitriu, 2012, p. 262). In addition, the globalisation of markets, the digital revolution, the advent of the information economy and the globalisation of production have transformed translation into a fullyfledged industrial sector (Dunne, 2012).

The mobility of people in the form of global migration has been rising particularly rapidly in recent decades, exponentially increasing the need for international communication and translation. Many immigrants and refugees need translation services, from the actual immigration hearing, to accessing social services, as well as education and training. In 2015, according to the United Nations,1 the world held 244 million immigrants, i.e.

people living in a country other than where they were born, while the number of refugees who had been forced out of their birth country – 20 million – was higher than at any time since World War II. This is not surprising if we consider the fact that in the past 30 years the world has been shaken by wars, conflicts and persecution, as well as severe economic crises in different parts of the world.

Perhaps, though, the single most significant factor affecting the economics of translation has been the digital and ICT revolution, which has deeply changed society – and by extension translation – with consequences for some similar to those of the Industrial Revolution. Whole aspects of economic activities, finance, trade, research, education and leisure have been profoundly transformed by the explosion of electronic networks, digital technology and multimedia, while the combination of technologies has given rise to new products, services and modes of work. Accordingly, translation, as a process, a service and a product, has responded to the new state of affairs by revising its modes of operation, as discussed briefly below.

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23 3.2. The implications of change

The rise in the need for translation, coupled with the need to keep costs low and productivity high, inevitably led to the creation of big translation companies to manage the huge volumes of information, and to the opening up of new translation-related activities, such as software and video game localisation and multilingual publishing.

Furthermore, the rise brought about an extreme technicalisation of the translation profession, especially with the rapid development of new translation technologies and the use of crowdsourcing and amateur translation.

Since the development of computer-assisted tools and translation memories, in particular in the 1960s and the advent of machine translation (MT) in the 1940s, the translation profession has been undergoing seismic changes. They will continue unpaced as new technologies keep evolving and improving (cf. O’Brien, 2012; Olohan, 2011; Pym, 2011;

Vashee, 2013). In fact, in a very recent report by KantanMT,2 2017 was noted as expected to be dominated by the marriage of traditional MT with other technologies – resulting in hybrid, semi-hybrid and intelligent offspring, including neural machine translation, adaptive machine translation and interactive machine translation – while, due to the reduced costs of deploying MT, wider adoptions and implementations across different industry sectors are expected.

This acute technologisation of translation has naturally concerned translation scholars who focus on the ways technology can assist human translators (Alonso & Calvo, 2015;

Melby, 2006), in terms of the place of and interaction between humans and machines in language translation (Olohan, 2011; O’Brien, 2012), the ethics of MT (Kenny, 2011), translator training (Doherty & Moorkens, 2013; Kenny & Doherty, 2014) and the post- editing of MT (Flanagan & Christensen, 2014; O’Brien, 2011). Descriptive studies that

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have evaluated or compared translation workstations abound (García & Stevenson, 2009;

O’Brien, 2013; Vieira & Specia, 2011), while in the past decade many surveys on the use of technology in translation have been carried out (Alonso, 2015; Torres Domínguez, 2012). Finally, lately there has also been an interest in the ergonomics of translation (Ehrensberger-Dow & Massey, 2014).

Moreover, TS has been affected by the bidirectionality of Web 2.0, with the proliferation of crowdsourced translation or open translation projects (Cronin, 2010, p. 3). Nowadays, crowdsourcing may refer to online collaborative translation or free translation crowdsourcing, which assumes the free nature of the contribution and is also known as volunteer translation, community translation, social translation or, in some cases, fan translation (fansubbing), where the locus of control is within the community itself (Boéri

& Maier, 2010; Díaz-Cintas & Muñoz Sánchez, 2006; Gambier, 2014; Pérez González &

Susam-Sarajeva, 2012; Pym, 2011). It can also refer to translation crowdsourcing, where the locus of control resides firmly within the initiating organisation, institution or company, and often involves compensation of the crowd – so-called paid crowdsourcing (García, 2015). Due to the increasing need for quick, cost-effective and multilingual translation, large language service providers, such as Lionbridge, are increasingly using managed crowdsourcing workflows as an innovative labour model, which they call business process crowdsourcing (Lionbridge, 2013).

Naturally, some researchers have focused on the pros and cons of crowdsourcing, or the opportunities these raise (Baer, 2010) and the risks they pose (Dodd, 2011), as well as on best practices (Ray & Kelly, 2011). Others have explored translators’ attitudes towards crowdsourcing (Flanagan, 2016), their motivation (McDonough Dolmaya, 2012;

Mesipuu, 2012; Olohan, 2014) and the ethics surrounding its use (McDonough Dolmaya,

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25 2011).

As a final note, it is worth pointing out that while some of these developments enhance the visibility of translation, facilitate the work of translators and help minor languages become more visible online, others devalue the work involved in the translation process, which in turn lowers the occupational status of professional translators, and their remuneration. What is commonly accepted, though, is that they clearly alter what Bourdieu (1983) calls the translation habitus, while they create new paths for translation research.

4. About the special issue’s contributions

The special issue starts with a paper by Anthony Pym that sits at the intersection of the two fields covered and serves as an excellent prelude. Pym contrasts two ways of applying economic models to translation. The first considers the values, efforts and choices involved in translation as a communicative act, while the second starts from the economics of languages and privileges the diversity of natural language systems. Pym reaches the conclusion that it might be more fruitful to give ethical priority to the higher value of social inclusion, and thus pay close attention to the way language users choose between otherwise incommensurate values.

The five contributions that follow deal with economic translation, engaging in a range of central research topics and genres, while the final four explore various aspects of the economics of translation.

Marta García González’s paper addresses a delicate borderland between economic and legal translation, discussing business entity types in Spain and the USA. Business entity types are prescribed in domestic law and often show a relatively high degree of

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incongruity and, hence, difficulties in identifying a functional equivalent. With a strong focus on the discursive function of the terminology, García González analyses alternative techniques of its translation across genres, including administrative websites, court decisions and novels, concluding with a discussion on the limitations of functional equivalents.

Economic terms are also studied with tools offered by the discipline of terminology.

Panagiotis G. Krimpas’ paper addresses the high rate of neologisms and resulting borrowings from English, a consequence of asymmetrical cultural encounters between English and the linguistically demanding lesser-used language – Greek. Krimpas tests the ISO 704:2009 principles, proving that they can act as a systematic framework for assessing the existing Greek equivalents of English financial terms and for proposing more suitable equivalents.

Yet another aspect of economic terminology – its metaphorisation – is studied by Luciana Sabina Tcaciuc and Vladislav Mackevic, who conduct a corpus-based study of the conceptual metaphor THE ECONOMY IS A MACHINE in English into Romanian translations, supplementing it with ethnographic observations. They demonstrate a broad range of strategies used by translators in a controlled institutional setting, and interpret them in the context of agency and norms.

Julieta Alós, Sky Marsen and Noora Alkaabi’s paper shifts attention to the highly creative genre of luxury advertising. The authors study Arabic translations of advertising brochures, demonstrating that translations prefer a low-context communication style with more explicit and less creative language use. This style is evaluated by the authors as inconsistent with the principles of luxury advertising, according to which the style should remain implicit, indirect and ambiguous.

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Nancy Xiuzhi Liu’s paper moves us to another borderland, where economic translation overlaps with journalistic translation. Using the concept of framing, Liu analyses two newspapers that publish translated news in Chinese. She discusses framing effects through translation, evidencing how frames of responsibility, conflict and interest are used to transform news for ideological purposes.

Joss Moorkens opens the second part of the special issue, looking at the background to the economic and technological changes to translation and investigating the options that are available to translators in order to maximise their agency within the ‘global value chain’. He analyses in detail the vendor model of employment, where translators increasingly work on a freelance basis or as precarious workers, while he also discusses and explains the impact of translation technology on the translation profession. Moorkens suggests that in order to maximise their agency, translators must continually acquire new competences and diversify their portfolio of services, focusing more on areas that are least likely to be replaced by machines or non-professionals.

Miguel Jiménez-Crespo considers the irruption of crowdsourcing and volunteer online collaborative translations, discussing their effect on translation quality. He investigates how economic considerations have led to a reconceptualization of translation quality from a desirable, static and high-cost commodity to a new dynamic construct in which the fitness for purpose is negotiated by different actors and through a wide range of factors that correlate to different translation prices.

Lindsay Bywood, Thierry Etchegoyhen and Panayota Georgakopoulou draw on the findings of the EU-funded project SUbtitling for MAchine Translation (SUMAT) and investigate the impetus behind the development of MT for subtitling, and the productivity gain or loss for subtitlers using MT as opposed to those working in the traditional way.

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Their findings point to MT as a promising option for partially automating the subtitling workflow and thus leading to productivity gains, a fact that further attests to the need for new competences, since it gives birth to a new job profile – that of the subtitle post-editor.

In the final paper, Hernández-Hernández, drawing mainly on Pierre Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and capital, studies translation from the perspective of international production and circulation of news and analyses how the interplay between economic forces, on the one hand, and the hybrid nature of the capital offered by translation, on the other

hand, transforms translators’ habitus.

5. Conclusion

This special issue attests to the thematic, methodological and geographical growth of economic translation as a subfield of specialised translation. Collectively, in showcasing the multifarious importance of the economy for translation, the 10 contributions help to establish a connection between translating for businesses and within the world of business and economics. By focusing on issues that have thus far not been addressed in a sufficiently connected way and from a variety of perspectives, they contribute new ideas that help to elucidate the increasingly significant role of the economy for translators, both as an area of professional practice and as a factor affecting the translation profession and the translator’s habitus.

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36 9.3 Appendix II Target Text

Ekonomi çevirisi ve çevirinin ekonomisi

Łucja Biel ve Vilelmini Sosoni

Uygulamalı Dilbilim Enstitüsü, Warsaw Üniversitesi, Warsaw, Polonya; Yabancı Diller Bölümü, Mütercim Tercümanlık, Ionian Üniversitesi, Corfu, Yunanistan

MAKALE GEÇMİŞİ 24 Mart 2017'de alındı 27 Mart 2017'de kabul edildi

ANAHTAR SÖZCÜKLER

Ekonomi çevirisi; ticari çeviri; çeviri teknolojisi; makine çevirisi; kitle kaynaklı çalışma

1. Giriş

1990'ların ortalarından beri piyasadaki serbestleşme finansal işlemlerde ve ticari faaliyetlerde ciddi artışa yol açarken küreselleşme; engelleri kaldırıp dünyanın her yerinden bilgiye erişimi sağlayarak dünyayı daraltmıştır (Cronin, 2003, s. 43). Bu bağlamda, seneler içinde az araştırılmış olmasına rağmen ekonomi çevirisi, çeviri uygulamasında merkezi konumda olmuş hem hacimsel hem de etkisel olarak artış göstermiştir. Dolayısıyla bu özel sayının amacı iki yönlüdür: mesleğin ekonomisine ve çevirmenin değişen habitus'una ışık tutarken ekonomi çevirisinin özelliklerini araştırmak ve alanda görülen yeni araştırma trendlerini incelemek.

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37 2. Ekonomi çevirisi

2.1. Ekonomi çevirisi alanını haritalandırma

Ekonomi çevirisi; başlıca çeviribilim, ekonomi, dilbilim ve iletişim bilimi temel alan disiplinlerarası bir araştırma ve mesleki uygulama alanıdır.

Öncelikle, hukuki, teknik ve tıbbi çevirinin yanı sıra özel alan çevirisinin alt alanlarından biridir. Ekonomi çevirisi, alanı ve bilgi tabanı konusunda, ekonomi ve alana ismini vermiş birbiriyle örtüşen kavramlarla (alım-satım, ekonomi ve ticaret) ilgilidir. Ayrıca ekonomi çevirisi etkililiğini ve verimliliğini artırma amacıyla, 1990'ların başlarında ticari kuruluşlardaki ve dış dünyadaki resmi ve gayri resmi iletişimi araştırma amacıyla ortaya çıkan, ticari iletişimden yararlanır. (Nickerson, 2014, s. 50).

Çeviribilimde ekonomi çevirisinin adı henüz netleşmedi. Genellikle kullanılan alternatifler ekonomi çevirisi, ticari çeviri veya ticari amaçlı çeviridir. İlk iki terim eş anlamlı olarak kabul edilse de ticari çeviri, mesleki uygulama bağlamında daha sık kullanılırken ekonomi çevirisi daha çok akademik bağlamlarda görülür. Ticari amaçlı çeviri, iş dünyasında çevrilen birçok metni kapsayan çeviri derslerine uygun bir genel ad olarak eğitim bağlamında da kullanılır (cf. Olohan, 2010, s. 41); ayrıca, özel alan çevirisi için bir genel ad olarak da kullanılır. Ekonomi çevirisi, bazı müfredatlarda ‘kurumsal çeviri’ adıyla yer alır. Bu tutarsızlık, ekonomi çevirisinin artan önemini kanıtlar niteliktedir.

Akademi geride kalırken ticari çeviri, her zaman çevirmenlerin temel uzmanlık alanlarından biri olmuştur. Bu uzmanlık alanı, 1990'ların başından beri küreselleşme ve çok uluslu şirketlerin büyümesiyle daha da genişlemiştir. Dam ve Koskinen (2016, s.3), çevirmen denince akıllara artık edebi çevirmenlerin değil ticari çevirmenlerin gelmeye başladığını ve bu sebeple, ticari çevirmenlerin mesleğin merkezine yerleştikleri

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38 gözlemledi.

2.2. Ticari söylemin incelikleri

Ticari söylem; düzenlenmiş ve kontrollü olanlardan (yıllık raporlar, yatırımcı aydınlatma metni, finansal tablolar ve şirket sözleşmeleri) ritüel haline gelmiş ve görece sabit olanlara (başvuru mektupları, gelir tahminleri, kurumsal sosyal sorumluluk raporları, performans değerlendirmeleri, hedef bildirileri) ve son olarak dinamik, çok daha az tahmin edilebilir ve yaratıcı olanlara (CEO konuşmaları, reklamlar ve şirket ana sayfaları) kadar çok çeşitli türleri kapsar. Bunlar çoğunlukla karma, çok modlu ve çok işlevli türlerdir. Bu türlerin iletişimsel amacı ikna edici içerikle sadece bilgilendirici değil, aynı zamanda etkili hale gelir. Örneğin; tüketici davranışlarını etkilemek ve satışları artırmak için şirket hakkında olumlu bir imaj oluşturmak.

Bir uzmanlaşmış profesyonel iletişim türü olan ticari söylemin baskın özelliklerinden birisi, söylem topluluğunun bünyesinde iletişimi kolaylaştıran terminolojidir. Terimler, uzmanlık gerektiren bilgileri temsil etmek ve bu bilgilerle iletişim kurabilmek için bir araç oldukları için, ekonomik terimler; söylem topluluğu tarafından özümsenen ve özneler arası bir şekilde paylaşılan ekonomik bilgi birimleri ve alanın bilgi yapılarına erişim noktalarıdır (cf. Biel, 2014, s. 41). Ekonomi terminolojisi, ekonomi sistemleri arasındaki tarihsel ve ideolojik farklılıklardan dolayı bir noktaya kadar kültüre özgüdür.

Aynı zamanda, özellikle hukuk tarafından düzenlemeye tabii işlerde geçerli olarak, (örneğin; şirketler hukuku, sözleşme hukuku, banka veya finans hukuku) kavram sistemlerini tanımlayan ve yapay olarak kavramların anlamını düzelten yasal sisteme tabiidir.

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Diğer bir yandan, küreselleşme ve ticari uygulamalarının uluslararasılaşmasından dolayı, iş hukuku bir dereceye kadar birleşmeye ve uyumlulaşmaya tabiidir ve hukuk terminolojisinde daha yüksek bir oranda evrensellik gösterir. Ticari terminoloji, genellikle kavramları tek bir yöne aktararak asimetrik kültürel karşılaşmaların sonucunda gelişmiş kapitalist ekonomilerden gelişmekte olanlara, geçiş ekonomileri ve gelişen ekonomilere kadar sınırlar ötesinde kolayca 'dolaşır'. İngilizce konuşulan ekonomilerin baskın pozisyonu ve İngilizce'nin egemen dil olması sayesinde ticari terminoloji, dünyaca asimile edilmiş çok sayıda aktarım ve alıntı İngilizce kelimeler içermektedir. Ekonomi terminolojisi, dil kesitleri ve türlerde çeşitlilik artışına ilaveten fazlaca mecaz kullanımı ve yüksek miktarda terim türetme de içermektedir.

2.3. Ekonomi çevirisinde araştırma trendleri

Diğer özel alan çevirisi türlerinin aksine ekonomi çevirisi monograflara, düzenlenmiş sayılara ve dergilerin özel sayılarına oldukça az konu olmuştur. Geçtiğimiz yirmi yılda bu alandaki yayınlarda gözle görülür oranda artış olmasına rağmen ekonomi çevirisi alanı hala çeşitli kaynaklar arasında dağılmış yayınlarıyla, parçalanmış ve oldukça az araştırılmış olmaya devam etmektedir.

Ekonomi çevirisi araştırmaları çoğunlukla nitel yöntemlere başvurur, örneğin söylem analizi (Chueca Moncayo, 2005), toplum dilbilim (Le Poder, 2012), durum çalışmaları (Vandal-Sirois, 2016) ve oyun kuramı (Zhong, 2006); bununla birlikte, giderek daha fazla yayın bütünce dilbilimin nicel yöntemlerine yönelmektedir. (Chueca Moncayo, 2005;

Valdeón, 2016).

Ekonomi çevirisi yayınları doğal olarak terminolojiye odaklanır. Çevirmenlerin ihtiyaçlarına uyum sağlamak için ekonomik terimler, uygulamaya yönelik hedeflerle

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terim bilim ve sözlük bilim kapsamında ele alınır (Bergenholtz, 2012; Fraile Vicente, 2008; Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2011). Çeşitli yayınlarda, ticari terminolojinin terim türetme (Kelandrias, 2007; Mateo, 2014; Resche, 1999), İngilizce'den aktarım ve alıntı akını (Le Poder, 2012), örtmeceler (Resche, 1999), belirsizlik ve anlam karmaşası (cf.

Stolze, 2003), sözcüksel tutarlılık yoluyla metin üretme (Chueca Moncayo, 2005) gibi esas yönleri çalışılmıştır.

Sıklıkla araştırılan bir diğer husus da, özellikle finans alanında terim oluşturma konusunda oldukça verimli bir süreç olan, ticari söylemdeki mecaz kullanımıdır.

(Kermas, 2006, s. 110). Ticari söyleminin, ideolojiler ve duygusal anlamlarla ilişkilendirilebilecek genel dil mecazlarının sık kullanımı ile hibritlik içerdiği düşünülür.

(Fraile Vicente, 2008, s. 133–134). Mecazlar sadece terim oluşturmak için değil aynı zamanda, çoğunlukla olağan olayları çağrıştırarak, ekonominin tutumu hakkında konuşmak için kullanılır (Fraile Vicente, 2008; Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2011; Kermas, 2006, s. 120).

Ekonomi çevirisi hakkındaki diğer araştırma alanları ise seçilmiş türleri çevirmekle bağlantılıdır. Bunlar: ticari yazışma (Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2008), ekonomi ders kitapları (Buzelin, Dufault, & Foglia, 2015), şirketlerin internet siteleri (Rike, 2013), reklamlar (Smith, 2006; Torresi, 2010; Vandal-Sirois, 2016), basın bildirileri (Kaniklidou

& House, 2013) ve köşe yazısı (Valdeón, 2016) ile finansal tablolar gibi diğer basın türleridir. Tekrarlanan temalardan biri reklamcılık (Vandal-Sirois, 2016) ve kurumsal internet siteleri (Rike, 2013) gibi daha yaratıcı türlerde uyarlamaya, yeniden yazıma, yaratıcı çeviriye ve kültürel ara buluculuğa olan ihtiyaçtır. Bazı çalışmalar; çerçeveleme (Kaniklidou & House, 2013), sözbilimsel tasvirler (Smith, 2006), incelik modelleri (Fuertes Olivera & Nielsen, 2008), kurum içi gücü çeviri yoluyla yeniden ele alma

(46)

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(Logemann & Piekkari, 2015) ve çevirmenlerin değeri (Buzelin et al., 2015) dahil olmak üzere seçilmiş söylemsel yönler üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır.

3. Çevirinin ekonomisi 3.1. Değişimin kökenleri

Öte yandan çevirinin ekonomisi, dört baskın etken sebebiyle daha önemli hale geldiği için çeviribilimin merkezine doğru ilerliyor gibi görünmektedir: (a) emsalsiz küreselleşme, (b) göçteki artış, (c) masraflarda zorlanmaya ve üretkenlikte artışa yol açan 2007–2008 küresel ekonomik krizi, (d) bilişim ve iletişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmeler.

Küreselleşme, “çağdaş sosyal hayatın bütün yönleriyle dünya çapında birbirine bağlılığın genişlemesi, derinleşmesi ve hızlanması” olarak tanımlanmıştır (Held, McGrew, Goldblatt, & Perraton, 1999, s. 2). Eski çağ uygarlıklarında ve günümüz dünyasının dinlerinde halihazırda bulunduğu düşünülürse, yeni bir olgu olmamasına rağmen en yoğun dönemine 1960'lardan beri tanık olduk. Bielsa'nın (2005, s. 131) da gözlemlediği gibi, küreselleşme, insanların ve nesnelerin hareketliliklerinin artmasına ve farklı dilsel toplulukların, çoğunlukla çeviri yoluyla (Schäffner & Dimitriu, 2012, s. 262), yakın temas halinde olmasına yol açmaktadır. Bununla birlikte, piyasaların küreselleşmesi, dijital devrim, bilgi ekonomisinin gelişi ve üretimin küreselleşmesi çeviriyi tamamen gelişmiş bir endüstriyel sektöre dönüştürmüştür (Dunne, 2012).

İnsanların küresel göç şeklindeki hareketliliği son yıllarda özellikle hızla artmakta dolayısıyla uluslararası iletişime ve çeviriye olan ihtiyaç da katlanarak artmaktadır.

Birçok göçmen ve mültecinin göçmenlik duruşmasından sosyal servislere erişim ve eğitim-öğretime kadar birçok alanda çeviri hizmetlerine ihtiyacı vardır. Birleşmiş Milletlere göre1 2015 yılında dünyada, ülkelerinden zorla çıkarılan 20 milyon mülteci

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