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Editör/Edited by S. Yücel Şenyurt

ISBN: 978-605-62041-3-5

© 2011 Bilgin Yayınları Selanik 2 Caddesi No. 68/4

06640 Kızılay/ANKARA Tel.0.312. 419 85 67

Kapak Dizaynı/Cover Design

Tasmasor’dan Buluntular/Tasmasor Finds (Atakan Akçay)

Sayfa Tasarım ve Baskıya Hazırlık/ Cover Design and page layout Mustafa Üçgül

Baskı/ Print

Başak Matbaacılık ve Tan. Hiz. Ltd. Şti.

Anadolu Bulvarı Meka Plaza No: 5/15 Gimat/ANKARA Tel. 0312 397 16 17 Fax: 0312 397 03 07

© Tüm yazıların yayım hakkı saklıdır.

Yazarların ve yayımcının izni olmaksızın çoğaltılamaz.

All rights reserved.

No Part of this book may be reproduced without permission from the publisher

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SUNUŞ... vii-viii

GİRİŞ ...1-4

BÖLÜM I

TASMASOR KURTARMA KAZILARI

S. Yücel Şenyurt ...7-36

BÖLÜM II

TASMASOR GEÇ DEMİR ÇAĞI MİMARİSİ

S. Yücel Şenyurt ...39-64

BÖLÜM III

TASMASOR GEÇ DEMİR ÇAĞI MEZARLARI

Atakan Akçay ...67-90

BÖLÜM IV

TASMASOR GEÇ DEMİR ÇAĞI KÜÇÜK BULUNTULARI

Yalçın Kamış...93-114

BÖLÜM V

TASMASOR GEÇ DEMİR ÇAĞI ÇANAK ÇÖMLEK BULUNTULARI

S. Yücel Şenyurt, Yalçın Kamış, Atakan Akçay ...117-258

BÖLÜM VI

TASMASOR ORTAÇAĞ YERLEŞMESİ VE BULUNTULARI

V. Macit Tekinalp, Yunus Ekim ...261-326

BÖLÜM VII

TASMASOR YAKINÇAĞ NEKROPOLÜ VE İSKELETLERİNİN ANTROPOLOJİK AÇIDAN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ

Y. Selim Erdal ...329-458

BÖLÜM VIII

TASMASOR GEÇ DEMİR ÇAĞI İSKELETLERİNİN ANTROPOLOJİK AÇIDAN DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ

Y. Selim Erdal ...461-494

EK

TASMASOR KAZISINDA ELE GEÇEN SERAMİK ÖRNEKLERİNİN X-IŞINI FLORESANS (XRF) TEKNİĞİ İLE İNCELENMESİ

Pervin Arıkan, Burcu Ender, S. Yücel Şenyurt, Reşat Kasap ... 497-504

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PREFACE ... vii-viii

INTRODUCTION ...1-4

PART I

TASMASOR SALVAGE EXCAVATIONS

S. Yücel Şenyurt ...7-36

PART II

TASMASOR LATE IRON AGE ARCHITECTURE

S. Yücel Şenyurt ...39-64

PART III

TASMASOR LATE IRON AGE BURIALS

Atakan Akçay ...67-90 PART IV

TASMASOR LATE IRON AGE SMALL FINDS

Yalçın Kamış...93-114

PART V

TASMASOR LATE IRON AGE POTTERY

S. Yücel Şenyurt, Yalçın Kamış, Atakan Akçay ...117-258

PART VI

TASMASOR MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AND ITS FINDING

V. Macit Tekinalp, Yunus Ekim ...261-326

PART VII

ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS FROM POST-MEDIEVAL CEMETERY OF TASMASOR

Y. Selim Erdal ...329-458 PART VIII

ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LATE IRON AGE SKELETONS FROM TASMASOR

Y. Selim Erdal ...461-494

APPENDIX

ANALYSIS OF CERAMIC SAMPLES FROM TASMASOR WITH X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (XRF) TECHNIQUE

Pervin Arıkan, Burcu Ender, S. Yücel Şenyurt, Reşat Kasap ...497-504

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Bakü-Tiflis-Ceyhan (BTC) petrol boru hattı Hazar petrolünü uluslararası pazarla- ra ulaştıracaktır. BTC Co olarak bilinen BTC Boru Hattı Şirketi boru hattının sahipleri olan BP önderliğindeki petrol şirketlerinin oluştur- duğu bir konsorsiyumdur. Boru hattını Azer- baycan ve Gürcistan’da BTC Co işletirken, Türkiye’de bir kamu kuruluşu olan BOTAŞ (Boru Hatları ile Petrol Taşıma A.Ş.) BTC Co adına, boru hattının planlanması, inşaası ve işletilmesi ile deniz terminali ve ilgili tesisler- den sorumludur.

1770 km uzunluğundaki boru hattı, dün- yanın arkeolojik açıdan en zengin ülkeleri arasında yer alan, Azerbaycan, Gürcistan ve Türkiye’nin tarihi zenginliklerle dolu toprak- larından geçmektedir.

2,800 metrenin üzerinde bir yüksekliğe ulaşan ve çok farklı özelliklere sahip arazi- lerden geçen boru hattının tasarım ve inşaatı geniş çaplı bir mühendislik çalışmasını ge- rektirmiştir. Boru hattı güzergahı, yapım ve işletim süresi boyunca ortaya çıkacak sosyal ve çevresel etkilerin asgari düzeye indirilme- sini amaçlayan kapsamlı bir süreç sonucunda belirlenmiştir. Değerlendirme süreci, gerek mevcut çevresel durumun anlaşılması, gerek- se boru hattının yapımı ve işletilmesi aşama- sında yerel düzeyde oluşabilecek olası sosyo- ekonomik sorunların tam olarak belirlenmesi amacıyla güzergah boyunca ayrıntılı araştır- malar, hükümetler, düzenleyici kuruluşlar, akademik kuruluşlar ve ilgili sivil toplum kuruluşlarının (STK’lar) yanı sıra yerel halkla da yapılan kapsamlı bir istişare sürecini içer- miştir.

ÇED raporunun bir parçası olarak ha- zırlanmış olan Kültürel Miras Yönetim Planı çerçevesinde toprak altında ve toprak üstün- de bulunan tüm tarihsel değerler ulusal ve uluslararası kurumlarca kabul edilmiş stan- dart ve sözleşmelere uygun yüzey araştırma teknikleri ile tespit edilmiş, güzergah değişik- liği veya arkeolojik kazılar yoluyla kurtarıl- mıştır. Buna paralel olarak, sırasıyla, Ankara Üniversitesi, Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi ve Gazi Üniversitesi tarafından oluşturulan arkeoloji ekipleri hattın Türkiye kısmındaki toplam 1076 km. uzunluğundaki güzergahta yüzey araştırmaları gerçekleştirmişlerdir. Bu ekiplerin amacı önceden belirlenen güzergah boyunca yürüyerek daha önceden bilinme-

The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline (BTC) will bring oil from the landlocked Caspian to international markets. Known as Baku-Tbilisi- Ceyhan Pipeline Company (BTC Co), it is owned by a consortium of oil companies led by BP. In Azerbaijan and Georgia, BTC Co operates the pipeline; in Turkey, BOTAŞ, the state-owned pipeline company, is responsible for designing, constructing and operating the pipeline, marine terminal and associated facilities on behalf of BTC Co, with BTC Co providing overall assurance.

The 1,770-kilometre pipeline winds its way through the historically fertile countries of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, considered to be among the world’s most archaeologically wealthy countries.

Design and construction of the pipeline posed a vast engineering challenge, with the route traversing widely differing terrain and attaining elevations of over 2800 metres. The route was defined during an exhaustive process which aimed to minimise social and environmental impacts both during the construction and throughout an operational life of the pipeline.

To achieve this goal, the project undertook an Environment and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) in all three countries which included detailed surveys along the route, together with consultation not only with governments, regulators, academic institutions and non- governmental organisations (NGOs), but also with individual communities. All this was aimed at building a complete picture of both the environmental baseline and any potential local level social and economic issues that could be associated with construction and operation of the pipeline.

As part of the Turkish ESIA (referred to as

EIA in Turkey), a Cultural Heritage Management

Plan (CHMP) was developed to ensure all

historical assets, both above and below ground,

were identified using survey techniques which

conformed to nationally and internationally

recognized standards and thus could be preserved

through avoidance or through archaeological

excavation. In parallel with the above, three

consecutive teams of archaeologists from

three Turkish educational institutions, Ankara

University, Middle East Technical University

and Gazi University, were commissioned to walk

the entire proposed pipeline route in Turkey,

some 1076 kilometres. Their brief was to pace

within a pre-defined corridor and pinpoint any

previously unrecorded potential archaeological

sites.

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lirlenmesidir.

ÇSED süreci sırasında toplanan bilgiler, proje ekibinin, çevresel (arkeolojik) açıdan duyarlı yerler ve alanlardan kaçınılması ama- cıyla boru hattı güzergahında değişiklik yap- masına yardımcı olmuştur. Boru hattı inşaat çalışmalarının başlatılmasından önce 334 ar- keolojik merkeze rastlanmış ve buna uygun değişiklikler gerçekleştirilmiştir. İnşaat aşa- masında ise “rastlantısal buluntu” kapsamın- da 38 merkez daha tespit edilmiştir.

12.03.2002 tarihinde tarihsel çevre değer- lerini korumaya yönelik olarak T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı ile bir protokol imzalanmıştır. 2863 sayılı Kültür ve Tabiat Varlıklarını Koruma Kanunu kapsamında ele alınan bu önemli protokolde ayrıca ilgili Birleşmiş Milletler an- laşmaları (özellikle UNESCO Dünya Kültürel ve Doğal Mirasını Koruma Anlaşması), Valet- ta sözleşmesi, IFA-Arkeolojik Gözlem, Saha Değerlendirmesi, Kazı Çalışması Standart ve Kılavuz Hükümler (İngiltere’de PPG16 ola- rak bilinir), Dünya Bankası standartları ve kabul edilmiş diğer uluslararası standartlar göz önünde bulundurulmuştur.

2003 ve 2004 yıllarında, her biri yaklaşık 1 - 4 ay süren onyedi (17) ayrı arkeolojik kazı gerçekleştirilmiştir. Boru hattı güzergahının değiştirilmesinin zor olduğu yerlerde daha önceden planlanmış kazılarla birlikte boru hattı inşaat çalışmaları sırasında “rastlantısal bulgu” olarak ortaya çıkan arkeolojik merkez- ler bu kazıları oluşturmaktadır. İki yılı aşan bu süreçte, arkeolog, sanat tarihçi, eskiçağ tarihçisi, antropolog, jeomorfolog, jeofizikçi, jeodezi uzmanı ve restoratörlerden oluşan toplam 260 uzman ve 800 işçi görev almıştır.

Projede görev alanlar Gazi Üniversitesi Arke- olojik Çevre Değerleri Araştırma Merkezi’nin denetim ve danışmanlığında, BOTAŞ arkeo- loji ekibi ve BTC Projesi’nin Türkiye kısmın- da bağımsız danışmanlık hizmeti sağlayan İngiliz Arkeoloji Enstitüsü (BIA) ile yakın bir işbirliği içerisinde çalışmışlardır.

BTC veri tabanına toplam 372 arkeolojik merkez eklenmiş ve bu merkezlerin tamamı Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı tarafından tescil edilmiştir. Açığa çıkarılan arkeolojik eserlerin sergilenmesi için ilgili müze müdürlükleri ile işbirliği yürütülmektedir. Kazı sonuçlarının yayınlanması ile Anadolu arkeolojisine daha fazla katkı sağlanması amaçlanmaktadır.

process helped the project team to refine the pipeline route to avoid environmentally and archaeologically sensitive areas. In terms of identifying and avoiding known archaeological sites, 334 sites were identified prior to the commencement of pipeline construction activities and a further 38 sites were discovered through ‘chance finds’ during the construction work.

In addition, the project signed a protocol with the Turkish Ministry of Culture on 12 March 2002, the goal of which was to protect historical assets in the pipeline corridor, additionally taking into consideration United Nations conventions, particularly the UNESCO Convention for Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Valetta Convention, IFA- Archaeological Observation, PPG16 (British governmental guidelines for rescue excavation in the United Kingdom), the World Bank guidelines, and other recognized international standards. This important protocol was the basis of the enacted Law No. 2863 on the Protection of Cultural and Natural Assets.

Archaeological excavations were carried out in 2003 and 2004 at 17 sites, with each excavation lasting between approximately one and four months. Some of these sites were the result of planned excavations at locations where it was considered difficult to change the route of the pipeline and others were the result of ‘chance finds’ during the construction activity. Over the two year period, a total of 260 specialists including archaeologists, art historians, ancient historians, anthropologists, geomorphologists, geophysicists, surveyors, and restorers and approximately 800 workers were employed. They operated under the supervision and consultancy of the Gazi University Research Centre for Archaeology and BOTAS’

team of archaeologists. The teams worked in close association with the British Institute at Ankara (BIA), a British charity that promotes archaeological research in Turkey that provided independent archaeological advice to the project in Turkey.

The number of archaeological sites recorded in the BTC Gazetteer, now numbers 372, all of which have been registered with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The project is currently in the process of working with the regional museums to display salvaged artefacts.

Additionally, the BTC project is making further

contributions to the understanding of Anatolian

archaeology by publishing the results of its

excavation work. This publication forms part

of that work.

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This study contains the scientific results of the rescue excavation conducted as part of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Crude Oil Pipe Line Archaeological Rescue Excavations Project between 3 July and 20 November 2003 by the Gazi University – Research Centre for Archaeology (GÜ-ARÇED) team in Tasmasor 1.5 kilometres east of the village of Çayırtepe (Müdürge), located in Erzurum Province.

In Tasmasor, within the scope of the BTC Crude Oil Pipeline Project Basic and Detailed Engineering Stage Works, field surveys were performed in 2001-2002 by the Middle East Technical University, Centre for Research and Assessment of the Historic Environment (ODTÜ-TAÇDAM) and the Gazi University- Archaeological Heritage Management and Administration Unit.

1

Following these surveys, due to some technical difficulties, rescue work was necessary without changing the pipeline’s route.

2

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and financed by the BTC Crude Oil Pipeline Directorate, the rescue excavation was conducted by the Gazi University – Research Centre for Archaeology (GÜ-ARÇED). The rescue excavation was directed by Mustafa Erkmen, director of the Erzurum Museum, and the scientific responsibility rested with Assist.

Prof. Bora Uysal from the Department of Archaeology, Hacettepe University and Assoc.

Prof. Yücel Şenyurt from the Department of Archaeology, Gazi University.

As a result of the intensive field survey conducted by GÜ-ARÇED in 2002, the Tasmasor archaeological site was found to cover a large area of 500 metres by 300 metres, and to have two distinct areas, named as sites A and B. Rescue excavations were performed in a corridor 500 metres long and 28 metres wide in site A. Because site B was not affected negatively by pipeline construction activities, no excavation work was carried out there. The results from Tasmasor A indicate the presence of three different archaeological areas. These were identified as the Eastern Excavation Area, the Central Excavation Area and the Western Excavation Area. The outline of the rescue work in Tasmasor (See Part I) were prepared by Assoc. Prof. S. Yücel Şenyurt from the Gazi University Archaeology Department. This work presents broader results of the excavation along with the Iron Age historical setting, and geographical characteristics of Tasmasor and surrounding area.

In the Eastern Excavation Area, the stone foundations of a well-planned architectural complex dated to the medieval period were revealed. The publication of this complex

(See Part VI) was undertaken by Assoc. Prof.

V. Macit Tekinalp, Hacettepe University

Art History Department, and Yunus Ekim,

GÜ-ARÇED. This part also includes the

numismatic study by Assoc. Prof. Ahmet

Tolga Tek, Anadolu University Archaeology

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glass finds by Dr. Özge Çömezoğlu, İstanbul University Art History Department.

In the Central Excavation Area, on a two-metre natural rocky ledge on the hillside, extensively damaged architectural remains and burials from the Late Iron Age and a Post- Medieval period cemetery which covered a wide area and demolished some of the Iron Age tombs, were found. The area 100 metres west of the hill where Iron Age architectural remains were found was named the Western Excavation Area. Tasmasor Late Iron Age results are presented as specific articles on architectural remains (See Part II), burials

(See Part III) and small finds (See Part IV) by

Assoc. Prof. S. Yücel Şenyurt, Res. Asst. Atakan Akçay and Yalçın Kamış from GÜ-ARÇED.

The pottery of this period is analysed in Part V by Assoc. Prof. S. Yücel Şenyurt, Yalçın Kamış Assoc. Prof. S. Yücel Şenyurt, Yalçın Kamış S. Yücel Şenyurt, Yalçın Kamış and Res. Asst. Atakan Akçay. Res. Asst. Atakan Akçay. Atakan Akçay.

Within the Central Excavation Site, the human skeletons found in the Modern cemetery, which destroyed the Iron Age structures on the hillside, and in the Late Iron Age graves on and around the hill were prepared for publication by Prof. Dr. Y. Selim Erdal from the Anthropology Department of Hacettepe University (See Parts VII-VIII).

XRF analysis of some ceramic sherds found in the Late Iron Age buildings was performed by Burcu Ender as a M.S. thesis under the supervision of Prof. Pervin Arıkan from the Gazi University Department of Physics. The results of this study are presented in the Appendix by Prof. Pervin Arıkan, Burcu Burcu Ender, Assoc. Prof. S. Yücel Şenyurt and Prof. Prof.

Reşat Kasap.

Prof. A. Tuba Ökse, Kocaeli University

and Assoc. Prof. Geoffrey Summers, Middle

East Technical University also contributed to

this volume with their scientific suggestions

and reviews.

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(12)

TASMASOR KURTARMA KAZILARI

B ÖLÜM I

TASMASOR SALVAGE EXCAVATIONS

P ART I

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Part I: Tasmasor Salvage Excavations

S. Yücel Şenyurt*

Tasmasor, seven kilometres northeast of Erzurum, was first discovered in 2001 during field surveys conducted by METU-TAÇDAM, the Centre for Research and Assessment of Historic Environment, under the framework of the BTC Crude Oil Pipeline Project Detailed Engineering Phase.

1

In 2002, the Gazi University – Archaeological Heritage Management and Administration Unit carried out an intensive survey in Tasmasor. Re-routing of the pipeline was suggested for the Tasmasor area as a result of the surveys. However some technical difficulties prevented the re-routing of the pipeline and thus the need for rescue excavation through agreement with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, General Directorate of Cultural Assets and Museums (previous General Directorate of Monuments and Museums). With the financial support of the BTC Crude Oil Pipeline Project Directorate, the rescue excavation in the 28- metre corridor was conducted 3 July 2003 – 20 November 2003 by the excavation team from the Gazi University-Research Centre for Archaeology (GU-ARÇED), and completed in about 140 days with all necessary technical documentation and restoration works.

The rescue excavation, led by Mustafa Erkmen, director of the Erzurum Museum, was started under the scientific guidance of Asst.

Prof. Bora Uysal from the Hacettepe University – Faculty of Arts and Science, but finished under Arts and Science, but finished under Science, but finished under the scientific guidance of Assoc. Prof. S. Yücel Şenyurt from the Gazi University – Faculty of Arts and Science. Prof. Y. Selim Erdal from Arts and Science. Prof. Y. Selim Erdal from Science. Prof. Y. Selim Erdal from Hacettepe University conducted the work on human skeletons. During the five months of field work, the archaeologists, Şeref Yumruk, Diyarbakır Museum, Seval Tan, Erzurum Museum, Halil Coşar, Trabzon Museum and

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Tolga Çelik, Anatolian Civilizations Museum were the representatives from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Archaeologists Res. Asst. Res. Asst.

Atakan Akçay, Hamza Ekmen, Yunus Ekim, Hamza Ekmen, Yunus Ekim, Resul İbiş, Belgin Savaş, Göknil Arda, Z. Filiz Bilir, Emsal Koçerdin, İ. Ernur Öztekin, Sibel Akcan, Bedriye Koçak, Gülsüm Şanalır, Elif Yüce, Müge Küçük, Nuran Ökse, Duygu Tuncay, Uğur Abaza, Sıraç Karadağ, Tuba İbiş, Özlem Balkozak, Özgür Giray, Halim Kes, Mustafa Kırdı, Mahmut Polat, O. Hamza Kaycı, Hünkar Keser, Farahnaz Ansari Meşhur and Döndü Topçu, anthropologists U. Güney Arıkan, Serpil Eroğlu and Barış Özener, restorator Emrah Karakurum, Geodesy expert instructor Gülşah Beyazoğlu and geophysical expert Res. Asst. M.

Özgü Arısoy all participated in the excavation work.

2

A. Geographical Characteristics

Tasmasor is located seven kilometres northeast of Erzurum, 1.5 kilometres east of the village of Çayırtepe (Müdürge). The Tasmasor archaeological area gets its name from old Tasmasor

3

village that was abandoned at the beginning of the twentieth century. There are no remaining architectural features from that village in the excavation area. But the remains of old Tasmasor village under the mounds of earth about 100-150 metres north of the pipeline could be traced easily through aerial photography

(Figure 7). Today, the area of Tasmasor is used

for agriculture and pasture fields of Çayırtepe (Müdürge) (Figure 5-6).

In the most western edge of the Asian continent, the geography, starting from the area where mountains running east-west rise up and form a dense mass in the northern and southern parts of the Anatolian peninsula, is known as the eastern Anatolian region.

4

In this region, which is the most mountainous part of Anatolia, the collision of the Arabian-Syria plate with the Eurasian plate played an important role

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in the formation of these mountain ranges.

5

In this geomorphologic structure, eastern Anatolia resembles a fortress.

The physical boundaries of eastern Anatolia are defined in the east by the Iranian plateau;

in the west by a line through the high peaks of the Çimen, Kızıl, Bey, Yılanlı, Gürün, Hezanlı and Derbent Mountains between Erzincan and Sivas; in the north by a line starting from the Kızıldağ through the height of the northern Anatolian mountain mass consisting of the Çoruh-Kelkit mountain ranges, Çimen and Pulur mountains, the southern slopes of the Gümüşhane mountains, Vavuk, Çoruh, Yalnızçam and Cin Mountains; in the south by a line starting from the Şakşak mountains south of Malatya and extending to the east where Hazarbaba, Ak, Haçraş, Sasun and Herekol, and Cudi mountains define the Turkish border with Iraq.

6

Tasmasor is located on the most eastern edge of the Dumlu Plain that encompasses the eastern part of Erzurum Plain, the largest plain in north eastern Anatolia. This large plain, including the Aşkale, Ilıca and Dumlu Plains, is surrounded by the Dumlu Hill (2,963 metres) within the Gavur Mountain Mass to the

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(17)

north, Eğerli Mountain (2,740 m) to the south, Turnagöl Mountain (2,400 metres) to the west and the Kargapazarı Mountains (3,288 metres) and Palandöken Mountain (3,124 metres) to the east.

7

The Karasu, one of the two largest branches of the Euphrates River starts from the Karaçağıl Mountain within the Kargapazarı Mountains northeast of this plain and runs toward the west though the northern part of Tasmasor.

The 520 kilometres

2

Erzurum Plain has a low floor level and therefore, the Karasu River causes some swamps and reed beds to form in the plain. The swamp at the most eastern edge of the plain forms the Big Müdürge Swamp

8 (Figure 1), which is two kilometres north of Tasmasor.

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11 5×T

and the north eastern part of the Palandöken Mountain is divided into two branches on the low terrace in the plain and its eastern branch is known as the Tasmasor creek (Figure 2).

The north and north western parts of Tasmasor open onto the Oltu Plain and although its surrounding areas are covered with alluvium, andesite and basalt lava units at the east and south are very close to Neogene volcanic hillsides. On the hillsides of the Kargapazarı plain-facing mountains, volcanic-interlayer upper Miocene sedimentary rocks surround the mountain slope in a three to four kilometre-wide belt. These sedimentary rocks consist of marl and clays and are white coloured with some tuff layers among them.

9

The hill in the Tasmasor Central Excavation Area is mostly made of outcrops where volcanic tuff and agglomerates

10

(volcanic breccia) have not yet been covered with alluvium.

Just east of Tasmasor, the slopes of Kargapazarı Mountains, which also include the Deveboynu volcanic barrier (1,950 metres), separate the Erzurum and Pasinler Plains. These two large plains were initially included in a single river system as continuations of each other but later, they were separated by the Deveboynu volcanic barrier which was formed as a result of epirogenic activities in the quaternary period.

11

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(19)

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Modern railway and roads along the 15-20 metres-high scarps of the Hamam and Yıkılgan creeks connect both plains via the Deveboynu Pass. Likewise, Tetikom Höyük

12(Figure 4) just

east of Deveboynu and under the Tilkidelikleri ridge is located just next to the road so it controls this strategic position. strategic position. position.

The Erzurum Plain is located in the coldest part of eastern Anatolia.

13

The winter in the region, lasting more than half the year continues into mid-April. The short hot summers are indicative of the plain’s “severe continental”

14

climate. In the region, temperature in the September-March period is higher in the winter season and changes from – 5 to -35ºC. Within certain periods, it is known that warmer or colder

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(20)

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seasons were also seen in the past.

15

Annual average precipitation of the region around Erzurum in the near past is 476 millimetres, higher in the spring months and higher than the lower level areas in other parts of eastern Anatolia such as Iğdır (272.6 millimetres), Van (380.7 millimetres), Erzincan (374.7 millimetres) and Malatya (363.4 millimetres).

16

Both geographic and climatic conditions are very important in the formation of vegetation in the Erzurum Plain. It is known that, on the basis of topographic and orogenic features, different plant types (Figure 5) are grown in the alluvial soils in various parts of the plain and these soils are very suitable for agriculture.

17

Apart from the alluvial areas in the region, the remainder is covered with light brown steppe soils with short grasses characteristic of semi-arid climates. Since the region is below the forest line, there are no forests in the vicinity of the plain. Although the presence of forests in the eastern parts of the Palandöken range was known in the past, it is thought that they have become extinct due to the destruction of the forests over time. Meanwhile, it is suggested that climatic conditions in the region are not suitable for forest development.

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(21)

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Today poplar, willow, wild oleaster (Hippophae rhamnoides) and medlar (crataegus) trees and brushwood are uncommon.

18

Among the agricultural plants of alluvial soil, wheat, barley and rye (92%) are important. The main source of income on the Erzurum Plain and neighbouring areas is agriculture and livestock raising (Figure

6) ranks second.19

In considering the vegetation of immediate geography around Tasmasor, the salty-alkali soils of Müdürge swamp (Figure 1) shuld be noted.

20

Reeds and canes growing around this swamp host hunting animals such as ducks and geese and are also used as fuel in the winter but may contribute to the spread of malaria due to the abundant mosquito population during the summer.

21

Such a system is not suitable for agriculture. However, in the vicinity of Tasmasor, dry-farming are also seen (Figure 2,

6) at relatively high areas.

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(22)

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B. Historical Setting

As the topographic and geomorphologic characteristics outlined above show, the region of Tasmasor is geostrategically very important. The natural pass that connects the Erzurum Plain to the Pasinler Plain is just south of Tasmasor. This natural pass (Figure 4) that rises with the lower slope from the Pasinler Plain to the Hamam creek extends towards Erzurum west of the Nenehatun ridges and towards Tasmasor and then Oltu to the north.

The Deveboynu volcanic barrier acted as a natural border, particularly in the late Iron Age, by separating different administrative integrities.

This barrier resembles the Abos Mountain in ancient sources.

22

It is believed that borders of the 10

th

(Media) and 13

th

(Armenia) satrapies during the period of Darius (522-485 BC) and the borders of the 19

th(western Armenia) and 18th (eastern Armenia) satrapies during the reigns of

Xerxes (485-465 BC) and Artaxerxes (464-425 BC) were separated by the Deveboynu barrier.

23

In this respect, Deveboynu barrier separate two Deveboynu barrier separate two separate two important plains of North eastern Anatolia North eastern Anatolia and their hinterlands forming two diffrent hinterlands forming two diffrent geographical integrities. The eastward-running integrities. The eastward-running Araxes and westward-running Karasu rivers that come from the Kargapazarı Mountains just north of the Deveboynu ridge should have fed these geographic entities and probably enabled them to have their own cultural and administrative structures. East of Deveboynu, the region was open to effects from Northwestern Iran and the Trans-Caucasus via the Pasinler Plain and Aras River. Likewise, the fact that the 10

th

satrapy of Darius period became the Median satrapy may support this idea. Although the geographic entity extending to the west via the Erzurum plain and the Karasu River is on the roads that provide access to central Anatolia and the Black Sea, the region shows stronger relations with Northwestern Iran and the Trans-Caucasus via the Araxes valley. This is attributed to the fact

22 5CIQPC %  5CIQPC%

23 5CIQPC %  5CIQPC%

(23)

that the Deveboynu barrier is not an impassable obstacle, but instead it provides a pass that is easily traversed.

The Deveboynu Pass and the geographic areas on both sides of it are geostrategically very important for east-west connections via the Karasu River and its closeness to the natural passes and routes running to the north and south. The Akveren Pass, southwest of the Pasinler Plain and the Tahir pass to the east are important for connecting the region to the south.

On the Erzurum Plain, there are two important natural routes; the one in the east runs through the valleys west of the Kargapazarı Mountains and the Tortum creek provides access to the Colchis region at to north and the second to the west comprising the Kop Pass through Aşkale provides access to Bayburt and Trabzon.

In the Erzurum region, which has been an important transit point in Trans-Caucasus and Anatolian cultural geography, there are several archaeological sites that have witnessed continuous settlement since the late Chalcolithic.

The excavations conducted at Sos Höyük Höyük

24

and Bulamaç Höyük

25

on the Pasinler Plain and Karaz,

26

Pulur,

27

and Güzelova

28

on the Erzurum Plain yielded important archaeological data on a history that goes back to the Chalcolithic Period in the area around Erzurum.

The oldest written record of the Erzurum region is found in the Hittite sources. Although the exact borders of the Azzi-Hayaša countries as mentioned in the annals of the Hittite king Muršili II are not clearly known but are generally placed in the vicinity of Erzurum.

29

It is still controversial whether the two names of Azzi and Haya ša represent two different political powers governed by a single king or did they represent a political power in the form of a

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